TCPT

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL Contents

Sr.No. 1 2 3 # " ) , ' + Chapter / Topic Textile Auxiliaries - Strength & Performance Quality in Disperse Dyeing n-!ouse Testing of Dyes $astness %&aluation Quality (anagement Systems *olour *ommunication - **( Colour Measurement by Reflectance - CCM Pollution from Reactive dyeing on Cotton Liquid Effluent Treatment Page 2 10 1" 1' 32 3+ #" #, "1

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

TESTING AUXILIARIES Strength & Performance

Bleach Stabilisers
The three most-used processes of bleaching are hypochlorite, chlorite and pero ide bleaching! These three chemicals bleach te tiles by o idative bleaching and not reductive bleaching! "! #leaching $ith %ydrogen Pero ide is the safest method of bleaching because it has many advantages over the other t$o chemicals and %ydrogen Pero ide is also called a universal bleacher! &! 't does not damage fibres and is not unsafe to human s(in and to the environment li(e the unsafe chlorites and hypochlorites! )! %o$ever, %ydrogen Pero ide is unstable in the presence of metal ions and it is not stable even in highly al(aline solutions, therefore some chemicals are required to be present in the bleach liquor for protecting %ydrogen Pero ide from reacting $ith metal ions! *uch chemicals act as stabili+ers of %ydrogen Pero ide! ,! *odium *ilicate effectively stabili+es %ydrogen Pero ide, but it gets deposited on te tile material and on the bleaching equipment and this is unacceptable! -abric deposited $ith *odium *ilicate is harsh! .! /ther non-depositing stabili+ers are some chelating agents $hich react $ith metal ions and the resulting comple molecules, dissolve in $ater and so they do not get deposited on the te tile material! 0! *urfactants, dispersing agents, organic sequesterants and chelating agents are present along $ith other chemicals in products that are sold as stabili+ers!

Chelating Agents
1 chelating agent is a chemical that is capable of reacting $ith metal ions by forming a $atersoluble comple molecule! This type of reaction is called chelation and it de-activates harmful 2or un$anted3 ions li(e, Ca4&, Mg4& that may be present in $ater samples! *ome e amples of 1minopolycarbo ylic acids that have chelating ability are E5T1 2Ethylene 5iamine Tetra 1cetic 1cid3, 5TP1 25iethylene Triamine Penta 1cetic 1cid3!

CaCV

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TCPT 't means 6Calcium Chelation 7alue!8 This value of a chemical gives an understanding of the amount of Calcium that $ill be 6chelated8 as calcium carbonate by a (no$n $eight of that chemical 2the chelating agent3! Chelating agents are very important in te tile processing and they are also used in some testing methods! "! The chelation value can be calculated by volumetric titration of a (no$n $eight of chelating agent $ith a Calcium solution, $hose concentration is (no$n before the titration! 1n / alate, 2C&/,3-& ion should be present in the conical flas( throughout the titration, because Ca 4& ions react $ith this / alate ion to form a precipitate! The formation of this / alate precipitate, is the end-point of this titration! &! %o$ever, even a (no$n $eight of chelating agent $ill be present in the conical flas(, and this $ill also react $ith Calcium ions! #ut the resulting comple molecule is $ater-soluble and hence no formation of precipitate ta(es place because of this reaction!

)! Ca4& ions added from the burette $ill prefer to react $ith chelating agent molecules first! *o this reaction continues to happen, till the 6limited8 number of chelating agent molecules react and form $ater-soluble comple molecules! Ca4& ions added from the burette $ill react $ith / alate anions only $hen there are no unreacted chelating agent molecules remaining in the conical flas(!

,! 9hen all chelating agent molecules have reacted $ith Ca4& ions that $ere added from the butette, then any e tra Ca4& ions added after this, $ill form a precipitate in the conical flas( by reacting $ith 2C&/,3-& anions and, this is the end-point of the titration!

5. Reagent solution :!&.M CaC/) &:g;l <a&C&/,

*odium / alate

in burette indicator

.:= <a/% p% "&!: buffer

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in conical flas( in conical flas(

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL 9 grams chelating 1gent 6. Calculation in &.:ml conical flas(

2"::!"3

2:!&.:3 273

CaC7 > --------------------------9 9here, CaC7 is Calcium Chelation value in CaC/) in mg per gram of chelating agent! "::!" is the Molecular 9eight of CaC/), :!&.: is the molarity of CaC/) solution, 7 is the titrated volume of CaC/) solution! 9 is the $eight in grams of the chelating agent ta(en for the titration!5isperse dyes are used in quite large quantities in comparison to other dye classes because they are used to colour Polyester and other synthetic fibres! a! *ome dyes including the class of 5isperse dyes produce differing shades in the presence and absence of certain metal ions in aqueous solutions and dyebaths! *uch dyes are called metalsensitive dyes! b! Chelating agents are chemicals $hose molecules themselves react $ith metal ions that can react $ith 5isperse dye molecules! The 5isperse dye molecules, therefore, remain protected from these metallic ions! c! The shade-controlling ability of a chelating agent is evaluated by dyeing ) specimens each of "::= polyester fabric in %T%P conditions in three different dye-liquors $ith C!'!5isperse Red 0: or C!'!5isperse ?ello$ ,& $hich are (no$n metal-sensitive dyes!

The three dye-liquors are e actly similar in all properties, e cept @ "! the absence of metal ions and the absence of the Chelating 1gent in one liquorA &! the presence of metal ions but the absence of Chelating 1gent in the second liquor, and )! the presence of both-metal ions and the Chelating 1gent in the third liquor!

Brey scales are used to determine shade change for those three dyed polyester specimens after reduction-clearing, neutrali+ing, rinsing and drying them!

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TCPT

Wetting Agents
1 substance that reduces the surface tension of a liquid, because of $hich the liquid spreads across and also enters inside the surface of a solid material 2e!g te tile3 is called a wetting agent!

%oo(

1nchor

Cylinder $ith released, $et, anchored s(ein in solution

The efficiency of commercial $etting agents can be tested and measured using simple apparatus! a3 1 $eighted cotton test s(ein 2han(3 is dropped into a tall cylinder containing a $ater solution of a $etting agent! The time required the s(ein to rela is recorded as the sin(ing time! *toc( solutions of the $etting agents to be tested are prepared to contain .:!:g of agent per litre unless the solubility is so poor that less $etting agent must be used! The $etting agent is first thoroughly dissolved in about a quarter of the necessary distilled $ater at a temperature above C:C! 't is then diluted to the final volume $ith cold distilled $ater!

Portions of .,D,":,".,&.,).,.:,D. and ":: mL of the .= stoc( solution are ta(en $ith pipettes and diluted $ith suitable $ater, to "::: mL! These portions must correspond2match3, to concentrations of :!&., :!)., :!.:, :!D., "!&., "!D., &!.:, )!D. and .!:: grams of $etting agent per litre! This range of concentrations is enough for the study of any commercial product! b3 The diluted solution for the test is poured from the "-litre volumetric flas( into a "!. litre bea(er to ensure mi ing! The solution in the bea(er is then divided equally bet$een t$o .:: mL graduated cylinders! 'f the more diluted solutions are tested first, the mi ing bea(er and cylinders need not be rinsed out and dried each time! The test-operator must $ait after the
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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL cylinders have been filled until all bubbles below the surface of the solution have risen to the top before the sin(ing tests are made! c3 The operator may advantageously prepare solutions for 0 more cylinders $hile he is $aiting for the bubbles to rise! 1ny foam on the surface of the solution is removed $ith a ":: mL bulb pipette! 9here there is little tendency for e haustion of the $etting agent on the test s(eins 2han(s3 as found in the case for cotton @ it is permissible to use the same diluted solution over again many times rather than to ma(e a ne$ diluted solution for each ne$ s(ein! 'n this case only one .:: mL cylinder can be filled repeatedly from one litre of solution of a certain concentration! d3 Temperature greatly affects $etting action, standard temperatures of &.C, .:C, D:C and E:C have been chosen for testing so as to include the complete commercially useful range! 't is most convenient to obtain a temperature of &.FC 2DDF-3 merely by using $ater $hich has been brought to the correct temperature in a large buc(et! -or tests at higher temperatures, heat the diluted solution in the mi ing bea(er to a temperature some$hat above that requiredA pour the solution into the cylinder and then allo$ it to cool bac( to the testing temperature! e3 -or a determination, a .!:: gram s(ein of yarn is folded2looped3 enough times to form a loop of around ,.!D cm! The hoo( $ith its anchor is tied at one end of the looped s(ein and the s(ein is dra$n through the fingers $hen testing $etting agents in order to ma(e it more compact! f3 The s(ein is held in one hand $ith the anchor dangling into the $etting solution contained in the .:: mL graduated cylinder! 1 stop $atch held in the other hand is started Gust as the s(ein is released into the solution and it is stopped $hen the floating s(ein definitely starts to sin( to the bottom of the cylinder! The s(ein, before sin(ing must be entirely covered $ith solution and yet it must possess enough floatability from the air $ithin the yarn to (eep the linen thread stiff bet$een the anchor and the hoo(! 1n average of at least four determinations of sin(ing time should be obtained for each concentration of $etting agent! Rewetting agent @ is a chemical in te tile preparation, dyeing and finishing, that is a surfactant $hich, after application and drying onto te tiles, promotes rapid $etting on subsequent e posure to an aqueous solution! Wetting agent! @ a chemical $hich $hen added to $ater, lo$ers both the surface tension of the liquid and its interfacial tension against the solid te tile material! The effectiveness of commercial re$etting agents on cotton fabrics can be tested and measured! ! 1 test specimen is padded in a $ater solution of a re$etting agent and dried! 1 drop of $ater is then carefully deposited on the taut 2tensioned3 surface of the specimen and the time required for the specular reflection of the $ater is recorded as re$etting time!
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TCPT Application of Rewetting Agent @ a solution of the re$etting agent is prepared by pouring ":: mL of hot $ater over the required amount of the product in a small bea(er! This solution is heated above EDC for a moment and then it is diluted $ith hot $ater to a final volume of one litre! The temperature of the solution in the padder bo for application should be D:C! The padder is adGusted to a uniformly firm squee+e from side to side! 1 strip of the selected cotton goods is padded three times through the solution of the re$etting agent! Three times through ensures thorough and uniform penetration of the cloth! The pic(up should be from 0: @ E:=! The padded cloth is dried in air at appro imately C&C for ): minutes! -our strips of padded cotton are prepared for each re$etting agent representing, respectively, four concentrations for each product to be tested! Concentrations generally sitable are &!.:, .!:, ":!: and &:!: g of re$etting agent per litre! Rewetting @ a square of the padded, dried and conditioned cloth is mounted in the embroidery hoop! The burette containing either distilled $ater or tap $ater, $hichever is desired for the test, is adGusted so that it delivers one drop of $ater at &"C appro imately every . seconds! The surface of the tight cloth is held about " cm belo$ the tip of the burette and the stop$atch is started Gust as the drop falls on the cloth! The $atch is stopped $hen the liquid on the surface of the cloth loses its specular reflective po$er! This point is determined by placing the hoop bet$een the observer and a source of light @ such as a $indo$ @ at such an angle that the specular of the flattened drop can be plainly seen! 1s the drop is slo$ly absorbed, the area of this tiny mirror on the drop diminishes and finally disappears entirely, leaving only a dull $et spot behind! 't is at this moment that the $atch is stopped! ! Evaluation Readings of re$etting time are done so easily and quic(ly that ten are ta(en for each concentration! The average times of disappearance of a drop for &!., .!:, ":!: and &:!: g of re$etting agent per litre of pad liquor are then plotted on log-log coordinate paper $ith concentration as the H-a is! 1 straight line is dra$n appro imately through, or Goining the four points as nearly as possible! -rom this line, by relating disappearance time to concentration, one can find the concentration $hich $ould give a disappearance time of ": seconds! This is called the re$etting concentration for the product! 1 corresponding value is then determined for the second re$etting agent! #y using s simple proportion $ith these figures it becomes possible to calculate ho$ many parts of the second product are equivalent to ":: parts of the first product 2or *tandard3, for re$etting!

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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

Surfactants & etergents

1 substance that helps in the removal of oily dirt is called a detergent! 5etergents act mainly on the oily films that trap dirt particles! The molecules of any detergent or a soap, have a hydrocarbon part that is easily soluble in oil, and an ionic part that is easily soluble in $ater! The detergent acts as an emulsifier! 1n emulsifying action reduces the repulsion bet$een the $atery 2aqueous3 and the oily 2non-aqueous3 substances! Every detergent has an ability to emulsifyA $hich means that it brea(s the oil into tiny droplets that get suspended in $ater!
hydrophilic, ionic, electrovalent, $ater-loving hydrophobic, organic, $ater-hating oil stain, dirt $ater

/il droplet 2bro(en by detergent3

1n anionic detergent is a chemical $hich can ionise into a negatively charged, organic, hydrophobic 2$ater-hating3 ion! 1ll soaps and many synthetic detergents are anionic! *odium al(ylben+ene sulphonate is an e ample of an anionic surfactant;detergent! 1ny cationic detergent can ionise into a positively charged, organic, hydrophobic ion! The ammonium compounds are e amples of this type of detergents! E!g quarternary ammonium compounds! 1 nonionic detergent is different from the other t$o types of detergents because its molecules do not ioni+e li(e the ionic detergents! %o$ever, it has an ability of lo$ering the surface tension of $ater! The lo$ered surface tension emulsifies $ater $ith oil and this gives the nonionic detergent its cleaning action! E!g Polyo yethylenes!

!ils
!ils are use" in #anufacturing of te$tile au$iliaries while oil% substances &te$tile au$iliaries' are use" in te$tile wet(processing for their h%"rophilicit% an" oleophilicit% ( as wetting agents. a3 Ranci"it% @ is the decay of oils and fats because of their reaction $ith / ygen in the presence light! Rancidification of stored oils can be decreased, but it can not be completely stopped! Reduction in the decay of stored fats and oils can be done by placing them in areas that have minimum e posure to / ygen or free radicals, $arm temperatures and lightA because light and heat increase the speed of rancidification of oils and fats $ith / ygen!
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TCPT

Rancid oils cannot be used $ithout e pecting a change in the resulting quality of print paste viscosity during printing operations! *uch oils have an unpleasant smell and they should not be used in any processing or manufacturing activity!

b' Sulphonation 't is the chemical reaction by $hich aliphatic or aromatic compounds of the type RI*: )%, $here R is an al(yl or an aryl 2IC0%., IR3 group! They are colourless oils or crystalline solids $hich are e tremely hygroscopic and very soluble in 9ater! Benerally, for manufacturing te tile au iliaries, long chain fatty acid aliphatic al(anes are used having carbon atoms similar in number to *tearic 1cid, C"D%).C//%, to obtain a balance of hydrophilicity and hydrophobicity in the resulting $etting agent or te tile au iliary! *ulphonation of long chain al(anes gives hydrophilicity to the hydrophobic al(ane and therefore detergency becomes a property of the resulting molecule!

Sulphation and Sulphonation are the most widely used processes for the production of synthetic anionic surface active agents. Generally, Sulphuric Acid is used as a reactant in Sulphonation reactions.

c3 The

iene value is one of the more important factors for determining the quality of oils! The presence of carbon-carbon double bonds in oils, decreases the quality of the product because of their easy polymerisation!
| | | | | | | |

JCKCJCKCJCKCJCKCJ
ConGugation of double bonds

#ecause of the conGugation of a double bond $ith the aromatic 21ryl3 system, they also e hibit a strong tendency to$ards polymerisation! The conGugated diene content, is usually e pressed as the diene value, $hich is defined as the number of grams of 'odine required, to add to the conGugated double bonds contained in ":: g of sample! This indirect $ay to e press the results is related to the total diene content assessment, $hich is directly determined by 'odine addition to the double bonds and e pressed as the )o"ine value! This is done by an iodometric 2volumetric3 titration of the sample using starch indicator!

Che#ical Anal%sis
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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL Most te tile au iliaries are organic chemicals $hile some inorganic chemicals are also used as supporting chemicals in various $et-processes! Benerally, chemical analysis methods are of t$o types each $ith a different purpose! Lualitative analysis determines the composition of the chemical being analysed, $hile quantitative analysis determines the purity of the chemical that is being analysed! a' *ualitative Anal%sis + The sample being analysed is first tested for identifying the group to $hich it belongs, depending upon the products it forms $hen it is reacted $ith a series of chemicals, in separate reactions! The particular group tests are then separately done 2reacted $ith different chemicals than those reacted in earlier tests and the elements 2e!g! M and <% ,4 belong to same group $hile Ca 4& belongs to another3 that are present in the sample are identified! -inally, more different reactions than earlier are used $ith the sample to confirm the presence of the chemicals that $ere identified earlier! Thus, the composition of the sample is determined by these ) steps! b' *uantitative Anal%sis @ This is done only if the chemical composition of the sample is (no$n! This type of analysis determines the e act amount of each constituent present in a chemical! c' ,ravi#etric Anal%sis This is a sub-type of quantitative analysis! The chemical to be analysed is reacted $ith another chemical and is precipitated! This precipitate is dried 2or it is burnt3 and this dry product is $eighed! -inally, the purity of the chemical is calculated by usual = calculations! "' Volu#etric Anal%sis @ This is also a sub-type of quantitative analysis, $hich involves the reaction of a (no$n volume of the sampleNs solution $ith another chemicalNs solution $hose concentration is (no$n! The reacting volumes of these t$o solutions and the (no$n concentration of the non-sample are used to calculate the purity 2or normality3 of the sampleNs solution!

*ualit% in isperse %eing

The actual 5isperse dye that is manufactured, is formed $ith a relatively larger particle si+e in comparison to the si+e of its single molecule! %o$ever, this particle of 5isperse dye po$der is a collection of many 5isperse dye molecules and therefore it is unsuitable for dyeing in its large si+e! *uch dye-particles $ill produce non-uniform and uneven dyeing on hydrophobic 2$ater-hating3 synthetic fibers li(e polyester!
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TCPT 1 dispersing agent is generally added to dye-baths during batch dyeing 2i!e e haust dyeing3 of polyester and its presence is not essential in %T%P dyeing! The follo$ing factors influence the efficiency of dispersing agents for dyeing polyester @

The ionic nature of the di !er ing agent It ta"i#it$ in the d$eing #i%uor condition

Benerally, dispersing agents for the 5isperse dyeing of polyester by e haust dyeing at less strong conditions than %T%P, are simple non(ionic surfactants! The above factors clearly tell us the importance of testing a combination of dispersing agent and a dye for achieving the required quality of dyed polyester samples in the laboratory, before underta(ing bul( production! *uch trial dyeing should be planned from the point of vie$ of testing for @

-ull-colour value reali+ation! Oniform and trouble-free dyeing $ith ma imum colour value fro& the dye present in the dye-bath

,rin"ing the large dye-particles to a suitable smaller si+e becomes necessary and this is achieved by the dye manufacturer, by adding dispersing agent2s3, during 2or before3 the grinding process itself! 'mportantly, the dispersing agent must remain stable during the dyeing conditions, including %T%P! Benerally, after their synthesis 5isperse dyes get formed in solid crystalline form! Crystalline substances ta(e up different forms, depending on the crystallisation method 2quic( or slo$ cooling3 and the solvent that is used! These crystalline forms have a direct effect on the dyeing properties of 5isperse dyes! "! 'f a part of a disperse dyestuff po$der lot, produces a particular depth of shade on polyester suiting, then another part from the same lot, may not produce the same depth, say, a year later! *uch an effect happens because the crystalline form has changed structurally, during its storage! &! Therefore it is necessary for the manufacturer to minimi+e crystal gro$th for the prevention of formation of larger groups of dye molecules! This is done by grinding the dye crystals!
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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL )! Brinding is done to reduce dye-particle si+e belo$ :!:::::,m 2i!e ,microns3! 't can be done in simple -ebble #ills or Roller interfaces ! ,! *ome surfactants used as dispersing agents are " & ) , . 0 D *oap Po$ders Tur(ey Red /il 1l(yl *ulphates 1l(yl 1ryl *ulphonates Lignin *ulphonates -atty alcohol-ethylene o ide condensates Condensation product of Cresol;-ormaldehyde in the presence of *odium *ulphite and further condensation $ith P-naphthol-0-sulphonic acid

5ye molecules are crystalline molecules that gro$ to large si.e" cr%stals! %o$ever for efficient dyeing to happen, it is important that the dye-particles get bro(en do$n to their single molecule level in the dye-bath! This brea(ing up of particle to molecular level is called dissolution! #ut, 7at, 5isperse and *ulphur dyes are $ater-insoluble $hereas Reactive, 5irect, 1cid and Metal Comple dyes are $ater-soluble! -unctions of 5ispersing 1gents Q 2'n 9ater 'nsoluble 5yes3 "! 'ncrease solubility of dye in 9ater! &! 1ssist the process of particle si+e reduction! )! *upport the large dye crystals to be po$derised! ,! 'n dyebath, reconvert the po$der into a dispersion! .! Maintain dye in fine dispersed phase in the dyebath 2%ere, it is helped by an additional dispersing agent, that is generally added to the dyebath, by the dyer!3

5ye *olubility v;s 5yeing Rate Q 5yeing rate increases $ith increasing solubility of the dye, but only up to a certain value! The dyeing rate actually decreases $ith any further increase in solubility! Actuall%/ if the solubilit% is ver% high/ as in the case of the "irect "%es/ practicall% no "%eing results.

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TCPT 't is common practice to apply 5isperse dyes to hydrophobic fiber, #asic 2Cationic3 dyes to acrylic, and 1cid dyes to $ool, sil( and nylon! 1 less-used method for applying 5isperse dyes to $ool, sil( and nylon e ists! This method is based on the solubili+ation of certain dyes by anionic surfactants, the surfactant-enhanced penetration of the bath into the fiber and, in some cases, the mordanting of the dye in the fiber by the surfactant is used advantageously in this method! *uch surfactant containing baths can be used for dyeing $ool, sil(, nylon, acetate, triacetate, vinyl or polyurethanesA or cationic dyeable polyester, acrylic and polyolefins $ith either Cationic or 5isperse dyes! 'n the case of cationic dyes, the surfactant $hich dissolves in the fiber, acts to mordant the dye in the fiber and to increase lightfastness! 'n the case of protonated 5isperse dyes, the 5isperse dye may be deprotonated after dyeing by rinsing or treating $ith a $ea( base to achieve $ash-fast 5isperse dyeing! 5yeing $ith *urfactant-Enhanced 5yeing Methods Complete solubility of the dye in the bath is achieved in the bath $hen lo$ molecular $eight surfactant materials are used, but in some cases the bath remains cloudy 2non-transparent3! Benerally, e cess retarding agents li(e 5#*1 retard the rate of dyeing but yield more level results! Therefore the dyer has a convenient technique, to control leveling and the rate of dyeing! 1s p% is adGusted up$ard $ith a protonatable dye, the character of the dye $ill change, from one that rapidly dyes cationic dyeable materials to one suitable for hydrophobic materials! Benerally the lo$er p% systems more readily dissolve a given dye! -or most common dyeing, the procedure used by the dyer is simple and straightfor$ard! 1 dispersion of the dye is placed in the dyebath at a level, depending upon the shade desired! *urfactant is added and the dye goes into solution and then rapidly 2quic(ly3 dyes the te tile goods! 'f the surfactant is (ept at a relatively lo$ level, e haustion is e cellent! Leveling is helped;aided by e cess surfactant! *ynthetic fibers generally benefit from dyebath temperatures that tend to open their molecular structure for penetration by the bath! isperse "%es are $ater insoluble colourants having affinity for polyester, polyamide and some other manufactured polymeric 2synthetic3 fibres, only if they are properly dispersed! ispersibilit% can be described as the limit to $hich particles can be bro(en do$n to some minimum si+e, so that they $ill pass through the pores of a standard filter paper! What#ann filter papers + These standard filter papers are of different pore si+e! The no! & filter paper, filters particles that are larger than C microns, $hile the 9hatmann no!, filter paper, filters particles that are larger than &. microns!
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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL The stabilit% of "%e "ispersions means the resistance of the dye-dispersion to chemical decomposition, physical disintegration, agglomeration or any combination of these! Evaluation of the dispersion stability of dyes at high temperatures can be used to determine the effect of various dyebath additives 2au iliaries3 on the high temperature-stability of the dye dispersion!

1n effective test method can provide a laboratory procedure for evaluating the performance of 5isperse dyes at temperatures above "::FC! *uch methods give values $hich can help the dyer to obtain uniform and level dyeing results $hen dyeing at temperatures above 6boil8!

The dispersibility of 5isperse dyes can be evaluated by measuring the filtering ti#e and the filter resi"ue of disperse dyes under standard aqueous conditions! -rinciple ( 1 quantity of 5isperse dye is first diluted, then it is heated and then it is passed through filter papers of specified micron si+e li(e 9hatmann filter paper no! & or ,, depending upon the method $ith $hich the 5isperse dye is to be applied on te tiles! The time of passage and retention 2holding $ithin filter paper3 of dye is then evaluated! The follo$ing table lists ) different test methods for evaluating the dispersibility of 5isperse dyes @ 0est What#an 1ilter %e application -aper Co#bination " <o!& over <o!, Pac(age dyeing of Polyester & <o!, over <o!, #ec( dyeing of Polyester ) <o!, over <o!, 5yeing of <ylon carpet and apparel p2 of ispersion ,!. @ .!: ,!. @ .!: E!: @ ":!:

The finer paper of the combination should al$ays be on the top in the funnel! The pac(age dyeing of polyester needs very fine dispersions for effective dyeing and therefore the testing of the dispersibility of 5isperse dyes in this type of dyeing! Test no!& is for evaluating dispersibilty as required in the longer materialQliquor ratios used in bec( dyeing of Polyester! The most suitable Test Method from the above table is selected for evaluation!

-roce"ure + a3 9ater is first stabili+ed only if Test " or & is being used, by adding :!&.g;l of E5T1 2chelating agent3 to distilled 9ater!
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TCPT

b3 9eigh out &!: g of dye po$der 2or ,!: g of its .:= aqueous form3 that is to be tested! 'f t$o dyes are to be tested, that are of equal shade but of different tinctorial strength, then $eigh out an equal quantity of one of these t$o dyes as the standard dye in the test!

c3 1dd the $eighed dye slo$ly to &:: mL of the strongly agitated specially stabilised $ater at ,) to ,EFC in a ,:: ml bea(er! 1dGust p% $ith 1cetic 1cid for test methods " R & or $ith a $ea( al(ali for test method )!

d3 %eat for . @ ": min to D"FC and stir continuously by means of a magnetic stirrer to prevent locali+ed heating!

e3 Pour &:: @ ):: ml of D"FC 9ater through an "" cm #uchner funnel $ithout any filter paper! 9ait for &. sec and turn vacuum on until the 9ater has passed through the funnel! 'nsert stainless steel ring in the funnel over filter papers, turn on vacuum! 'mmediately pour dye dispersion $hich has been heated to D"FC into funnel and begin timing $ith *top-9atch $ithin a cell-phone! Record time only up to "&: sec! The end point is reached $hen the appearance of the filter paper changes fro# a wet to a "r% appearance!

f3 Record and report time for filtration as follo$s Q Class 1 @ :-&, sec Class # @ &.-,E sec Class C @ .:-D, sec Class 5 @ D.-"&: sec Class E @S "&: sec

E amine the residue on filter paper versus the -ilter Residue *cale 2standard photographic replicas of 11TCC3 1lso e amine the paper for any visible coarse or granular particles 'f present the test is automatically rated as Class '! 'f none is present, rate as follo$sQ Class . @ E cellent
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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL Class , Class ) @ 'ntermediate values are interpolated Class & Class " @ Poor 'mportantly, also report the Test <o! as ", & or ) appropriately! TTT

)n(2ouse 0esting of %es

5yestuffs are products $hich can vary considerably! MaGor aims of a dyer can be summari+ed as follo$s Q Match the standard Create a level dyeing Ma(ing the dyeing fast R quic( to the intended end use 1void damage to the te tile substrate material Carry out above steps as cheaply as possible

'n many dyeing processes these are not controlled properly! -or e ample, the accurate $eight of fabric being dyed is not (no$n correctly! 9ater quality is another factor that affects dyeing results! Even a small amount of chlorine from $ater purification affects the shade! %o$ever, the maGor influence on color is from the dye used, and controlling the quality and quantity of the dye that is added, is a maGor factor in determining a satisfactory dyeing results! The quantity and quality of dye in a dyebath are maGor factors in ensuring a satisfactory outcome of a dyeing process! /n the one hand, Luality control in dyeing is becoming increasingly important, $hile on the other hand, the resources available to ensure dye-quality by the traditional dye suppliers are under pressure because dyes from increasing number of suppliers and an ever-$idening range of sources are no$ becoming available to dyers! 5ye-strength determination by trans#ission #easure#ent of "%e solutions, and by reflectance #easure#ent of "%e" fabrics are important techniques, each $ith its o$n advantages and disadvantages! 'f significant differences of quality e ist, these methods are limited in usefulness @ the reasons for such quality variation can often be determined economically by thin(la%er chro#atograph%, or $ith high perfor#ance li3ui" chro#atograph%! The maGor concern of most dyers $hen it comes to dyetuff batches is that of dye-strength! Page 16 of 66

TCPT The quality differences that a dyer might face, may be listed as follo$s Q The dye may not be the same generic product! 'f it is the 6same8 generic dye, there can be variation in manufacture, from t$o suppliers, or from batch to batch of one manufacturer! *ometimes quality differences arise in the dyehouse, but manufacturers are unfairly blamed for these differencesA for e ample the moisture content of dyes and the possibility of accidental contamination should be considered! The standard $ith $hich the incoming dye is being compared may also be the cause 2(ar<a3 of some variation and contamination! Many tests can be regularly carried out in the dyehouse to ensure dye quality and therefore ensuring reproducible dyeing quality! %o$ever, for each of the test that is being carried out, it is important to remember that 6the analysis is only as good as the tested sample!8 't is e tremely important to ensure that the sample being analy+ed represents the bul( 2complete3 sample! The co#parative "%e strength is also called as relative "%e strength/ and in the spectrophotometric testing of dyes, the percentage of the color strength of a sample is compared to that of a reference dye 2standard dye3 $hose colour-strength is fi ed as "::=! 1 spectrophotometer uses the data of reflectance and transmission of light by substances li(e dyes, to give numerical values to different colours and shades of colours! 't is used in computer colour matching! 1 relative dye strength of more than "::= of a dye sample means that the dye is stronger than its relative stan"ar" "%e! -or strength measurements, there are t$o basic methods! The absorbance of a dye solution can be measured by transmission or the dye can be applied to a te tile substrate, and then dyestrength can be measured by reflectance! The chief a-&antages of transmission measurement of -ye strength from -ye solutions are the spee- .ith .hich measurements can /e ma-e an- the repro-uci/ility of the results o/taine-0 The reflectance assessment metho- from actual -yeing on textile -oes not get confuse- /y coloure-1 non--yeing impurities1 an- .or2s &ery effecti&ely for reacti&e -yes0 This methoalso informs1 /y eye an- /y instrument1 color -ifferences in terms of the result on the fa/ric0 Quality &ariations are actually seen /y the -yer in the reflectance assessment metho-1 .hereas these cannot /e seen from a transmission measurement1 as in such measurements1 it is only a -ifference in transmission 3or a/sor/ance4 an- it is not a -ifference in actual -ye- color0

Absorbance 4 0rans#ittance 5easure#ents +

Page 17 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL a! 5ye strength determinations by e perienced personnel doing only single measurements are reliable to $ithin about &= error, and that repeat testings can result in measurements that are reliable due to errors of even less than "=! b! 1queous 2or non-aqueous, if necessary3 dilute solutions of the dyes are prepared and a blan( solution of := dye is also prepared! c! Each of these ) dye-solutions 2*tandard dye, sample dye and := dye3 is transferred to glass vessels and the absorbance at different $avelengths is determined by using the spectrophotometer! E!g @

Solution := dye

677 .

657 .

577 .

55 7 .

677 .

657 .

877 .

Re#ar9s #lan( solution, required by spectrophotometric computer, for correction of absorbance Uma > .::nm *tronger than *td! dye Uma > ..:nm, either different generic type than *td! or impure dye

5= *td!

))

,. ." D.

0" 0C :<

:; ;7 D,

D" D& 0"

0) 0. .)

.: .) ,E

5= *mp"! )0 5= *mp&! ..

-rom the above table it is clear that the dye *mp& is contaminated 2either it is a mi ture of & generically different dyes or it is impure3! *uch a dye $ill not be a safe replacement for the dye named *td! The dye *mp" is a safer replacement for the dye *td!, because its $avelength of ma imum absorption is equal to that of dye *td!

d! 7ariations in sulphonation reactions during dye-manufacture, can cause solubility differences and may interfere $ith spectrophotometric absorbance measurements! Reactive dyes present special problems because even 6factory fresh8 dye has some percentage of hydroly+ed material $hich is colored but $hich $ill not be fi ed during the dyeing process! Reflectance 5easure#ents + 5ye strength determinations can also be done by carrying out actual dyeing in the laboratory!

Page 18 of 66

TCPT a! 'n this case the dye is dyed to the te tile material, and the strength is assessed by comparing the depth obtained $ith that from dyeing the standard dye, under identical conditions as the sample dye! The results can be compared $ithout using instrumental 2spectrophotometric3 methods, and ma(es use of the fact that the human eye is a very good Gudge of t$o shades being equal in depth!

%o$ever the human eye is poor at quantifying the strength 2depth3 difference!

b! 'f a standard is dyed at a (no$n = o$f, and the sample is dyed at a range of H= o$fNs above and belo$ that of the standardNs = o$f, then, the dyer has simply to find the sample dyeing that is the same as the standard, from all the dyeing tested for various depths! *(illed and e perienced laboratory chemists can do this quite accurately, to around )-,= error!

'''

(a tne

E)a#uation

E plain the terms 6fastness8, 6running8 and 6fading8 in relation to coloured te tilesV Colour fastness can be defined as WThat property of a pigment or dye, or the leather, cloth, paper, in(, etc!, containing the coloring matter, to retain its original hue, especially $ithout fading, running, or changing $hen $etted, $ashed, cleanedA or stored under normal conditions $hen e posed to light, heat, or other influences!W 'mportantly, this means that different dyes $ill have different fastnesses on different materials! -or e ample, linen is much harder to dye than sil( or cotton 2although indigo can dye ; colour, both cotton and linen $ell3! 1 dye that $or(s $ell on leather $ill probably not be suitable for $ool!

Page 19 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

Running Running occurs principally during $ashing and e posure to detergents and solvents - 9e (no$ $hat happens if a red soc( or blue pants are accidentally put in a $ash bath having $hite te tiles! Benerally, it ta(es many $ashes for an article of clothing to stop leaching dye during the $ash, but by that time, it may be so faded that $e $ould not $ant to $ear itX 1 dye $ill run if it has a $ea( affinity for the material it is attached to, or it may run even if it has a much stronger affinity 2Aa*Sa+na3 for a non-aqueous solvent! 5etergents may cause running because they help to stabilise the hydrophobic regions of dye molecules due to their ability to form micelles! <o$adays, dyes are specifically designed to bind strongly to the fibres of cloth, to minimise running! -or e ample, Cibacron -, a fibre-reactive dye produced by C'#1-Beigy Ltd, and Procion MH, produced by 'C'! 1a"ing -ading is caused by the chemical alteration of unstable dye molecules to a less strongly coloured or colourless form! This is often caused by the action of sunlight, or by the o idising action of the atmosphere! The ultraviolet radiation in sunlight has enough energy to cause unstable bonds to brea( or reform! / ygen and atmospheric $ater react $ith unstable bonds to alter the structure and affect the colour of the material!

There i no ,a$ to fro& fading-

to! an un ta"#e d$e

Brey scales are part of a comparative method of assessing the effect of various agencies li(e light, $ashing, $eather, perspiration, heat, rubbing etc on dyed te tile material! They help in giving mathematical values to the e tent 2amount3 of fading or damage! a! Brey scales have been devised to give a quic( and simple method of measuring less or alteration of shade, as $ell as staining of neighbouring materials! b! Brey scales consist of five pairs of chips! /ne half of the pair is al$ays the same grey colour $hile the other half progresses from $hite to a grey colour of equal depth, in . steps! The fifth pair therefore, is of no contrast indicating Rating . i!e! ,oo", $hile the first pair is of ma imum contrast, indicating Rating " i!e! -oor! c! The dyed material $hich has been faded or damaged by the above agencies along $ith the original unfaded dyed material is placed as the si th pair, ne t to the grey scale, on a grey bac(ground and the corresponding grey-scale pair $ith e3ual contrast as the dyed material is identified and the rating 2grading3 value is evaluated in this $ay!

Page 20 of 66

TCPT ,re% scales are calibrated against photographic films that have been e posed to specified periods to obtain contrasting pieces of Brey photographic prints! The calibration of any light fastness tester 2instrument3 is done by determining the time 2period3 required to fade a coloured Te tile *pecimen after e posure to light in that 'nstrument! %o$ever, only #lue dyed 9ool fabric to a specified depth and having a specified reflectance character is used to determine the e posure periods for the fading! The #lue 9ool *cale is a set of eight such dyed 9ool fabric specimens of C different depths obtainable from the AA0CC! The most deep fabric of this set $ill require the longest e posure period for fading it to the depth of the least deep fabic of this same set! Thus seven different e posure periods are determined by e posing the deepest #lue 9ool of this set and fading it to the depth of each of the other seven #lue 9ool fabrics! This gives a set of eight e posure periods beginning $ith +ero e posure time through to increasing D period values corresponding to each fabric of the set of eight #lue 9ool -abric *cale calibration standards! 'n some Test methods for measuring light fastness, all the eight fabric specimens are e posed together, along $ith the Test *pecimen, by progressively e posing a different fabric of the set after a periodic e amination of fading of the Test *pecimen in comparison to the earlier e posed #lue 9ool *tandard, during the same test! a! b! c! =ight fastness gra"es Onli(e grey-scales, the light-fastness grades are YeightN instead of YfiveN! 'n grey-scales, Y.N is the highest grade, $hile in the light fastness grades YCN is the highest grade indicating good light fastness! These eight light-fastness standards are eight stan"ar" "%e" wool speci#ens $hich have decreasing fadebility in daylight under YspecifiedN conditions, $here standard Y"N is the most fadeable specimens, $hile standard NCN is the least fadeable specimen! /ther standards bet$een " and C being intermediately fadeable! The standard $hich has faded after the same time as the specimen and that is the having same contrast is used to give the fastness rating to the Test *pecimen! -hotochro#is# is very different from light-fading of te tiles! E$planation @ 9hen the shade of a dyed material changes on e posure to sunlight but it also regains this shade after it is removed from sunlight e posure and is stored in the dar(A then this property is termed as photochromism of the dyed te tile material! *uch a dyed te tile material, may loo( faded until it is e posed to sunlight and continues to loo( faded only for a short time after it is removed from sunlight! a! The follo$ing instruments used for finding light fastnessQCarbon 1rc -ade-o-meter!
Page 21 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL b! c! Henon 1rc lamp -ade-o-meter! E posure rac(, ventilator and <atural daylight! The 9eather-/-meter is an instrument that is either used to measure the lightfastness of te tile materialsA or it gives an idea of ho$ $ell dyed materials resist fading to light! 't has internal humidity and temperature controls, because these variables interact $ith a dyeNs lightfastness! This tester is equipped $ith an air cooled enon arc lamp, $hich is industry recogni+ed as the best available option resembling the energy pattern of sunlight! 1ll coloured te tile materials $hich are e posed to sunlight for prolonged periods regularly require high light fastness! e!g! Cric(et *ight *creens, %ats, Caps, *carves, Cric(et Pads, Zerseys, /uter garments, Circus Tents, 9indo$ Curtains, *un Ombrellas etc! Carbon 1rc -adeometer is not as popular a light fastness tester as the Henon 1rc lamp instrument! 9hen natural sunlight is used as the fader, then fading is slo$ and in business quic( ans$ers are necessary, so that quic( decisions can be made about light fastness of dyed materials! Thus, natural light $ill not be the correct choice! The Carbon-1rc of the -ade-o-meter is (no$n to emit e cessive ultraviolet radiation, that may damage the e posed te tile material, thereby giving erroneous results! %o$ever, Henon-1rc lamp emits light $hich resembles daylight and the ultraviolet light emitted by it is lesser than that emitted by the Carbon 1rc! This emitted light can be easily filtered! *o erroneous results are minimum $ith this type of -ade-o-meter and so it is the correct choice!

a! b! c!

Ose 2or 1ssessment 3 of grey scales Qi! The e posed and une posed material and grey-scales must be placed in a uniformly lighted environment and observed from a perpendicular angle to the hori+ontal surface, on $hich they are placed! ii! The light-source used for lighting should illuminate the grey-scales and the dyed-material at the same angle vi+ ,.F! Methods of sample e posureQMethod " i! The dyed specimens along $ith the C dyed $ool standards are mounted on a single frame and placed in the $ell-ventilated e posure chamber of the -ade-o-meter! ii! The air-temperature in this chamber is maintained at ):"::C $hile the blac(-panel temperature is maintained at .. .:C! iii! The humidity in this e posure-chamber is maintained at ,..=! iv! Method " can be used $hen only " or & specimens are to be tested, $hile Method & can be used to test many specimens having different fastness ratings! Method & uses three opaque covers to (eep the specimens e posed for three different durations, so that each specimen can be e posed to the required fading time, according to its individual
Page 22 of 66

TCPT fastness value and it is matched $ith a similarly faded standard, $hich too has been e posed for the same duration! Comparison of faded and unfaded test specimen pair using grey scales Q!nl% the uncovere" part of the test sa#ple will be sub>ect to an% fa"ing. Co##on e$posure ti#e is <77 hours that represents appro$i#atel% four %ears? "a%light. b! c! d! Conditions of assessment - [read previous pages\ 1ssigning of light fastness ratingQ - [read previous pages\ *ignificance of grey scaleQ - [read previous pages\

,as(fa"ing Q't produces fading of dyed te tiles, quite similar to light-fading effect! 't ta(es place due to the interaction of atmospheric / ygen and <itrogen, at a red-hot surface such as an electric element or $hen a gas flame produces o ides of <itrogen! These o ides decompose the organic dye molecules! @ecessit% to "eter#ine it A( *ince gas-fading is quite similar in its action as light-fading and because gas-fading can also ta(e place in dar( storage conditions, it is very important to determine it! e!g! 5isperse dye can gas fate! E$posure perio" Q- 't the test specimen does not change its colour, but the test-control specimen changes, then this time is termed as Ycycle oneN or Ye posure period "N! *uch cycles can be repeated and they must be repeated $ith a fresh test-control specimen! The e posure periods are noted! %o$ever, e posure is continued only for total. cycles! Stan"ar"isation of !$i"es in ,as cha#ber Q"! 1 basin or tan( containing Phosphoric 1cid 2.::BPL3 and *odium <itrite 2D BPL3 is used to produce / ides of <itrogen in the chamber! &! T$o more basins containing Calcium Chloride 2)::BPL3 are placed in the chamber to maintain relative humidity at 0.= $ith the help of a small fan! ]ptoS eter#ination Q"! The test-control specimen and the test specimens are placed on the arms of the chamber and the fan is started! &! 9hen the test specimen pair fades to Brade & of the grey scales, then one e posure period is said to have been completed! )! The 11TCC Test Method "0, @ "EE& specifies a stan"ar" of fading that is dyed $ith :!)= 5irect #lue C: and :!:".= 5irect 7iolet ,D instead of the #lue 9ool *cale for calibrating the test instrumentNs e posure-cycle duration! Procedure (Gas-Fading)
Page 23 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

Test specimen of size 6cm X 6cm and the ribbon are supended in the exposure chamber at the specified conditions. Nitrogen Dioxide, NO2, concentration in the chamber must be maintained around !!ppm from a supp"# tan$%c#"inder. &emo'e out the contro" ribbon after a fixed time gap, to examine its fading to the fading standard i.e unexposed gas(fading standard. )hen it reaches the depth of this standard, then this is specified as one c#c"e of gas(fading. &emo'e the Test *pecimen +hen it exhibits an obser'ab"e co"our change. ,or e'er# ne+ % additiona" c#c"e of exposure, suspend a ne+ contro" ribbon, unti" the re-uired number of c#c"es are comp"eted.

-erspiration 1astness The human s(in drains out un$anted salts from the body in the form of dissolved liquids (no$n as perspiration! These liquids along $ith the body-heat and the dissolved salts in them, react $ith the dyes of the te tile material $hen it comes in prolonged contact $ith the body! This may cause the dye to change in colour or it may form degradation products, $hich may be harmful to the consumer! Thus, it is necessary for te tile dyed material to have high Perspiration fastness, if it is to be sold as an undergarment or ne t-to-s(in cloth! "! &! )! ,! The ingredients used in the determination of perspiration fastness are @ L-histidine mono-hydrochloride monohydrate *odium Chloride *odium dihydrogen /rthophosphate *odium %ydro ide The & types of perspiration are vi+ acidic 2p% .!.3 and al(aline 2p% C!:3 5etho" A The -erspiro#eter is used to determine colorfastness of te tiles to $ater and perspiration! This device applies pressure to samples that have been $etted $ith a simulated perspiration solution, sea $ater, or plain $ater as its heated! Results are visually or instrumentally evaluated for color change! -or determining the resistance of the colour fastness of te tile against human perspiration on dyed fabric is determine by e posing the fabric sample in al(aline and acidic reagents, $hile in contact $ith grey adGacent fabric! The test specimen along $ith adGacent fabric is placed bet$een the acrylic plates under a fi ed load and (ept inside the incubator oven for a specified time!The apparatus use for the purpose is called Perspirometer ; PER*P'RE<5ER! "! Prepare a solution of L-%istidine mono-hydrochloride monohydrate 2:!.BPL3, *odium 5ihydrogen /rthophosphate 2&!&BPL3, *odium Chloride 2.BPL3!
Page 24 of 66

TCPT &! )! ,! 1dGust the p% of this solution to .!. to obtain acidic perspiration and to a p% C!: to obtain al(aline perspiration, by using *odium %ydro ide! Prepare a composite specimen of the dyed te tile material by se$ing it $ith another undyed and unli(e te tile material! Treat t$o such composite specimens in the t$o perspiration solutions at a liquor ratio of &:Q" at room temperature for ): minutes, pour off the solution after this and place the composite sample bet$een blac( Acr%lic plates under a $eight of ,!.MB! 'n this $eighted condition place the specimen in the oven for , hours at )D4&:C! *eparate the specimen from the udyed te tile material and dry at 0::C! The change in colour of the dyed material and the stained but undyed te tile material, are both assessed by the grey-scales for contrast and the appropriate rating is assigned!

.!

1crylic plates to be placed here

Co#parison A "! /ther methods use glass-plates $eighing .:B and hence are not as severe as the one described above! 'n the above method, the apparatus used is called the perspirender! 't can be placed inside the oven at )D:C $ith the sand$iched composite specimen under $eighted 2,!.MB3 condition! &! The other method uses glass plates and the air bubbles in the $et specimens are removed manually by finger pressing them! %ence it is not considered accurate not precise! Washing 1astness "! &! The Launder-o-meter is a sort of a $ashing machine, used to determine the $ash fastness of dyed specimens! The machine has stainless cylinders $hich the test specimen can be immersed in the $ashliquor and the cylinders can be clamped and placed on a rotateable $heel! The $heel rotates in a bath that can be heated and the $heel rotates in opposite directions, after a fi ed no! of rotations! The test specimens are se$n as a sand$ich bet$een t$o unli(e te tile material-containing pieces of fabric and immersed in the $ash-liquor containing sodium carbonate, sodium hydro ide and . BPL of soap at ,:^&:C for ): mins and then it is assessed on the grey-scales for contrast!

)!

-rinciple of assessing wash fastness A "! 1ny dyed material may have some loosely bonded or entrapped dye-molecules on and $ithin the fibre! *uch dye-molecules can be loosened and removed from the fibre molecule by the $ashing or agitating action of surfactants and soap! The attachment of such loose dyemolecules is as the dirt and other stains on fibre-surfaces! Page 25 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL &! 'f such fabrics are $ashed at a definite temperature for a definite time, then the dye-molecules loosen up and they can go and get attached on undyed adGacent te tile material, thereby staining it! Specifications an" Con"itions A The test-specimen and one of the t$o colourless sand$iching pieces $ill be of the same material, ho$ever the other sand$iching piece $ill be unli(e this material, in '*/ Tests and ", & or )! )". a! b! c! d! e! 0est Speci#en Cotton, 7iscose Polyester, 1crylic 9ool, *il( or Linen Polyamide Cellulose 1cetate Secon" cloth piece 9ool 9ool or cotton Cotton 9ool or 7iscose 7iscose

Test specimen si+e is ":cm for all . tests!

,cm for all five '*/ Tests! The *pecimen Q Liquor ratio is "Q.:

-or '*/ tests , and ., the second sand$iching cloth piece is differently specified as )" 0est speci#en 1 # C 5 Cellulose 1cetate, Polyamide, Polyester 1crylic, Linen 7iscose Cotton *il( )S! 6 )S! 5 Secon" cloth 0est speci#en Secon" cloth piece piece 7iscose or Polyamide, 7iscose or Cotton Polyester, Cotton 1crylic, Linen Cotton 7iscose Cotton 7iscose Cotton 7iscose Cotton

Page 26 of 66

TCPT

Wash li3uor .BPL *oap, :!)= <a&C/) and :!"= <a/% . BPL soap, &BPL <a&C/)

Wash( te#perature ,: &:C .: &:C 0: &:C E. &:C E.4&:C

Wash(ti#e ): mins ,. mins ): mins ): mins , hours

)S! 0est @o. " & ) , .

Asses#ent A 1fter $ashing in launderometer, follo$ed by rinsing and drying, they are assessed for contrast and staining on the grey-scales! ,re%(Scales A A"vantages A Luic( and simple assessment method! isa"vantages A 1ssessment depends upon lighting of the surroundings and also on line of vision of vie$er! 5uring the life of any finishing fabric, it is li(ely to be rubbed against or rubbed by some other surface! Rubbing produces heat and friction and this might degrade the dye-molecules thereby producing a fading effect or staining of adGacent materials! This gives the fabric a $orn-out and old appearance! %ence, finished fabrics $hich are coloured must have good rubbing fastness! Rubbing fastness is measured on the Croc(meter! Benerally, printed areas on fabrics may have lo$er rubbing fastness than dyed areas on fabrics! The instrument that is used to test rubbing fastness is called the Croc(meter! AA0CC 5etho" A( 1 finger of $ood about "!0cm diameter moving to and fro in a straight line, over a ":cm trac( on the test-specimen! 1 rubbing cloth, starch free, bleached cotton cloth, &8 &8 is fastened $ith a $ire clip on the finger, $ith $eaves oblique direction of rub! &8 .8 specimens are cut $ith long dimension oblique to $arp and $ett! Rubbing is done t$enty times at speed of &: turns per seconds! r% #etho" Q dry testing squares are used to $rap the finger! Wet #etho" Q The testing squares are $et in distilled $ater, squee+ed $ith hand sand$iched bet$een t$o fillers paper sheets and passed through a $ringer! Evaluation Q/nly by rating colour-transference on rubbing cloth 2not by colour loss on Test *pecimen3 5ry and $et test squares are air-dried, bac(ed by ) layers of $hite squares! 5ry and $et test are classified separately!
Page 27 of 66

"! &! )! ,! .! 0! a! b!

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL c! Class " > Poor > Ro$ " on 11TCC chart Class & > Poor > Ro$ & on 11TCC chart Class ) > Poor > Ro$ ) on 11TCC chart Class , > Poor > Ro$ , on 11TCC chart Class . > E cellent > Ro$ , on 11TCC chart 2<o colour transferred3 0est Speci#en BS 5etho" A( 1 finger of $ood about "!0cm diameter moving to and fro in a straight line, over a ":cm trac( on the test-specimen! 1 rubbing cloth, desi+ed, bleached unfinished cotton cloth, . .cm is fastened on the finger! Rubbing is done on each half of test specimenpair in $arp and $eft direction! Rubbing is done &: times at speed ten times in ": seconds, bac( and forth! r% #etho" Q- dry test squares are used to $rap 2cover3 the finger! Wet #etho" Q- The testing squares are $et and squee+ed until they hold $ater of appro imately their o$n dry $eight! Evaluation Q 5ry and $et test squares are air-dried and evaluated using the Brey scale for staining! Subli#ation fastness )#portance A Many te tile garments require hot-pressing after the $ashing and drying sequence! The dyes or pigments on the garment should not sublime or be affected adversely, by the flat hot iron during pressing! Especially cotton and linen te tiles require very hot ironing and such dyes must $ithstand it or else, the garment $ill fade after every ironing session! A"vantages A( Barments $ith high sublimation fastness loo( ne$ even after long usage! Pigmented printed fabrics may not have good sublimation fastness! Affecte" "%es A( 5irect dyes, 5isperse dyes, 1cid dyes get affected by heat "! &! )! ,! Osually 1cetate fabrics require the determination of fastness to sublimation on storage! They are dyed $ith 5isperse dyes! The test specimen along $ith undyed 1cetate specimen is rolled and inserted in a test tube and placed in an oven at "&::C and left there for . hours! The test specimen and undyed 1cetate specimen are of si+e ,8 ,8! 1fter cooling, the $hite fabric and the coloured fabric are evaluated seperately @
C#a C#a C#a . / 0

"! &! )! ,! .! 0!

Coloure" Considerably changed *lightly changed 7irtually unchanged

White Considerably stained *lightly stained 7irtually unstained

Page 28 of 66

TCPT 1 multifibre stitched fabric in the undyed condition may be used in the testing of fastness to bleaching of any te tile Test *pecimen!

T+o +hite test c"oths pieces of size .!.2 cm X /.0cm. One of

the same t#pe as the Test *pecimen, +hi"e the other as 1

2u"tifibre fabric or 3otton c"oth piece, if Test *pecimen is of

)oo", *i"$ &a#on or 4inen.

2u"tifibre fabric or 5iscose &a#on c"oth piece, if Test

*pecimen is of 3otton or 3e""u"ose 6cetate. <on-chlorinated bleaching is considered environmentally safe and also healthier than chlorinated bleaching! The bleaching effect is because of the reactivity of the %ydrogen Pero ide, %&/& , that is used in non-chlorine bleaching processes! Therefore, %ydrogen Pero ide is a common component in the non-chlorinated bleaching solutions recommended in the , tests of Test Method ":"-"EE, of the AA0CC, 1ssociation of Te tile Chemists and Colourists, an international organisation! Three types of fibre fabrics must be tested $ith , different compositions in this method as mentioned in the table!

Page 29 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

ngredient ! Parameter

"ool (#est$)

Sil% (#est&)

'otton (#est()

'otton (#est)) !ecified in .8-8 .8-8 + 8-0 +

1eight in gra& 2 un#e &L3 4$drogen /06 Sodiu& 9:;<e Pero5ide2 .7-0 Si#icate2 + 0-8 + + .8-8 7-: + + + .8-8 =-8 + 8-0 :-8&L

Sodiu& P$ro!ho !hate Sodiu& 4$dro5ide 1etting Agent >dou"#e u#!honated ca tor oi#? Initia# !4 >ad@u ted ,ith NaO4? Contact Ti&e >hour ? Te&!erature >;C? CLR

A-:

.8-0

.8-0

.8-0

: 9A .D/8

. B: .D/8 BB .D/8

. .88 .D.

Page 30 of 66

TCPT

The 11TCC recommends , different procedures for different severity of bleaching in its Test Method ":" @ "EE, as @ The 11TCC Test Method for evaluating fastness to dry cleaning recommends testing for fastness of te tiles to by dry cleaning $ith a consideration to organic solvents li(e petroleum solvents, perchloroethylene and fluorocarbons that are used in dry cleaning of garments and te tiles!
.- Principle

The test specimen in contact $ith cotton fabric, a multifibre s$atch and non-corrodible steel discs is agitated at ):FC for ): minutes in Perchloroethylene and it is then dried in air!1ny change in colour of the Test *pecimen is then assessed $ith the standard Brey *cale for Colour Change!
:- Procedure

-or each Test *pecimen, a bag of si+e ":cm H ":cm of the undyed cotton t$ill fabric is prepared by se$ing together t$o square pieces of this cloth, around ) sides! The Test *pecimen and "& *teel discs are placed inside this bag and the ,th end is also se$ed up! To ":mL of a detergent in a "L volumetric flas(, Perchloroethylene is added to ma(e up the final volume of "L Perchloroethylene;detergent solution! This :!0mL of 9ater is added! This solution is stirred until its cloudiness reduces to clarity! 1dd &::mL of this Perchloroethylene;detergent solution into a .::mL *teer container! 'mmerse se$ed bag having the Test *pecimen and the *teel discs in this *teel container! Close the container and agitate it at ):FC for ): minutes in a launderometer or any other similar equipment! 1fter this 6spoiling treatment8, place the *teel container in a $ell-ventilated hood $here the temperature does not increase above 0:FC and air-dry the Test *pecimen by unse$ing the bag and sand$iching it bet$een layers of absorbent cloth or paper!
/- Evaluation care

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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL Conditioning of 6spoiled8 Test *pecimens at 0.=R%, &:FC for " hour before rating! them must be done! Trimming and brushing of yarn must be done if felt necessary for simplifying evaluation! Perchloroethylene is to ic by inhalation, is to ic by repeated contact $ith s(in and is to ic also by ingestion!

2ot -ressing is any process for shaping te

tile products or ma(ing them plain and smooth by applying mechanical pressure $ith heat! The pressure can be in dry or moist conditions! This is also called )roning! The heating device can be a hot press 6iron8 - the Test *pecimen should be pressed at specified temperature, time and pressure!1 Pressing pad of a &0:g;m& $ool fabric is used $ith its & layers being )mm thic(! The Test *pecimen is (ept pressed for ". minutes!

Wet -ressing @ The $et Test *pecimen is covered $ith a $et, undyed cotton cloth and is pressed!

5etails for the testing of fastness of te tiles to sublimation Osually cellulose acetate te tiles dyed $ith 5isperse dyes, sublime on storage! *ublimation means the conversion of a chemical from its solid state, directly into its vapour 2gas3 state! "! &! %ot Pressing and sublimation fastness of te tiles are related to each other because in both, the spoiling agency is %eat! %o$ever, the e posure time to heat in the measurement of fastness to %ot Pressing is shorter than the time of e posure to measure fastness to sublimation!

%ot Plate for placing covered Test *pecimen

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TCPT
for testing %ot Pressing

)! ,!

The 11TCC recommends a ,8 H ,8 Test *pecimen that is rolled $ith an undyed cellulose acetate fabric specimen and is inserted into a test tube! The test tube is then placed in an oven at "&:FC for , hours, after $hich the Test *pecimen is evaluated and graded for both, loss in colour on the Test *pecimen and colour transference2staining3 on the undyed specimen! The function of the 3ualit% control "epart#ent of any te tile unit, is to maintain high and consistent quality of the te tile goods produced by it! "! &! !b>ectives A To maintain strict production norms consistent $ith minimum cost of production! Luality and productivity of any te tile unit are dependent upon the entire sequence of operations from $inding to $eaving to finishing! The quality control department closely e amines each process, not separately, but from the point of vie$ of its effect on subsequent processes! To modify the process conditions suitably $henever the quality is significantly belo$ or a$ay the prescribed minimum! To fi tolerance limits, so that quality al$ays lies $ithin these limits! /nly Colour 1astness gra"ing cabinets provide perfect conditions for the grading and assessment of samples for Colour -astness to different spoiling agencies! These colour vie$ing cabinets should be according to )S! <75 and also according to retailer specifications! The cabinet is fitted $ith minimum t$o light sources, the principal one being the W1rtificial 5aylightW 50. at 0.:: Melvin, providing the best 50. to C'E ratings! There is also the provision of O7 #lac( light source in it, to reveal the presence of fluorescent dyes and bleaches on the Test *pecimen!

)! ,!

"! To optimise consistency of vie$ing conditions the cabinet features a built-in -i ed 1ngle Table, $hich enables samples to be vie$ed and e amined at a ,.F angle of incidence to the light source, and the interior colour of the cabinet is painted to a neutral grey!

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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL &! The lamps are housed $ith a specially selected $hite reflector, and controlled $ith membrane s$itching and electronic ballasts! 1 time elapsed meter is fitted for scheduling the replacement of lamps!
/-

'n addition to Colour -astness grading, some applications also require the facility for full colour matching and assessment, $hich needs additional or alternative light sources, for e ample, -oint of Sale )llu#inant 0=:6!
'''

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TCPT

*BA=)0C 5A@A,E5E@0 SCS0E5S

'*/ 2correctly called as 'nternational /rgani+ation for *tandardi+ation3 is the $orld_s largest developer and publisher of 'nternational *tandards! 1ctually, every country may have its o$n standardisation processes and norms for manufacturing activities or service-oriented activities! 'ndia, for e ample has its )S methods prescribed by the Bureau of )n"ian Stan"ar"s/ B)S. The importance of standards are more popularly understood $hen any product being sold in the 'ndian Mar(et gains general acceptability if it has the )S) 5ar9 on it! '*/ is a net$or( of the national standards institutes of ".D countries li(e the B)S 2#ureau of 'ndian *tandards3 of 'ndia, $ith only one member per country allo$ed to be its member! 'ts headquarters or Central *ecretariat is located in Beneva, *$it+erland! This *ecretariat, coordinates quality management and also the process of standardi+ation of business and production processes bet$een all its member countries! '*/ is a non-governmental organi+ation that forms a bridge bet$een the public an" private sectors of various countries! /n the one hand, many of its member institutes are part of the governmental structure of their o$n country, or are mandated by their government - the #'* is also a member of the '*/! /n the other hand, other members may be li(e @ *1*M'R1, #TR1, <1**C/M $ith their roots in the private sector, because these organisations have been set up by national partnerships of industry associations! Therefore, the )S! brings unifor#it% to be reache" on solutions that #eet both the re3uire#ents of business an" also the broa"er nee"s of the global societ%. )#portantl%/ )S! for#s a bri"ge between the public an" private sectors. Stan"ar"s #a9e a great an" a constructive contribution to #ost aspects of our lives. "! Osing improved process techniques $ith regard to environment, quality and cleaner production 2CP3 become necessary for our lives! )S! <6777 & ;777/ SA :777/ !2SAS <:777/ Eco labeling/ etc! are some of the much used quality management systems that become very important from the e ports point of vie$ for any modern country! *tandards are pre-agreed procedures and product propertiess in quantities for bringing about uniformity of processes and products across geographically distributed global cultures! 9hen products and services meet our e pectations, $e tend to ta(e this for granted and become una$are of the importance of standards! %o$ever, $hen standards are absent, $e quic(ly realise the disadvantages of not having standards $hile doing business!

&!

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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL )! *urely, $e care, $hen products turn out to be of poor and une pected quality, they do not fit or are mismatched $ith equipment that $e already have, they are unreliable or they are dangerous! 'f there $ere no standards then all goods $ould not be reliable for use! *ignificantly, standards ensure desirable characteristics of products and services such as quality, environmental friendliness, safety, reliability, efficiency and interchangeability - and at an economical cost! 9hen products, systems, machinery and devices $or( $ell and safely, it happens because they qualify, and therefore they also meet e pected or (no$n standards! 1nd the organi.ation that is responsible for many thousands of these standards benefitting global society is the )S!! The '*/ E::: series of international quality management standards and guidelines has earned a global reputation as the basis for establishing quality management systems! '*/ E::: is a general system that specifies, in very broad terms, the necessary parts of a quality management system! 'nstead of being specific to any one industry, the '*/ E::: details the basic requirement of the quality function for all industries! 5eveloped and issued in "ECD, by a Technical Committee of the '*/, '*/ E::: is a series of voluntary international standards that serve as a method for establishing and maintaining a quality management system 2LM*3 for organisations involved in manufacturing products or providing services! The series is revised every five years to ensure that standards (eep pace $ith management practices and technological advances! The last revision came out in the year &:::! The standard is called '*/ E::"Q&:::! The family of &: standards in the '*/ E::: series $as reduced to , Luality Management systems during 5ecember &::: by revision! They areQ

,!

)S! ;777A -undamentals and vocabulary )S! ;77<A Requirements )S! ;776A Buidelines for performance improvements )S! <;7<<Q Buidelines for auditing Management *ystems 2intended to be applicable to both environmental system and quality system auditing3

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TCPT '*/ E::"Q&::: is a 3ualit% #anage#ent s%ste#. This quality management system specifies requirements for any organi+ation that needs to demonstrate its ability to consistentl% provi"e pro"ucts that meets customer and applicable regulatory requirements and aims to enhance customer satisfaction! '*/ E::"Q&::: has been organised in a userfriendly format $ith terms that are easily recognised by all business sectors! The standard is used for certification;registration and contractual purposes by organisations that $ant recognition of their quality management system! '*/ E::"Q &::: is based on the follo$ing eight Luality Management principlesQ

Customer focussed organi+ation 'nvolvement of people *ystem approach to management -actual approach to decision

Leadership Process approach Continual improvement Mutually beneficial relationships supplier

These eight principles are seen through the four main clausesQ Management Responsibility @ defining requirements

Resource Management @ determine and establish necessary resources Product Reali+ation @ establish and implement processes Measurement, 1nalysis 1nd 'mprovement @ of results

0hese 6 #ain clauses are built aroun" the plan("o(chec9(act c%cle. This cycle is also popularly (no$n as the - CA cycle! Most ne$ users obtain measurable benefits early in the process of deploying the standard requirements in their operations! These initial benefits are generally due to improvements in their organi+ation and internal communication! The benefits must be strengthened through effective internal auditing and Page 37 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL management revie$ of system performance! Li(e all systems, it either improves or becomes less effective! 't does not remain static for long! 9hen '*/ E::"Q&::: is accepted and adopted, the adopting organisation struggles for the satisfaction of its customers and the continual improvement of its quality management system! Continual improvement is a process of increasing the effectiveness of an organi+ation to fulfill its quality policy and its quality obGectives!

)S! ;77<AD777 necessitates that we plan an" #anage the processes that are necessar% for the continual i#prove#ent of our organisationEs 3ualit% #anage#ent s%ste#. Many businesses in the past fe$ years began the Gourney to$ard '*/ E::: certification because they $ere $orried that if they $eren_t certified they $ould have trouble doing business in the EO! /thers faced the prospect of losing (ey customers in <orth 1merica! #ut as those companies developed a quality management system to fulfill requirements of the '*/ E::: standards, they discovered a $ide range of internal benefits that they hadn_t anticipated! These are Gust a fe$ of the po$erful benefits gained by businesses that have built a solid foundation for business e cellence through the '*/ E::: series of quality management and quality assurance standards! 'n short, '*/ E::: gives us the tools to gro$ a better business! #usinesses - both large and small have discovered that the '*/ E::: series is a po$erful strategic tool for achieving ne$ opportunities and improved competitiveness! #ut $e don_t have to be a multinational corporation or have business overseas to benefit from implementing these standards! 't_s for businesses large and small, $herever they may be! 1nyone $anting to improve a business internally and desiring a mar(etplace recognition of his;her product or service quality, can use '*/ E::: as a valuable tool, $ithout $hich, product ; service quality cannot be obtained quic(ly! 1mong the most common benefits of the '*/QE::: are @ < D F 6 5 6 8 : !perating costs "rop as rewor9 is re"uce". Warrant% an" after(sales support costs fall/ an" efficiencies increase. E#plo%ee training processes i#prove as "atabases of the necessar% s9ills an" proce"ures for getting >obs "one properl%/ are "evelope" . E#plo%ees beco#e #ore responsive to custo#er nee"s an" re3uire#ents. Business proce"ures an" processes finall% beco#e stan"ar"ise". -eople co##unicate better because organi.ational boun"aries ten" to brea9 "own as people wor9 together across functions an" levels. )ncrease" pro"uctivit% occurs as the correct infor#ationG e3uip#ent/ tools an" "ocu#entation are put into place. 0he sales force gains greater confi"ence.
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TCPT ; ": !perations beco#e #ore efficient. Customer satisfaction gro$s, increasing Gob security for your employees and profitability for your company!

The '*/ E::" and the '*/ ",::" are quality management systems $hich struggle to regulate the $ay products conform to pre-set standards! These systems are applicable to both types of entities @ vi+! processes and products The vast maGority of '*/ standards are highly specific to a particular product, material, or process! %o$ever, )S! ;77< &3ualit%' an" )S! <677< &environ#ent' are Wgeneric #anage#ent s%ste# stan"ar"sW! The $ord generic means general! WBenericW means that the same standard can be applied to any member organi+ation of the '*/, large or small, $hatever its product or service, in any sector of activity @ te tiles or non-te tiles, and $hether it is a business enterprise, a public administration, or a government department! '*/ E::" contains a generic set of requirements for implementing a 3ualit% management system and '*/ ",::" for an environ#ental management system! ,eneric stan"ar"s can be applie" to an% organi.ation. #usiness interests `'*/ only develops standards for $hich there is a #ar9et re3uire#ent! The $or( is mainly carried out by e perts from the industrial, technical and business sectors $hich have as(ed for the standards, and $hich subsequently put them to use! Continuously and regularly using the pre-set standards in '*/ E::" results in a greater acceptability of the products covered by this system, in the global mar(etplace! This is because products coming into a country can differ in their quality, depending upon their country of origin! #ut having a certification from the '*/ in the form of its E::" *ystem, the consumers can e pect certain quality 2standards3 in these '*/-certified products, $hereas the e pected and desirable quality may not be present in a '*/ un-certified product! 'n a competitive mar(et the customer has a $ide choice in terms of '*/ certified and '*/ un-certified products! The elimination or reduction of the harmful impacts of various aspects on elements of environment $hich affect the different sections of the population such as employees, customers, suppliers, shareholders, neighborhood is called Environ#ent 5anage#ent!! 't is a part of the general management system of a Company or a Country that directs and controls an organi+ation $ith regard to the environment! The management aspects include meeting all statutory 2legal3 and regulatory 2rules3 requirements for any business activity!
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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL 'f all companies in a Country have and follo$ an Environmental Management *ystem then life $ill be easier, safer and healthier for the population because @

/f the increased <ational and 'nternational attention to environmental performance Third party registration to environmental standards may become a condition in future, on doing business in certain regions of the $orld Bovernments are increasingly demanding that companies adopt a systematic approach to environmental issues There $ill be an increasing public pressure for increased environmental performance and information 'mplementing EM* may improve environmental performance Legal consequences and economic loss due to Environmental incidents; accidents $ill be reduced and $ill be ta(en care of, appropriately! Corporate responsibility Recognition of need to integrate EM* as part of the business and its 1nalogous to Luality Management

Every company has some environmental impact from its operations! Companies see(ing an internationally recognised EM* - environmental management system $ill find the ans$er in the '*/ ",::: series of standards developed by the 'nternational /rganisation for *tandardisation! '*/ ",::: supports environmental protection and prevention of pollution in balance $ith socio-economic needs! 't provides businesses $ith a structure for managing environmental operations, and applies to all types and si+es of manufacturing and service operations throughout the $orld! '*/ ",::: is considered to be more far-reaching than '*/ E::: in its application! '*/ ",:::, the environmental management system, $as formally published by the 'nternational /rgani+ation for *tandardi+ation 2'*/3 on *eptember &, "EE0! '*/ ",::" is the conformance standard $ithin the '*/ ",::: series! 1fter e tensive ground$or(, the revised version of '*/ ",::" $as released on ".th of <ovember &::,! '*/ ",::"Q&::, has replaced '*/ ",::"Q"EE0 after a transition period of "C months $hich ended on ",th May &::0 't has become the basis for the certification procedure for environmental management! 1ll '*/ ",::"Q"EE0 certificates have been rendered invalid on ".th May &::0! The '*/ ",::: series of standards hasQ '*/ ",::" - Requirements $ith guidance for use! 2-or certification3

'*/ ",::, - Beneral guidelines on principles, systems and support techniques

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TCPT

'*/ "E:""- Buidelines for quality and ;or environmental management system auditing

Currently, it is not compulsory to implement and follo$ '*/ ",::: according to international la$! Even there is no compulsion to implement an 'ndian environment management system, ho$ever, there are *tate Pollution Control #oards 2li(e MPC# in Maharashtra3 for controlling the $aste thro$n out by companies! The '*/ ",::: is an international standard $hich helps environtal regulation by insisting thatCo#panies shoul" follow )S! <6777 to achieve an" "e#onstrate that the% have #ini#ise" har#ful effects on the environ#ent cause" b% their activities & that the% continuousl% i#prove their environ#ental perfor#ance. -ollo$ing '*/ ",::: means strong environmental performance of the company, by controlling the effects of 1ctivities, Products R *ervices on environment because ofQ *tringent Legislation 5evelopment of environmental policies 'n addition to setting out the demands on environmental management systems, '*/ ",::"Q&::, provides improved compatibility to '*/ E::"! The '*/ ",::: series covers a $ide variety of environmental disciplines, ranging from the basic management system to auditing, labelling and product standards! 1ll but one of the ". standards in the series are guidance documents! Companies are certified to '*/ ",::", the specification standard for an environmental management system!

A"vantages an" benefits of integration with )S! ;777 'f a Company is already implementing and follo$ing '*/ E:::, it becomes easier for it to get an '*/ ",::" certification! 1n '*/ ",::" system can be easily integrated $ith an e isting quality management system that is based on the '*/ E::: standard! There are a number of common elements $ithin both the '*/ E::: and '*/ ",::" management system standards, includingQ ocu#ent Control/ 0raining/ Corrective Action/ Recor"s 5anage#ent/ Calibration/ )nternal Au"its an" 5anage#ent Review. Companies can either develop completely separate EM* components, or they can choose to integrate an '*/ ",::"-driven EM* $ith an '*/ E::: quality management system! A"vantages & Benefits of )S! <6777 There is an increasing emphasis on the triple bottom line of an organi+ation! Triple bottom line, also (no$n as 6People, Planet, Profit8, means e panding the traditional company reporting frame$or(, to ta(e into account environmental and social performance in addition to financial performance! Customer, employees, stoc(holders and competitors develop a ne$ level of respect for the Company, $hich demonstrates its commitment to the environment!

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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

Co#our Co&&unication
Scales for 5easuring Colour 'n "E:., artist 1lbert %! Munsell developed a Colour ordering system @ or Colour scale $hich is still used today! The Munsell *ystem of Colour <otation is significant from a historical perspective because itNs based on human perception 2understanding and interpretation3 of Colour! Moreover, it $as devised before any obGective method using instrumentation $as available for measuring and specifying Colour! This system is a subGective method of colour comparison!

The Munsell *ystem assigns numerical values to the three properties of ColourQ %ue, 7alue and Chroma! 1dGacent Colour samples are real physical samples and these represent equal intervals 2differences3 of visual human perception! The model in this figure represents the Munsell Colour tree! The vertical a is represents the value 2lightness3 of Colour! The inner-most Colour squares represent a descending gradation of $hite to blac( $ith shades of grey in bet$een! The colours of the spectrum are divided into ": basic hues as represented on the vertical slices branching from the centre of the model! The model is a real obGect and is also called the 5unsell Colour 0ree. The hori+ontal a is on this tree represents chroma 2saturation3 $hich identifies a colourNs hori+ontal distance from the central grey a is! The purest, most saturated colours are located at the modelNs perimeter, farthest from the central vertical a is! Today, Colour systems rely on instrumentation utili+ing mathematics rather than real physical samples li(e the Munsell scale! #y far the most important of these systems is the C'E @ Commission 'nternationale de lNEclairage 2translated as the 'nternational Commission on 'llumination, the body responsible for international recommendations for Photometry and Colourimetry3!'n "E)", the C'E standardi+ed Colour order systems, by specifying the light source 2or illuminants3, the observer and the methodology by $hich to derive values for describing Colour!

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TCPT -rom the commissionNs $or( $as also derived, the concept of a 6standard observer8, based on the average perception of the human population $ith normal Colour vision! 'n short, it represents specific numerical values for the responses of the average human to different $avelengths of light! The standard observer also provides a means for converting any spectral curve into three numbers, (no$n as tri-stimulus values H,?, and a that represent the spectrum of the primary colours Red, Breen and #lue respectively, to identify any colour!

:; and .8; fie#d of )i ion "$ the o" er)er

Chro#aticit% values
CIE .A/. Unifor& Chro&aticit$

The tristimulus values, unfortunately, have limited use as Colour specifications in day-to-day business because they correlate poorly $ith visual attributes! 9hile ? relates to 7alue 2lightness3, H and a do not correlate $ith %ue and Chroma!

1s a result, $hen the "E)" C'E *tandard /bserver $as established, the commission recommended using the chromaticity coordinates y+! These coordinates are used to form the chromaticity diagram sho$n here! The notation C$% specifies Colour by identifying value 2?3 and the Colour as vie$ed in the C'E "E)" chromaticity diagram 2 ,y3! %ue is represented at all points around the perimeter of the chromaticity diagram! *aturation, or Chroma, is represented by movement from the central $hite 2neutral3 area out to$ards the diagramNs perimeter, $here "::= saturation represents pure hue!

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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL The C'E "ED0 Oniform Chromaticity *cale diagram is illustrated here in Brey, #lac( and 9hite! #ut the actual diagram is useful only if it is in Colour! The advantage of the uN, vN diagram over the ,y diagram is that, it reduces the effect of non-uniform distribution @ when equal perceptual differences are not xrepresented by equal distances on the diagram. The uN, vN diagram also correlates much better $ith C'ELO7, or LTOT7T, as described ahead! Each point on the "ED0 Chromaticity 5iagramNs perimeter represents a pure hue @ that is, "::= saturation of the colour! Each hueNs saturation is decreased by moving to$ard the diagramNs neutral centre $here, Red, Breen and #lue mi into 9hite! E$pressing Colours @u#ericall% Colour difference in materials is no$ obGectively measured using spectrophotometry and is computed mathematically using one of the many equations that have been developed over the last half century! The C'EL1#, C'ELO7 and the C'ELC% although not the best, have been used by the te tile business to ma(e a maGority of decisions! *till ne$er equations have been developed in the recent past, $hich give fe$er $rong decisions in shade-matching e!g! the ZPCDE, CMC, #-5 etc! C)E=AB an" C)E=BV To overcome the limitations of chromaticity diagrams li(e ,y and u_,v_, the C'E recommended t$o alternative, uniform colour scalesQ C'E "ED0 2LTaTbT3 or C'EL1# and the C'E "ED0 2LTuTvT3 or C'ELO7 2pronounced Lstar, a-star, b-star and L-star, u-star, v-star, respectively3!These colour scales are based on the opponent-colours theory of Colour vision that statesQ a Colour cannot be both Breen and Red at the same time, nor #lue and ?ello$ at the same time! 1s a result, single values can be used to describe the Red;Breen and the ?ello$;#lue attributes!
CIELA colour c!art

CIE .A7= Unifor& Chro&aticit$

9hen a Colour is e pressed in C'EL1#, LT defines lightness, aT denotes the Red;Breen value and bT represents the ?ello$;#lue respectively! The same system is follo$ed by the C'ELO7 $here the uT and vT values correspond to aT and bT of the C'EL1# system $hile LT is lightness!
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TCPT The adGacent figures illustrate the colour plotting diagrams for LTaTbT! The aT a is runs from left to right! 1 Colour measurement movement, in the @a direction indicates a shift to$ards the Breen periphery and a 4a movement depicts a shift to$ards the Red periphery! *imilarly, along the bT a is a @b movement represents a shift to$ards #lue $hile the 4b movement sho$s a shift to$ards the ?ello$ periphery of the C'EL1# Colour chart! The centre LT a is sho$s L>":: 29hite or total reflection3 at the top and L>: 2indicates #lac( or total absorption of light3 at the bottom, of this LT a is! The centre of this plane is reserved for the neutral or Brey perception of light! To understand ho$ the LTaTbT values represent the specific colours of flo$ers 1 R #, their values have been plotted on the C'EL1# Colour chart! The aT and bT values for these t$o flo$ers intersect at Colour spaces identified as points 1 and # respectively! ?ello$ flo$er 1 - LT > .&!EE, aT > :C!C&, bT > .,!.) Red flo$er # bT > "C!&) LT > &E!::, aT > .&!,C,

These points specify each flo$erNs hue 2Colour3 and chroma 2vividness or dullness3 only! The final colour of each flo$er can be obtained $hen their LT values 2lightness3 are added as sho$n in the other figure! The lightness value cannot be sho$n in the C'EL1# colour chart but it can be represented in this other figure!

Colour ifferences elta C)E=AB an" elta C)E=BV 1ssessment of Colour is more complicated than a simple numeric e pression! Benerally, it is an assessment of either the Colour-match or the Colour-difference from a (no$n third standard! C'EL1# and C'ELO7 are intended to be used for comparing the colours against a common YthirdN Colour vi+ the YstandardN specimen! C'EL1# and C'ELO7 have been developed for comparing the colours of t$o obGects! The e pressions for the differing aspects of this Colour difference are - LT, aT, bT and uT, vT $here is pronounced as YdeltaN, it symbolises YdifferenceN! 1 given Colour difference say LT, aT, bT bet$een t$o colours can also be e pressed in only one single numerical value, ET, that represents the total difference on the C'EL1# or C'ELO7 Colour chart, unli(e the partial difference e pressed by LT, aT, bT respectively!
Page 45 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL ETab > [2LT3& 4 2aT3& 4 2bT3&\";& ETuv > [2LT3& 4 2uT3& 4 2vT3&\";& 'f t$o ?ello$ Coloured roses have the follo$ing Colour co-ordinates in the C'EL1# system, then the follo$ing comparison $ill help understand the numerical e pression of Colour difference! ?ello$ flo$er 1 - LT > .&!EE, aT > C!C&, bT > .,!.) ?ello$ flo$er C LT > 0,!:E, aT > &!D&, bT > ,E!&C

Colour 5ifference of flo$er C from that of flo$er 1 Q LT > 4""!", aT > -0!", bT > -.!&. *o flo$er C is lighter, less redder and less yello$er 2i!e! paler3 than flo$er 1, although both have the same hue - ?ello$! Their total Colour difference is @ ETac > [24""!"3& 4 2-0!"3& 4 2-.!&.3&\";& > ")!D" 1 C'EL1# Colour difference of this magnitude cannot be missed by any human being having normal Colour vision! 'n general, $hen deciding $hich Colour difference calculation to use, the user must go by the follo$ing guidelines "! *elect a single system for calculation and use it as often as possible! E!g choose bet$een either of the C'EL1# and the C'ELO7 systems or equations! 't is important to remember that most Colour communication in 'ndia, relies on the C'EL1# system! &! 1l$ays specify ho$ the calculations are made, e actly! )! <ever interconvert bet$een Colour differences calculated by different equations through the use of Yaverage factorsN! ,! Ose calculated Colour differences only as a Yfirst appro imationN in setting tolerances;limits for Colour matching, until they can be confirmed by human visual Gudgement or perception! 0- MaGority Colour match or mismatches are not accepted only because of numbers L,a,b,u,v and E etc, but Colour matching ultimately succeeds by the $ay the t$o specimens actually loo(! %uman perception is the final Gudgement!

Page 46 of 66

TCPT !ther Colour E$pressions C)E=C2 &=H CH hI' This Colour e pression can be derived from either C'EL1# or the C'ELO7 e pressions! The LT defines lightness, CT specifies chroma $hile the hF denotes hue angle, an angular measurement! This e pression is advantageous over the C'EL1# and the C'ELO7 because it becomes easier to relate $ith the earlier systems that are based on real, physical Colour samples li(e the Munsell Colour *cale! Colour )n"ices White an" Cellow in"ices Certain industries li(e paint manufacturing, paper and te tile manufacturing, evaluate their ra$ materials and products using certain standards of $hiteness! 'n general, the $hiteness of plastics or photographic and printing paper or even $hite te tile goods is Gudged preferentially by follo$ing some rating system! 'n some cases a manufacturer or a buyer may need to (no$ the yello$ness or tint $ithin a apparent 9hite or non-9hite obGect! This is done to determine ho$ far that obGectNs Colour departs from a preferred 9hite to$ards an un$anted ?ello$, or to$ards a bluish tint! The effect of $hiteness or yello$ness can be significant, e!g, $hen printing in( or dyes onto paper! 1 #lue Colourant, dyed on a highly-rated 9hite te tile material $ill appear as a different Coloured #lue, compared to the same #lue Colourant dyed on another lo$ly-rated 9hite te tile material! Here, the highly-rated White material must be understood as being whiter than the lowly-rated White material! The 1merican *tandards Test Methods 21*TM3 has defined $hiteness and yello$ness indices! The EF<F whiteness in"e$ is used for measuring near-9hite opaque materials li(e paper, paint and plastics! 'n general this inde is used for evaluating any material $hose Colour appears 9hite! The 1*TMNs E)") yello$ness inde is used to determine the amount to $hich a sampleNs Colour departs from an ideal $hite! The <;D5 %ellowness in"e$ is used for measuring plastics and is also used for te tiles! TTT

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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

5easure#ent of Colour b% Reflectance 5etho"s

The tric( to successful computer colour matching and colour communication is to perform measurements $hich are consistent, reliable and meaningful reflectance results! This can be achieved only by using proper equipment and its settings, its standardisation and proper presentation of the specimens to the instrument during their colour measurement! Principle Materials that are opaque, nearly opaque or translucent are measured measured by reflectance methods to obtain a numerical representation of the colour of the specimen! The calculation of the colourimetric values that are required for evaluating the results or for further quality control etc must be performed suitably using the soft$are as required! Limitations Reliable and useful measurements cannot be obtained from any specimen of any dimension! There are restrictions, limits and it is important to carry out proper sampling of the specimens before they are presented to the spectrophotometer for measurements! 1ll the precaution mentioned in the earlier section on sampling need to be follo$ed according to the type of the material to be tested! Apparatus and Materials 'n reflectance spectrophotometers a specimen is illuminated $ith light and the spectrophotometer measures the amount of reflected light from the surface of the illuminated specimen! The illumination is done in a polychromatic manner 2i!e $ith $hite light3! Monochromatic light can be used in cases $here measured specimens are not fluorescent! )llu#ination an" collection of reflected light from reflectance spectrophotometers involves t$o types of geometries vi+! *phere 2i!e d;: or :;d3 and ,.;: 2or :;,.3! The first alphabet or number i!e d, ,. or : in each type of geometry refers to the method of illumination, say diffusion or the angle of illumination vi+! :F or ,.F! The second term describes the angle at $hich the instrument measures the reflection from the illuminated specimen! *ome sphere instruments that have an angle of collection of reflected light greater than :F also include a specular option to enable the inclusion or e clusion of specular reflectance from the illuminated specimen!

Page 48 of 66

TCPT White calibrate" stan"ar" is required to standardise the instrument! The colourimetric values required for this calibration standard are stored in the soft$are or in some cases even in instruments themselves! Therefore only the specific standard needs to be used for calibration! The correct $hite standard is generally a $hite tile and is usually identified $ith a serial number! Standardisation Benerally, a clean $hite surface of (no$n reflectance factors is measured during standardisation! These reflectance factors are $ith reference to a perfect reflecting diffuser! The measured reflectance of this $hite surface is then used to correct all future reflectance values measured from specimens in subsequent measurements! This correction is done by the soft$are itself by calculating Ycorrection factorsN at each measured $avelength and applying correction factors! Some instruments may require the use of a Black tile (or a light trap) and also a Grey tile! Each of these ob ects must be maintained in its original clean and unscratched form following the instructions from the manufacturer. 1re3uenc% of stan"ar"isation of the instrument depends upon the type of the instrument, the environmental conditions in $hich the instrument is operated and also the required accuracy of the results! 1s a general practice, an interval of & to , hours bet$een each standardisation should be maintained! Verification of stan"ar"isation and obtaining the colourimetric values by measuring verification standards and then comparing these values $ith their original values must be done! The original values $ill be available $ith the verification standards for comparison in printed form! 'f these measured values do not fall $ithin an accepted range from their original values, then the standardisation is considered as invalid! The number of verification standards and the acceptability limits depend on ser requirements! %o$ever, there should be one to three standards available and their colourimetric values must lie $ithin an acceptance limit of :!&: 5Ecmc2&Q"3 units in 50.;":F conditions! Specimen preparation and sampling 1 specimen may be representing the sample of an obGect $hich may be a garment, roll, a carpet, fibre, yarn, fabric, plastic etc! The type of the sample $ill play an important role in influencing the reproducibility of measurements! Therefore correct sampling follo$ed by appropriate specimen preparation is very important! /ther factors $hich must be carefully controlled or selected to achieve meaningful and useful results are vi+! the area-of-vie$, the difficulty of presenting the specimen to the area of vie$, the number of presentations 2and scans3 to the area-of-vie$
'''

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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

P"LL#TI"$ %&"' ()EI$* +IT, &EACTI-E ()E.

I$T&"(#CTI"$
'n 'ndia, cellulosic fibres are preferentially dyed $ith reactive dyes because they have bright colours, have good $et fastness properties and a reasonable light fastness besides being comparatively cheap! These dyes are applied to slivers, yarns and fabrics by the e haust process! The primary difference, in e haust dyeing and in pad-batch or pad-steam method of dyeing, is in the generation of dissolved solids 2T5*3 in the effluent! 'n e haust dyeing, a very high quantity of salt must be used to transfer dye into the fibre from the aqueous dye-bath! Presence of salt 2<aCl etc3 in the e haust dye liquor from reactive dyeing, has caused tremendous harm to vegetation! Conventional primary, secondary or tertiary effluent treatments cannot remove salt! The only practical method for separating salt, used in some mills, is to isolate the stream of e haust dye liquor, $hich is collected after treatment in a long metal or cement tan(, coated $ith a blac( paint, for solar evaporation! *alt so collected is disposed off but cannot be recycled for dyeing, as it is not free from colour! 'n the e haust dyeing method, reactive dyes are applied at material to liquor ratios 2MQL3 varying from "Q) to "Q&:! The MQL in Gigger dyeing is "Q), in Get dyeing it is "Q": and for dyeing on $inches it is "Q&:! Reactive dyes can be applied to fibres, slivers, yarn pac(ages or fabrics! Most of the processing houses in the small-scale sector prefer e haust method for dyeing fabrics!

Reactivit% an" 1i$ation of Reactive %es

The first generation of reactive dyes had very poor fi ation on cellulose and can be understood to have lo$er dye upta(e than the subsequent generation of dyes! Their fi ation $as at best 0:= only! These dyes pre-dominantly being monofunctional, they $ere easily hydrolyseable as compared to the multifunctional dyes that $ere developed subsequently! The first generation reactive dyes $ere 5ichlorotria+ine 2Procion M brand dyes3 or the 7inyl *ulphone 2Rema+ol brand3 type of dyes that $ere first mar(eted around "E.D! The fi ation of reactive dyes $as improved in the second generation of reactive dyes! 'n these dyes t$o or more functional 2reactive3 groups incorporated in their molecular structure! 5yes $ith t$o functional groups are (no$n as bi-functional dyes! 'n bi-functional dyes, the reactive groups $ere the same 2homo bi-functional3 or different 2hetero bi-functional3! Osually these groups $ere Monochlorotria+ine and 7inyl *ulphone! These bi-functional dyes are no$ easily produced and available in 'ndia and are also quite popular in larger si+ed $et-processing houses!

Page 50 of 66

TCPT The latest generation of reactive dyes have more than t$o functional 2reactive3 groups! The fi ation of these dyes is much higher at around E.= in comparison to the earlier generation of dyes! + 1< 2Monofunctional3 1< + + 1D 1< + + 1< 1+ 2%eterobifunctional3 2%omobifunctional3 +1 1 2Multi-functional3

S!5E REAC0)VE ,R!B-S BSE )@ REAC0)VE CES

@!0EA [ " \ > Monochlorotria+ine [ & \ > 5ichlorotria+ine

[ ) \ > 7inyl *ulphone [ , \ > 5ichloropyrimidine

[ . \ > Trichloropyrimidine [ 0 \ > 5ichloroquino aline 5 > 5ye to $hich this reactive group is attached H > % or 1l(yl group e!g! C%)
1 simplified representation of ho$ reactive dyes react $ith cellulose fibre is sho$n here Cell + !2 J Cl + R + 2Cellulose3 2Reactive 5ye3

Cell + ! + R + J 2Cl 2covalently bonded 5ye3

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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

*imultaneously, the follo$ing reaction also ta(es place! 2D! J Cl + R + $here

2! + R + J 2%ydrolysed 5ye3

2Cl

is dye and R is the reactive group!

5uring the dyeing process, the reactive dye is first pushed from its dissolved anionic state in the dyebath, into the polymeric macromolecular cellulose fibre system! *uch dye molecules that have penetrated the fibre system, are then fi ed 2covalently bonded3 to the fibre, by adding sufficient al(ali into the dye-bath! 'f there is Gust one fibre-reactive functional group in the dye as in the monofunctional dyes, then a significant amount of this monofunctional reactive dye react chemically $ith 9ater in the dye-bath 2gets hydrolysed3 $hile only about 0:= of this dye gets fi ed by reacting $ith cellulose by forming a covalent bond $ith the fibre in al(aline conditions!
Eff#uent &ean the u ed ,et+!roce #i%uor ,hich need to "e di carded2 after e!aration of the te5ti#e+&ateria# fro& the #i%uor- The di o#)ed and undi o#)ed che&ica# u ed in the ,et+!roce #i*e d$e and te5ti#e au5i#iarie 2 re&ain !re ent in the eff#uent- The e che&ica# can cau e 1ater !o##ution if the eff#uent i di charged in the urrounding region > Aa

aE!a a *a F#aa*a?-

The a)erage 1ater con u&!tion2 !er *g of !roce ed fa"ric2 )arie fro& B8+.08 #itre - Treat&ent "eco&e e entia# "efore di charging it out ide the factor$4o,e)er2 the &a## and &ediu& t$!e of !roce ing unit cannot ado!t &ore o!hi ticated techni%ue #i*e Re)er e O &o i a it re%uire huge in)e t&ent and treat&ent co t are too high- Neutra#i ation of d$eing #i%uor i a &uch chea!er o!tion for e!erating d$e fro& eff#uent-

'ndian cotton process houses may be classified broadly into the follo$ing three categories a! Large organi+ed process houses of the composite mills $ell equipped $ith effluent treatment plants! b! Medium si+ed process houses usually functioning as commission processors $ithout space for elaborate effluent treatment set up! c! *mall si+ed process houses mostly functioning independently and $ithout effluent treatment facility!

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TCPT

Wastewater fro# S#all -rocess 2ouses

(((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((( )@,RE )E@0S &g4l' &)n E$haust %e li3uor' &)n Wash =i3uor' Left-over 5ye :!" @ "!& :!:. @ :!D. *alt &. @ C: ": - ". 1l(ali as <a&C/) )@0 :!. @ & *urface active agents :!"@ :!) :!. @ "!: Cationic 5ye -i ers :!) @ :!. :!" @ :!& ((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((((

d!

Effluent discharge norms

'n 'ndia variable levels of pollution is tolerated from state to state as recommended by the respective stateNs pollution control board! *ome states enforce the norms strictly $hereas many states have sho$n lesser strictness in enforcing them, as it is difficult for process houses to install costly effluent treatment facilities due to the lac( of space! 'ndian norms relevant to te tile effluents are according to the '*Q &,E: of the #ureau of 'ndian *tandards and it is important to note that the ma imum limit for total dissolved solids, T5*, is &":: mg;l i!e! &!" g;l! Reactive dyes, *alt, 1l(aline *alt and other te tile au iliaries being $ater-soluble in nature, their presence in the e haust dye liquor contributes to the level of T5* in the effluent! Therefore, T5* is the most-violated parameter in the effluent from a cotton $et-processing unit! Multifunctional reactive dyes have either ) or more fibre-reactive functional groups in their dye molecules! 'f 5 R - represent the dye and the functional group respectively, then such a multifunctional dye molecule can be represented in a simple manner as @ 1+ b +1

a3 Most multifunctional dyes, e haust to the e tent of E.=! *ome of them also need less salt during the dyeing process! b3 The average price of the first generation dyes e!g! the %E type dyes and some bi-functional dyes is around Rs! ):: ; (g! $hereas the recent generation multifunctional dyes cost around Rs! "&:: ; (g! %o$ever the large number of small-scale sector dyeing houses can significantly reduce their Ysalt-pollutionN from a level of about ":!.g;l of salt using the first generation dyes to about ,!)g;l $ith the recent generation multifunctional dyes! 1lthough this level of salt in the effluent is still higher than &!"g;l, it should not be forgotten that that the colour of the effluent by using multifunctional dyes reduces substantially by ":-". times in comparison to the effluent arising out of using the first generation c%EN range of dyes!
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TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

c? Genera##$2 the reacti)e d$e &o#ecu#e do not contain an$ to5icit$2 their co#our cau e on#$ ! $cho#ogica# trou"#e- 4o,e)er2 the fir t generation G4EH range d$e or e)en the "i+functiona# d$e con idera"#$ har& !#ant #ife if the eff#uent i di charged o)er #and- Thi i on#$ "ecau e of the )er$ hea)$ %uantit$ of a#t !re ent in the e5hau t d$e #i%uor2 EILThe <ureau of Indian Standard >IS? ha for&u#ated a co&!rehen i)e tandard >IS+:9A8? for the di charging #i&it of )ariou e#e&ent in the eff#uent di chargeThe tandard ta*e into con ideration the nature and area of di charge-

E//luent Treat0ent
&elevant .tandard1 /or Li2uid E//luent 3I.424905 $o6 E//luent C!aracteri1tic 3'a75 (i1c!ar8e d on land /or irri8ation :88 :.88 + 0-0+A-8 .88 + (i1c!ar8e d in pu9lic 1e:er1 (i1c!ar8e d into inland 1ur/ace :ater1 .88 :.88 98 0-0+A-8 /8 :08 'a!ara1!tr a oard di1po1al in 1aline :ater .88 + + 0-0+A-8 .88 :08

. : / 9 0 =

TSS2 &gJ# >&a5? TIS2 &gJ# >&a5? Te&!- ;C >&a5? !4 <OI2 &gJ# >&a5? COI2 &gJ# >&a5?

=88 :.88 90 0-0+A-8 /08 +

(or efficient contro# of 1ater !o##ution2 it i nece ar$ te! in the fo##o,ing order D

ugge ted to ta*e the fo##o,ing

.- Reduction in ,a te,ater )o#u&e:- Reduction in concentration of d$e and che&ica# u ed and there"$ reduction in their har&fu# effect/- Reduction in ,a te concentration "$ reco)er$ and reu e9- Reduction in ,a te concentration "$ che&ica# u" titution0- Reduction in ,a te concentration "$ !roce &odification=- In ta##ing a uita"#e eff#uent treat&ent !#antIf the eff#uent di !o a# i into !u"#ic e,er 2 then in addition to !re#i&inar$ treat&ent >i-e- creening2 grit re&o)a# and e%ua#i ation?2 !ri&ar$ treat&ent ,ith Page 54 of 66

TCPT
uita"#e che&ica# #i*e coagu#ation2 f#occu#ation and nece ar$ to &eet the re%uire&ent edi&entation "eco&e

If the di !o a# i direct#$ into trea& or #a*e 2 !ri&ar$ treat&ent fo##o,ed "$ econdar$ treat&ent "eco&e e entia#- If di !o a# i on agricu#tura# #and2 !ri&ar$ treat&ent fo##o,ed "$ G$! u& treat&ent for reduction of Sodiu& "eco&e nece ar$-

1hi#e de)i ing eff#uent treat&ent2 &eeting the re%uired tandard hou#d "e of !ri&e con ideration2 and !o i"i#it$ of reu e of treated eff#uent hou#d a# o "e e5!#ored-

!4 correction i nece ar$ for the efficienc$ of u" e%uent treat&ent- (or coagu#ation "$ A#u&2 o!ti&u& !4 i B to A2 for coagu#ation ,ith (errou Su#!hate o!ti&u& !4 i A to A-0 and for "io#ogica# treat&ent o!ti&u& !4 range i = to A- Ie!ending u!on the !4 of ,a te 1ater2 do ing of &inera# acid or Li&e o#ution can "e &ade to get the de ired !4- A $ te&atic a!!roach >!o#ic$2

naItI2? to

hift a)erage !roduction to,ard c#ean techno#og$ hou#d "e fo##o,ed a !er the e%uence K

Avoid > Reduce > Reuse > Recycle > Biodegrade

Total (i11olved .olid1 3T(.5 1ater ha the !o,er to di o#)e &an$ inorganic a ,e## a o&e organic che&ica# - The di o#)ed organic che&ica# ha)e ato& of C2 42 O2 N etc in the&The$ can "e "urnt >ignited? ea i#$ and after getting ignited the$ con)ert into their o5ide - The e o5ide of C2 42 N & O are ga eou >)o#ati#e?- The di o#)ed organic che&ica# are therefore ca##ed )o#ati#e di o#)ed o#id -

The inorganic che&ica# that are di o#)ed in 1ater do not "urn co&!#ete#$2 "ut #ea)e "ehind a re idue >a h? of co&!ound ha)ing Na2 L2 Ca and other &eta##ic Page 55 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

ato& in the&- The e non+)o#ati#e di di o#)ed o#id o#)ed o#id are therefore ca##ed fi5ed

(eter0ination o/ di11olved 1olid1; particularl< o/ t!e /i7ed di11olved 1olid1; i1 u1e/ul in decidin8 t!e 0ineral 30etallic5 0atter content in +ater or te7tile :et4proce11in8 e//luent6 Centrifuge or fi#ter a uita"#e )o#u&e of the a&!#e through a g#a &icro+fi"re fi#ter !a!er- E)a!orate the fi#trate >or centrifugate? in a tared !orce#ain di h- >The !orce#ain di h hou#d ha)e "een !re+heated at .80;C and then to 008;C2 coo#ed and "rought to con tant ,eight?- Lee! the di h at .80;C for a"out . hour2 coo# and ,eigh- The increa e in the ,eight denote the tota# di o#)ed o#id contentE5!re the re u#t a M&gH tota# di o#)ed o#id !er #itre of a&!#e%i7ed (i1olved .olid1 Ignite the re idue o"tained fro& NTISO "$ *ee!ing it in a &uff#e furnace at 008;C for . hour- Coo# and ,eigh- E5!re the re u#t a M&gH fi5ed o#id !er #itre of a&!#e- The )a#ue re!re ent the inorganic &inera# &atter content of the eff#uent-

-olatile (i11olved .olid1 M&gJ#H )o#ati#e di o#)ed o#id P FM&gJ#H TISQ K FM&gJ#H fi5ed di o#)ed o#id Q

Page 56 of 66

TCPT

1n installed de-salination plant

*ea+ater Desa"ination p"ant +ith comp"ete pretreatment and fi"tration for a chemica" process industr#. 2. mgd 789 m/%hr: of pure +ater for boi"er and process.

"! 9ater obtained from natural sources such as Rivers, *eas, etc has many inorganic salts dissolved in it! &! *ome inorganic salts li(e Ca2%C/ )3&, Mg2%C/)3&, CaC/), MgC/), Ca*/,, Mg*/,, CaCl& R MgCl& are harmful! They cause boiler-scaling R corrosion of metallic parts if 9ater containing them, comes in contact $ith metals li(e in the parts of $et-processing machinery! )! 9ater $hich contains C.!. ppm of CaC/ ) in it, is called as %ard 9ater! 'n such 9ater, the above mentioned other D inorganic salts $ill also be present R so this 9ater is not good to be used in $etprocessing of te tiles! *o, this type of $ater is called %ard-9ater! ,! 9ater $hich does not contain the above mentioned inorganics salts 2also called hard salts3 is called *oft-9ater! 'mportantly, if the concentration of CaC/ ) in any 9ater-sample is less than C.!. ppm, even then it is not called %ard-9ater!

#oiler feed 9ater needs proper treatment because under certain conditions there is e cessive foaming in boilers! %igh al(alinity, high concentration of dissolved solids and certain impurities in 9ater cause such trouble! 'ndian *tandard *pecification <o! '* Q "0C:Q "E0: stipulates certain requirements for 9ater to be used in boilers!

Reco##en"e" Che#ical Co#position of Boiler 1ee" Water Page 57 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

2Ref Q '* Q "0C:-"E0:3 @o. "! Characteristic %ardness, CaC/) ppm Bpto <: 9g4c#D g #elo$ &. <: to 65 9g4c#D g #elo$ &.

&! )! ,! .!

1l(alinity, CaC/) ppm p% 5issolved / ygen <a&*/,;<a/% ratio

". to &:= of total dissolved solids C!. 1bove &!.

". to &:= of total dissolved solids C!. to E!: :!:& to :!" 1bove &!.

Calcium Carbonate, Calcium #icarbonate, Calcium Chloride, Calcium *ulphate, Magnesium *ulphate if present in great amount in 9ater is termed as hardness of 9ater! The hardness of 9ater is very damaging to machinery as it may cause boiler-scaling R reduce the action of soaps! *uch 9ater is called %ard 9ater! "! Temporary hardness of 9ater can be removed by boiling, filtering R adding Lime to 9ater! #ut permanently hard-$ater cannot be softened by the above-mentioned Lime-process 2i!e! by Clar(eNs process3! &! Permanent hardness of 9ater develops because of the presence of dissolved *alts li(e Calcium Chloride 2CaCl&3 R Magnesium Chloride 2MgCl&3! These *alts also cause boiler-scaling R are very harmful! )! To soften this permanent hardness of 9ater, Calcium %ydro ide 2Lime3 R *odium %ydro ide 2Caustic *oda3 are both required to be added along $ith *odium Carbonate 2*oda 1sh3! 1s a result, the *ulphates, Chlorides R #icarbonates of both Calcium R Magnesium, get removed due to filteration! a. Ca*/, 4 Calcium *odium*ulphate 2Permanent3 <a&C/) *odium Carbonate 2*oda 1sh3 CaC/) Calcium Carbonate 2Temporary3 4 <a&*/, *ulphate

b. MgCl& Magnesium Chloride 2Permanent3

Ca2/%3& Lime

Mg2/%3& Magnesium %ydro ide

CaCl& Calcium Chloride

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TCPT

c. CaCl& Permanent

<a&C/)

CaC/) Temporary

&<aCl

CaC/) R Ca2%C/)3& can be removed by Clar(eNs process of softening temporary hard $ater! They contribute to temporary 2not permanent3 hardness of $ater!

egree of har"ness
1ny 9ater-sample $hich has an C.!. ppm concentration of CaC/ ) in it, is called %ard-9ater! 'f the concentration is very much higher than C.!. ppm, then itNs hardness is said to be very high! *o, the actual degree of hardness of 9ater can be e plained as the number of ppm of CaC/ ) above C.!. ppm! e!g! 'f a 9ater-sample has a CaC/ ) concentration of ":: ppm! Then itNs degree of hardness can be calculated as 2":: @ C.!.3! i!e! ",!.ppm 1ny 9ater-sample $ith a high degree of hardness, $ill have a highly al(aline nature because CaC/ ) can react $ith 9ater to release 2/%3 - ions from it!

hydrolysis

CaC/)

&%&/

Ca2/%3&
*trong 1l(ali

%&C/)
9ea( 1cid

*uch a hard-$ater sample, $hich has a very high degree of hardness, $ill not only corrode metallic parts or scale boilers, but it $ill prevent lather-formation in %ard-9ater!

%ard 9ater is found on different locations depending upon @ CaC/ ), Ca2/%3&, MgC/), Mg2%C/)3&!

&Ca2C/)3

%&/ Ca2%C/)3& Page 59 of 66

%&C/)

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

&Ca2C/)3 4 &%&/ Ca2%C/)3& 4 Ca2/%3&

"! These *alts are present in the soil 2mud3 R interior of the earthNs surface! The follo$ing are the disadvantages of using %ard $ater! &! The hard salts present in %ard 9ater damages metallic parts of machines! This reduces the life of $etprocessing machinery!

%ard 9ater causes boiler-scaling! %ard 9ater reduces the lather-forming action of *oaps! Osing hard 9ater reduces the efficiency of te tile $et-processing R also increases the cost of $et- processing! %ard 9ater is formed $hen salts li(e Carbonates, #icarbonates, *ulphates R Chlorides of Calcium R Magnesium are dissolved in 9ater in e cessive amounts! Any Water sample having a Calcium Carbonate concentration o !"#" ppm is called Hard Water# 9ater flo$s belo$ the earthNs surface R $hen it comes into contact $ith roc(s li(e limestone $hich have Ca R Mg salts, then these salts dissolve in 9ater! *uch 9ater can develop Ca R Mg hardness in it! *team is the gas form of 9ater or % &/! 9ater changes from its liquid form to its gas form at "::FC in normal conditions of pressure! 'f this pressure does not increase or decrease, then the temperature of boiling-9ater does not rise above or fall belo$ "::FC even if heat is continuously provided to it! This heat is used by the liquid 9ater to convert itself into *team 29ater-7apour3!

Te tile $et-processing activities require large quantities of heat for different purposes li(e ageing, heat-setting, curing, dye-fi ation, scouring, bleaching etc! *team 29ater-7apour3 is the main provider of heat in $et-processing units! 'n some $et-processes, *team is required only to provide an environment of 9ater-7apours around the yarn or fabric!

*team is produced in equipment called as boilers, by burning either Coal, /il or <atural Bas to heat liquid 9ater and convert it into transportable *team! a. There are ) types of *team @

Page 60 of 66

TCPT r% saturate" Stea#

Wet Stea# Super(heate" Stea#

Contains no liquid 9ater droplets and its temperature is never more than the boiling point of 9ater at the corresponding *team pressure!

Contains liquid 9ater droplets!

9hen dry saturated *team is further heated by preventing its pressure from increasing, then the *team-temperature increases above the boiling point of the *team-pressure and so it stores the most heat as compared to the other t$o types of *team!

b. Stea# is ver% useful because @ 't has a very high %eat content 't transfers its %eat $ithout affecting its temperature 't is produced from 9ater $hich is cheap and plentiful 'ts %eat can be re-used! 'n a $et-processing unit, *team is generally produced at one place in the boiler-plant, and it is then distributed to various *team-consuming machines! The average appro imate *team-consumption patterns of important $et-processing machines is given belo$ @

@a#e of the #achine Cone ; Cheese dyeing

Cylinder drying 2&: cylinders, :!.D m dia3 *tenter Ziggers 2about ":3 *creen printing tables

Stea# consu#ption &9g4hr' ":: to ).:

Stea#(pressure &9g4c#D g' "!: to D!: :!E to &!.

C:: to "&:: "!: to ")!: "!: to 0!: .:: to ".:: C: to &:: C: to &:: )!:

The fuel bill of a $et-processing unit is generally found to be around ,= of the units total e penditure and this represents a very huge amount of money every year! Certain machines li(e stenters and dryers account for such a high amount of *team, that it 2*team3 accounts for nearly ,:= of the $etprocessing cost! Therefore %eat and its provider, i!e *team, must be conserved and used very efficiently in a $et-processing cost! Page 61 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

"! The presence of #icarbonates R Carbonates of Calcium 2Ca3 R Magnesium 2Mg3 in 9ater, ma(es the 9ater very harmful for use in $et-processing operations li(e *couring, #leaching, Mercerising, 5yeing etc! &! *o these *alts vi+ CaC/), Ca2/%)3&, MgC/), Mg2%C/)3& i!e! Calcium Calcium #icarbonate, Magnesium Carbonate R Magnesium #icarbonate3 must be removed or their concentration must be reduced in 9ater, before using it in any processing operation!

/ther$ise, these salts $ill cause the boilers to scale R rust! This is harmful to machinery! *uch $ater is called Temporarily %ard 9ater! )1!5issolved Calcium Carbonate forms Calcium #icarbonate in 9ater in the presence of Carbon 5io ide R 9ater as sho$n belo$ @
5issolved

i! CaC/)
Calcium Carbonate 2dissolved3

% &/
9ater

C/&
Carbon 5io ide

Ca2%C/)3&
Calcium #icarbonate

/nly the temporary hardness of 9ater can be removed by boiling part of the solution in a flas( $hen Carbon 5io ide is evolved R a 9hite precipitate of Calcium Carbonate is formed! #oiling removes only that portion of dissolved Calcium Carbonate $hich is present in the dissolved condition as Calcium #iacarbonate!
boil

ii! Ca2%C/)3&
Calcium #icarbonate 2from 5issolved Calcium Carbonate3

CaC/)
Calcium Carbonate Precipitate

C/&

%&/

The resulting solution is filtered $hen the precipitate of Calcium Carbonate get removed!

)#! Calcium #icarbonate, e cluding that $hich is formed from dissolved Calcium Carbonate as sho$n in reaction 2'3 above, can also be removed by adding an equal amount of Calcium %ydro ide 2i!e! Lime3 to the above filtered 9ater, $hen Calcium Carbonate is precipitated! Page 62 of 66

TCPT

iii! Ca2%C/)3& Calcium #icarbonate

4 Ca2/%3& &CaC/) 2Lime3 Calcium %ydro ide 2Precipitate3 Calcium Carbonate

&%&/

This is called Clar(eNs process of softening temporarily hard 9ater! 'mportantly, boiling cannot remove the Calcium #icarbonate, Magnesium Carbonate R Magnesium #icarbonate hardness! These three *alts can be removed by adding suitable amount of Lime to the temporarily hard $ater Gust as sho$n in reaction 2iii3 above, $hen the follo$ing reactions ta(e place @

iv! MgC/)

Ca2/%3&

Mg2/%3& Precipitate

CaC/) 25issolved3

v! Mg2%C/)3& Magnesium #icarbonate

4 &Ca2/%3& Lime

Mg2/%3& 4 Magnesium %ydro ide 2Precipitate3

&CaC/)

4 &%&/ 9ater

25issolved3

vi! Mg2%C/)3&

4 ,<a2/%3 Mg2/%3& 4 *oda

&<a&C/)

4 &%&/

The dissolved CaC/) converts into Ca2%C/)3& by reaction 2i3 sho$n above! 't can be removed by boiling, as sho$n in reaction 2ii3 above!

Thus, reactions 2i3 to 2v3 represent the important steps of softening temporarily hard-$ater by the Clar(eNs process! The Lime-*oda process of softening 9ater is represented in reaction 2ii3, 2v3 R 2vi3 above! *oda is also called *odium %ydro ide or Caustic *oda! Page 63 of 66

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

<.

Keolites Q aeolite is a term used to describe a radical having the follo$ing group of atoms in it @

1l&*i&/D

or

1l&%,*i)/"&

They are also denoted as ae > 1l&*i&/D! YaeN symbolises the +eolite radical! [</TE Q 1 radical is a group of atoms $hich can e ist only $hen bonded to other atoms! e!g! @C% ), the Methyl radical\

The Ca R Mg salts in 9ater react $ith <a&1l&*i&/D as Q-

Ca2%C/)3& %ard *alt

<a&ae

Caae

&<a%C/)

*odium Calcium aeolite 2i!e! <a&1l&*i&/D3

*oft *alt aeolite

Mg*/, %ard *alt

<a&ae

Mgae

<a&*/, *odium *ulphate 2*oft *alt3

Magnesium aeolite 2*oft *alt3

Thus, Ca R Mg salts can be removed as sho$n above, because these salts react $ith *odium aeolite to form precipitates of Calcium aeolite R Magnesium aeolite respectively! These precipitates can be filtered R so the 9ater becomes soft!

&! So"iu# 5etaphosphate Q Page 64 of 66

TCPT
This salt can also be used to soften the Ca R Mg hardness in hard-9ater!

<a&[<a,2P/)30\ 4 Ca*/, *odium Metaphosphate %ard

<a&[<a&Ca2P/)30\ *odium Calcium Metaphosphate

<a&*/,

The *odium Calcium Metaphosphate formed, is a precipitate R it can be removed by filteration! This softens the Ca 2R Mg3 hardness from hard 9ater! /ther softening reactions $ith Mg R Ca salt li(e *ulphates, Carbonates R #icarbonates can be $ritten, Gust li(e the above reaction! "! 1 soap can be defined as the *odium or Potassium *alt of a long-chain Carbo ylic 1cid!

e!g! C"D%).C//% is called *tearic acid! C"D%).C//<a is called *odium *tearate, it is the *odium *alt of *tearic acid! *tearic acid is an e ample of a long 2"D-Carbons3 chain Carbo ylic 1cid! Thus, *odium *tearate is called a soap! 't gives lather $hen added to 9ater R stirred 2sha(ing3! &! %o$ever, if $ashing 2or bathing3 soaps as sho$n above, are used to $ash clothes or to bathe, by using hard 9ater, then the Ca R Mg salts of the hard 9ater react $ith the *oap R form Ca R Mg salt of the long-chain Carbo ylic acid! i!e! 2C"D%).C//3&Ca or 2C"D%).C//3&Mg

)! These Ca or Mg salts do not have a good lather forming property R they are useless as soaps! *o, hard 9ater destroys the lather-forming property of soaps! ,! The soaps can be protected from the Ca R Mg hardness of hard 9ater by adding certain Metallic Phosphates to hard 9ater before using the hard 9ater $ith *oap!

<a&[<a,2P/)30\ 4 Ca*/, <a&[<a&Ca2P/)30\ 4 <a&*/, *odium Metaphosphate <a&[<a,2P/)30\ 4 Mg*/, <a&[<a&Mg2P/)30\ 4 <a&*/, 2%ardness3 2<ot hard3 Page 65 of 66 2<ot hard3 2%ardness3 2<ot hard3 2<ot hard3

TESTING & QUALITY CONTROL

The hard salts are converted into different Ca R Mg salts $hich cannot react $ith soaps, so soaps get protected! This method of trapping Ca, Mg or any other metallic ion by *odium Metaphosphate is called sequestering of the metallic ion! *odium Metaphosphate represents a sequestering agent! /ther sequestering agents are E5T1, *odium Polyphosphate etc! .! %o$ever, if $ashing 2or bathing3 soaps as sho$n above are used to $ash clothes or to bathe, by using hard 9ater, then the Ca R Mg salts of the hard 9ater react $ith the *oap R form Ca R Mg salt of the long-chain Carbo ylic acid! i!e! 2C"D%).C//3&Ca or 2C"D%).C//3&Mg

1ll these are sequestering agents used in 9ater-softening processes! "! &! )! ,! .! <a&*i/)!.%&/ 2*odium Meta *ilicate3 1l&2P/)30 21luminium Phosphate3 <a&2P/)3& 2*odium Phosphate3 Cu&2P/)3, 2Copper Phosphate3 Phosphates are present in detergents as builders, for $ater softening! TTT

Page 66 of 66