Single Crystals 7 crystal systems 32 point groups 230 space groups Single Crystal Systems 7 types Cubic: a=b=c

a=b=c (side length) & = ! = " = #0$ o Si% &e% &a's Tetragonal: a=b(c & = ! = " = #0$ Triclinic: has lease amount o) symmetry present in its structure *nit Cell+ the most con,enient small cell in a crystal structure that carries all the characteristics o) the crystal -epetition o) the until cell in 3+. guarantees the /hole crystal structure 'toms;unit cell .istance bet/een atom centers 4 a Simple Cubic (4* corners) 2 3 a <ody Centered Cubic (bcc) (4* corners + 1 center) 2 0 2 a =ace Centered Cubic ()cc) (4* corners + 6* !aces 2 + 1 center) > .iamond 3 a ("* 1#" corners + 6* (&e & Si) 0 !aces + 4 $%ole center)

Silicon and Germanium 0 electrons in outermost shell (column 0) 1oint group symmetry is 0 3m % /here m is the mirror plane 2n a single crystal% each atom has 0 nearest neighbor atoms Crystalline solids )ormed by co,alent bonding 1rototype crystal structure is diamond 2ndirect transition semiconductors 34 4 45 direction )or 3 )old a6is o) symmetry (4 4 0) plane o) mirror symmetry &e /as originally used in commercial semiconductors because it had a lo/er melting point than Si Si has completely supplanted &e in consumer semiconductors: 47 Si is more abundant cheaper 27 Si has /ider band gap Si de,ices can operate at a /ider temperature range 37 Si82 is an e6cellent electrical insulator Vector Operations 9ectors parallel i) cross product =0 9ectors perpendicular i) dot product = 0 'ngle bet/een ,ectors- A B = A : B cos /here

A =

x + y +z

?o )ind ,ector perpendicular to ' and <+ )ind cross product o) ' and < Finding Miller Indices 47 @rite ,ertices 27 ?aAe reciprocal o) each 37 Bultiply each by CC. and reduce 07 Dnclose in parenthesis% separate by space 2) negati,e% put bar o,er number Specifying planes and directions (E E E) = plane 3E E E5 = direction ,ector FE E EG = )amily o) eHui,alent planes IE E EJ = )amily o) eHui,alent ,ectors

Mechanical Properties of Materials Stress+ )orce per unit area (K;m2) Strain+ relati,e de)ormation (dimensionless) 2sotropic solid materials ha,e only 2 independent elastic constants 2ndirect transition semiconductors Si and &e .irect transition semiconductors+ use)ul )or maAing CD. Compound semiconductors &a's and 2n1 ?he )reHuency% ,% o) the photons radiated is related to the band gap separation by the eHuation & g = % de<roglie DHuation+ relationship bet/een a particles momentum (p) and /a,elength (L) p=h;L Growth of Semiconductor Materials ' seed crystal is used to control the orientation o) gro/ing crystal in the length direction <oule+ large synthetically gro/n single crystal /ith no natural )aces 47 MoriNontal <ridgman Bethod+ crystal is gro/n /hile in contact /ith a crucible Ko longer used because o) impurities caused by contact 27 CNochralsAi Bethod (CO) + single crystal is slo/ly pulled out o) a molten mi6ture BaAes a high purity boule @idely used )or gro/ing large single crystals that are doped 37 =loating Oone Bethod (=O)+ an ingot o) polycrystalline Si is placed inside a )urnace /ith induction heating coil passed up thru ingot length Con,erts ingot into high purity single crystal boule Si Processing Technology 47 =orm a boule or ingot by 4 o) the 3 methods 27 .etermine orientation 34405% 34005 or 34445 and grind diameter )lat *se 6+ray analysis BaPor )ace is usually (400) or (444) (440) )ace is usually the single;maPor )lat used )or clea,age 37 Slice;/a)er to 2Q0+R2Q Sm 07 1olish 4 side Q7 Cut /a)er into chips -ecently% small ,+shaped notch has replaced orientation )lat in order to increase yield o Cine )rom notch thru center is in the 34405 direction ?he con)iguration o) 4 or 2 )lats re,els: 47 Conducti,ity type (n or p+type) 27 8rientation o) the /a)er relati,e to the crystal a6es Theoretical Density

4 ( lattice 'arameter % a ) 3 27 E o) atoms;cm3= (E o) unit cells;cm3):(atoms in 4 unit cell) > atoms;unit cell )or &e and Si
47 E o) unit cells;cm3=

37 E o) electrons;cm3=(E o) atoms;cm3): atomic number 07

E atoms ; cm 3 ?heoretical density = : mass % A(aga)roT s E

*nits+ g#cm,

Drift and Diffusion E uations . e ( x) = e : n( x) : e & x + e-e 3 )n( x) ; )x5 o Ue (6): current density due to electrons in conduction band o n(6): concentration o) electrons in conduction band o Se: mobility coe))icient o) conduction band electrons o .e: di))usion coe))icient )or electrons in conduction band Doping! in an intrinsic semiconductor material% electrons )rom the top o) the ,alence band are e6cited into the bottom o) the conduction by thermal energy ++ lea,es crystal /ith a zero electrostatic c%arge ni: the concentration o) electrons in the conduction band o) an undoped% de)ect+)ree single crystal n: the concentration o) electrons in the conduction band p: the concentration o) holes in the ,alence band K.: the concentration o) donor atoms K': the concentration o) acceptor atoms 'cceptors+ atoms in column 3 o) periodic table (<% 'l% &a% 2n) o p=K' o Causes crystal to become p+type & =ermi le,el mo,es closer to ,alence band .onors+ atoms in column Q o) periodic table (1% 'S% Sb) o n=K. o Causes crystal to become n+type & =ermi le,el mo,es closer to conduction band 2 ni =np .opant concentration = K'VK. Dlectrical conducti,ity+ = e(n e + ' % ) = 4 ; o W: electrical conducti,ity (X:cm)+4 o Se: mobility coe))icient o) conduction band electrons (cm 2;9:sec) o Sh: mobility coe))icient o) ,alence band holes (cm 2;9:sec) /x / e = x o % = &x &x -esistance+ 4 l l 0 = : = : A A % /here l = length and ' is cross sectional area o .egenerate n+type semiconductors+ a semiconductor that has been hea,ily doped /ith donor atoms K.=404#+4020 -e 1T = Einstein "elationship+ e e o .e: di))usion coe))icient )or conduction band electrons o Se: mobility coe))icient o) conduction band electrons o A: <oltNmanYs constant o ?: absolute temperature in Zel,in Fermi #e$el + EF =ermi+.irac distribution )(D)+ indicates the probability that an electron le,el at energy D is occupied Ba6 ,alue =4% Bin ,alue =0 4+ )(D) indicates the probability that an electron le,el at energy D is empty =or a semiconductor at ?J0% )(D=)= [

Four %uantum &um'ers (ssociated with Electrons )irst 3 deri,ed )rom Schr\dinger @a,e DHuation 47 n = principle Huantum number n=4% 2% 3%] 27 = orbital angular momentum Huantum number =0% 4% 2% 3%]% (n+4) 37 m = magnetic Huantum number m = 0% ^4% ^2%] ^ _ (2 V4 ,alues) 07 m s = spin magnetic Huantum number

ms = 4

Dlectron ,olt+ the Ainetic energy acHuired by an electron /hen it )alls thru a potential di))erence o) 4 9 Alternati(e )e!inition+ the amount o) /orA done in mo,ing an electron thru a potential di))erence o) 4 ,olt (/orA done against the )ield 1auli D6clusion 1rinciple+ in an interacting system /ith 2 or more electrons% no 2 electrons may ha,e the same set o) Huantum numbers Epita)ial layer+ a thin single crystal layer gro/n on single crystal structure substrate in a /ay that allo/s the directional properties o) the substrate to continue into the layer 3 methods to )orm epita6ial layer 47 CiHuid 1hase Dpita6y (C1D) 27 9apor 1hase Dpita6y (91D) lo/ cost and used in mass production 37 Bolecular <eam Dpita6y (B<D) e6pensi,e but occasionally used *sually% but not al/ays% the substrate and layer are o) same material Silicon on Sapphire (S8S)+ an epita6ial layer o) silicon is gro/n on substrate o) sapphire ('l 283) A)(antages+ 07 'l283 is a ,ery high resisti,ity insulator (good in military and space communication systems b;c it pro,ides radiation hardening) a7 'l283 has a dielectric constant 36 lo/er than Si /hich reduces the e))ects o) stray capacitance (used in high speed logic gates) "andom Facts &a's o > atoms per unit cell (0 &a% 0 's) o 1rototype crystal structure )or &a's is Ninc blende o Mas the lo/est ,alue o) e))ecti,e mass )or electrons in conduction band =or intrinsic Si% the =ermi le,el is located at the middle o) the energy gap @hen Si is hea,ily doped /ith donor atoms% becomes a n+type% degenerate semiconductor D+)ield arro/s o n-type- points )rom areas o) high electron density to lo/ o p-type+ points lo/ to high K?. Si: Keutron ?rans)ormed .oped Silicon o Keutrons are used to con,ert some Si atoms to 1 atoms and the Si material become n+type o 'llo/s )or uni)ormity o) resisti,ity across a /a)er (uni)orm doping) '+Si:M: Mydrogenated 'morphous Si 2n electron energy le,el diagrams% electron energy D is plotted as a )unction o) electron /a,e number% A o Mere% e))ecti,e mass o) an electron at a point along the edge o) the conduction band is in$ersely proportional to cur$ature

Silicon+ elemental crystal material semiconductor Silicone+ polymer o) Silicon used in implants D6: 1olydimethyl silicone (1.BS) Silica= o6ygenated )orm o) silicon+ glassy liAe D6: )use HuartN Silicosis+ disease o) lungs caused by inhaling stone dust Silicane+ gaseous )orm o) silicon (CM0) to6ic and used in processing integrated circuits <ohrYs Bodel o) the 'tom 47 Dlectrons ha,e stable orbits around the nucleus 27 Dlectrons radiate /hen they passes )rom a higher orbit to a lo/er orbit and absorbs /hen they maAe transition )rom lo/er to higher 37 'ngular momentum is HuantitiNed Schrodinger @a,e DHuation 47 <eha,ior o) a particle in a system is described by a /a,e eHuation `(6%y%N%t) 27 1hysical Huantities are related to Huantum mechanic operators 6_6 p(6) _ (a;P) d;d6 )(6) _)(L) D_(D;P) d;dt 37 ?he probability o) )ind a particle in a ,olume d6dydN is ` `:d6dy Dnergy+ momentum HuantitiNed (h) @a,e+ particle duality ?unneling+ e6ists /hen the probability o) )ind a particle o) energy% D% in a region /here DI9o (potential barrier) is non+Nero