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SEMICONDUCTOR DEVICE TRAINER SYSTEM

The basic idea in developing the semiconductor/bread board trainer system is to facilitate the user to connect, test and modify the design to meet the required specifications. The trainer system is combination of several electronic instruments that are used to perform various electronic functions individually. The trainer consists of the following equipment: (a) D voltage source ! to "#$, (b)% voltage source "#$ & ! & "#$, (c)Digital dual range D ammeter ! & '!m%/'!!%, (d)Digital D voltmeter ! & '!$, (e)(read board and (f) )* & )++ switch. This system may be used for conducting several e,periments and owing to its fle,ibility in connecting circuits, necessary modifications may be made to improve the performance, which leads better circuit design. The following e,periments may be performed using this system. (") -* .unction" diode characteristics, (')/ener diode characteristics, (0) 1ight 2mitting Diode (12D)characteristics, (3)4alf 5ave rectifier without and with filter, (#)+ull 5ave rectifier without and with filter, (6) ommon (ase transistor characteristics, (7) ommon 2mitter transistor characteristics, (8) ommon ollector transistor characteristics, (9)Determination of h&parameters for (, 2 and transistor configurations, ("!)+2T characteristics, (ll):;T characteristics, ("')$erification of <irchhoff s laws, ("0)$erification of superposition theorem, ("3)$erification of =a,imum power transfer theorem, ("#)$erification of Thevenin>s and *orton>s theorems and ("6)Two port networ? parameters. The front panel details of the trainer system are depicted in the figure shown below

(a) DC power supply: The dc power supply is designed to provide constant voltage against the variations in the load current and supply voltage. This is required to feed the input voltage to the circuits under test. This provides D voltages in the range from ! to @/& "# $. The magnitude of the dc voltage may be ad.usted to the required value by gradually rotating the ?nob in the cloc?wise direction.

"

The step by step assembly of this regulated power supply starts with a step down transformer. The available ac mains voltage at '0!$, #!4A is fed to the primary side of the step down transformer which reduces and transforms it to the secondary side without altering the frequency. The reduced ac voltage present at the secondary of the transformer is fed to a rectifier arrangement, which converts ac in pulsating dc waveform. The rectifier output is a combination of ac and dc voltages. Bn order to reduce the ac component present at the output of the rectifier, it is allowed to pass through a filter circuit that reduces the ac component to larger amount. The output is now a dc voltage. To ma?e it stable against the variations in supply voltage as well as load current, this dc voltage is applied to a regulator capable of maintaining stable voltages.
(b)AC

source:
AC
Etep& down Trans +ormer Fectifier

+ilter

Fegulator

Regulate DC

This source uses a step&down transformer to produce ac voltages of required amplitude. The available ac mains voltage of '0!$ at #!4A is applied at the primary side of the transformer. (ased on the ratings, the step&down transformer reduces the input and transforms to the secondary side without altering frequency of the input voltage. % center&tapped transformer is connected in the trainer systemC mat can provide two different ac voltages of same amplitude with a phase difference of "8!D. 4owever, by using one set of soc?ets labeled !$ and "#$ we can get a single ac waveform the current that can be applied to the circuit using this source depends on the current rating of the transformer used. c) DC a!!eter: The trainer system is equipped with a dual range digital ammeter whose function is to measure the currents at various points of the circuit under test. (y selecting the switch position, the meter may be used to measure the current lies in the ! to '!m% and ! to '!!u% ranges. The ammeter shall be connected in series with the branch of the circuit under measurement. *ever connect the ammeter across the branches of the networ? under test which damages the meter. The magnitude of the current through the branch may be observed on the display provided which utiliAes seven segment displays. 2ach of this seven segment display units contains seven 12Ds arranged to display numbers from ! to 9. ) DC "olt!eter: The voltmeter is necessary to measure the magnitude of the voltages at the different of the circuit under test. The voltages ranging from ! to '!$ may be measured with the digital dc voltmeter present on the trainer system. To measure the magnitude of the voltages, the meter has to be connected across the branch of the networ? under test *ever connect the voltmeter in series. The quantity under measurement may be observed on the display whose function is similar to that e,plained for D ammeter. '

e) #rea $oar : The breadboard available on the trainer system is very convenient for constructing any electronic circuit with greater fle,ibility and high reliability. Bt has three distinctive strips: the top, the bottom and middle. The top and bottom strips are small compared to the middle strip. The top and bottom strips have small soc?ets in two rows each. 2ach row has #! soc?ets out of which '# soc?ets each are connected together inside the breadboard. Thus, the top strip contains "!! small soc?ets connected as 3 electrically separated groups. Eimilarly the bottom strip contains four groups. The middle strip construction is different. Bt has a groove at the center. Bt has "!. rows and 6# columns. 2ach column is insulated from the ne,t. 4owever in each column the five rows on either side of the groove are connected together inside the breadboard. The distance between rows and columns are made in such a way that integrated circuits may be inserted in the soc?ets. omponents such as resistors, transistors, diodes, capacitors, wires and integrated circuits can be inserted, removed and used again. Therefore breadboards are useful for ma?ing any general electronic circuit connections, for testing their properties, and to modify the design aspects to meet the specifications if necessary by the designer. Bt is advised to hive single&strand solid&core wires for ma?ing connection. Bt is impossible to push multi&strand wire into the soc?et. Gou have to strip the insulation from both ends of the wire .ust sufficient to insert in the soc?et. % longer end of the wire will bend and it will not ma?e proper connection. Bt is better to have potentiometers and switches with wires soldered to them to use with the breadboard. %t the beginning of the academic session your instructor will 2,plain and demonstrate the construction of electronic circuits using components li?e resistors diodes, capacitors and integrated >circuits (l s) using breadboard in the laboratory. (f) )*&)++ switch: )*&)++ switch is provided at the top right corner of the trainer system to change the ammeter range from '! m% to '!! u%. The general layout of the trainer is shown below:

CAT%ODE RAY OSCI&&OSCO'E


athode&ray oscilloscope is an electronic measuring instrument for visually displaying Bnstantaneous values of rapidly varying electrical quantities on a fluorescent screen. , 5aveforms of voltage and current may be studied with cathode&ray oscilloscope ( F)). Bt is used for measuring amplitude, frequency, and phase angle and for observing the shape of the given signal.
Bt consists of cathode&ray tube ( FT), amplifiers (for , and y deflecting voltage), a generator for the sweep& voltage wave form and power supplies for all of its circuits.

()g I Sc*e!at)c )agra! o+ CRT

The wor?ing parts of a cathode ray tube are shown in the figure ". They are: a filament, a cathode, controls grid, accelerating anodes, two pairs of deflecting plates and a fluorescent screen. The fluorescent screen glows when electrons stri?e it. The filament is used for heating the cathode. The cathode wor?s as a source of electrons. The grid is used to control the beam of electrons emitted from the cathodes. 4ence the voltage applied to the grid permits ad.ustments of spot intensity on the screen. The electron beam then passes through the anodes. The electron beam is accurately brought to focus as a small spot on the screen by varying the voltage applied to the anodes. The beam&forming assembly (cathode, grid and anode) is ?nown as the electron gun. %fter the electrons stri?e the screen they return to the cathode through a circuit printed inside the FT. %fter leaving the gun the beam passes through ,&deflecting plates and G&deflecting plates. The ,&deflecting plates will be arranged perpendicular to G&deflecting plates. %n electrostatic field in the H&deflecting or in the G&deflecting plates or in both can be created by applying a potential to the plates. Thus it is possible to control the position of the beam spot on the screen horiAontally or vertically. )ne plate of ,&deflecting plateIs pair and one plate of G&deflecting plates pair are grounded for convenience. The voltage one wishes to observe is connected to the G&input and ground. %fter it is amplified by the G&amplifier the signal is given to the G&plates. Therefore this voltage ma?es the spot move up or moves down depending on the polarity. %ny voltage given to the ,&input ma?es the spot move to the left or to the right.
5hen no voltage is applied to either pair of deflecting plates, a single spot is seen on the screen. Bf the vertical plates (G&deflecting plates) receive a.c voltages the spot traces a straight

line up and down on the screen, Bf the voltage is increased the height of the line increases. Fapid changes in this voltage cannot be seen unless the bright spot Bs moved from left to right at the same time. % sweep circuit inside the scope produces this sidewise movement. The wave shape of sweep voltage is sawtooth. This voltage ma?es one of the H&plates more positive so that die spot moves from left to right at a constant rate. 5hen the spot reaches the right hand side of the screen it returns very quic?ly to the left to ma?e another left to right movement sweep. This return trace is made invisible (blan?ed) by a circuit, which applies negative voltage to the grid of the FT. The height of the display of the applied voltage is ad.usted by using G&amplitude control. The width of the display of the applied voltage (the number cycles) is ad.usted, by the H&amplitude control. =odern cathode ray scopes are all calibrated and there is an in built loc?ing system between sweep frequency and applied voltage. Bf there Bs my slight movement of the waveform it can be made to hold by ad.usting the vernier. 4owever, measurement is not possible if the vernier is varied from the calibrated position. % dual trace "#=4A 'mv/cm sensitivity oscilloscope is shown in the figure '. The following are the front panel ?nob controls. Off/Intensity: This has two functions: (") to switch&on the scope or to switch&off the scope. (') to control the brightness of the trace.
-ower indication 12D. & glows when the
F)

is )*

Focus: This controls the sharpness of the trace. 4owever, sharpness also depends on intensity. Trace rotation: This is a one&time trace alignment. There will not be any need for you to change. Vertical deflection: (a) -osition: (y turning this control the trace can be shifted up or down. (b)Trace on/offC in the off position no trace is displayed.
(c)%mplitude/division J the range of voltage to be measured can be selected with ?nob from 'mv/div up to "! v/div
% /D Bn the ac position tile input signal is coupled via a bloc?ing capacitor and dc component is bloc?ed. Bn the dc position signal is directly coupled.

! positions: Bn this position the input signal is disconnected, %mplifier input is grounded. Bnputs. & There are two inputs % and (. Two traces can be simultaneously displayed.

Horizontal deflection: H position: (y turning this control the trace can be shifted to left or right. 1evel: This control is used for ad.usting the point at which the signal is derived. The normal position is its
center.

us/ms : This mode switch is used for selecting micro seconds or milli seconds on time/div switch. ,i/,s. This switch allows magnification of horiAontal deflection by a factor of E, the normal position is HB Time/div. & Bt selects the time coefficient from !.# s/div to '!!ms/div. al: ontinuously variable control of the time coefficients. =ust be in al position only, otherwise your

readings are inaccurate.

%/(: Triggering is effected on the signal derived from channel % or ( depending on switch position

@/&: (y selecting the switch there will be "8!D phase shift. *ormal position is @.
B*T/2HT. Trigger can be derived from %/( channel or from signal connected to 2HT (* connector. *)F=/T$: Bn the normal mode dc component of the trigger signal is bloc?ed.. Bn the T$ mode line or T$ frame synchroniAation is obtained.

()g ,- Dual trace Osc)lloscope

)scilloscope we use in our laboratory has the front panel details as shown below. +or more details on this particular drawing, refer to the operation manual available in your laboratory.

(UNCTION .ENERATOR +unction ge/erator )s re0u)re +or test)/g electro/)c circuits for their frequency respo/se1 tra/s)e/t respo/se etc- T*)s ge/erator pro uces s)/uso) al wave form or s0uare wa"e+or! or tr)a/gular wa"e+or!- T*e "oltage !ay $e "ar)e +ro! a few milli volts to # " pea23to3pea2- (re0ue/cy !ay also 6

4A,a<4A, indicator. counting unit. )!pe a/ce o+ t*)s ge/erator )s 50 o*!s$e "ar)e "!. o"er w) e=4A ra/ge +ro! "The 4A frequency to "." =4A The output T*ere are t*ree !ore output ter!)/als "0. 2,ternal counter input (* . mar?ed square, tr)a/gular a/ s)/e wa"e+or!s w*ose output )!pe a/ce )s 455 o*!s- To operate the function ge/erator o/e *as to 2/ow a$out t*e 2/o$s o/ t*e +ro/t pa/el- ()gure shows the front panel controls o+ a +u/ct)o/ ge/erator

FIG 1. FRONT PANEL OPERATOR'S CONTROLS

The following is the escr)pt)o/

)f the control 2/o$s: D)splays )/ter/al or e,ternal frequency. : -ush )/: E6ter/al frequency counter : -ush out: I/ter/al +unction Kenerator> frequency counter. : (re0ue/cy ra/ge selector. : Eelects S)/e wa"e1 Triangle wave or Equare wave output- : : Selects output le"el $y 3 '!d(. : #! or 6!!. : 5hen t*e l)g*t o/1 set to )/crease t*e +re0ue/cy ra/ge : Bn or er to select t*e ra/ge !.!'4A to '4A +unction be operate $y pa/el scale-

". .ree/ &ED D)splay '. Bnternal/2,ternal sw)tc* 0. Fange Sw)tc*es 3. +unction sw)tc*es #. %ttenuator 6. )utput I!pe a/ce selector 7. )verflow )/ )cator
sw)tc*e -

8. +requency )al
Kenerator *as to 9. Kate t)!e )/ )cator-

"3. Eweep rate control sweep rate of "#. Eweep width control "6.$ + B* or applying "7. Eymmetry control push/pull switch "8. TT1/ =)E output '!. D offset control '". =ain output (*

: )n & off switch for internal sweep generator. %d.usts Bnternal sweep generator. %d.ust magnitude of sweep. : $oltage controlled frequency input permits e,ternal sweep +requency control sweep rate control should be off when e,ternal voltage at this (* . %d.ust symmetry of output wade from ":" to 3:" with on. : Eelects TT1 or =)E mode. : %dds positive or negative D component to output signal. : Bmpedance #! )hm. %d.usts output level from ! to &'!d(.

''. %mplitude control % general description of a function generator isto given here. The function generator front : -ull out ad.ust tilt. -anel controls slightly differs depending upon the ma?e. +or more details abut the function '0 .Tilt stand : =a?es the instrument )n or )ff. generator one has to consult manufacturer>s manual of thatturn particular instrument. onsult '3. -ower your instructor forswitch its operation if you are using it for the first time.

D)g)tal Mult)!eter

The purpose of digital multimeter

(DMM) is to measure voltage, current, resistance and capacitance. 5ith this instrument dc quantities as well as ac quantities may be measured. D== is also used to perform logic measurements, frequency measurements, diode tests and transistor gain measurements. This instrument is small and easy to carry, it wor?s on 9&volt battery. Bt consists of a LCD display, a mode switch, DC/AC switch, and four soc?ets. The blac? test lead will be inserted in the soc?et mar?ed COM. Depending which measurement is made the red lead is put either in the soc?et mar?ed v n, =% or "!%. The detailed diagram of a digital multimeter is depicted below.

The measurement procedure of various electrical parameters and determination of component values are e,plained below. To measure dc voltage for instance the mode selection ?nob is turned so that it goes to the position mar?ed v. % /D switch is selected to D position. The red lead is inserted in the soc?et mar?ed Lvrr now the meter is ready to wor? as a dc voltmeter. +or dc, a (&) sign is displayed& for negative polarityC positive polarity is implied. The ranges of voltages measured are from '!!mv to 455V with an accuracy of M"N. The in/out impedance of the meter is around "! mega ohms. +or ordinary meters the input impedance will be in the range of ?ilo ohms. The range selection is automatic. =easurement of ac voltages is similar e,cept that % /D switch is selected to % position.
+or measuring dc current the mode selector switch is put in desired current range and D /% selector switch is put in D and the red lead is inserted in m% soc?et for current measurements less than '!!m% and the blac? test lead is inserted in )= .ac?. +or current measurements of '!!m% or greater,

onnect the red lead to the "!% .ac? and the blac? lead to the )= .ac?. Gou should never measure voltages in this mode. 9

+or measuring resistance the D /% switch is selected to D position, the mode switch is selected to desired resistance range or continuity position. The red lead is inserted in the $fi soc?et. Touch the probe to the test points by removing the power from the equipment under test. The value of the resistance at the test points will be displayed on the display. Bn continuity mode, the beeper sounds continuously, if the resistance is less than "!!O. +or measuring frequency, set range switch to the <4A position. onnect the red lead to the $O .ac? and the blac? lead to the )= .ac?. (y connecting the test leads to the point of measurement the frequency will automatically be displayed. +or testing a diode, connect red lead to $O position and the blac? to )=. Eet the range switch to the L L position. (y turning off the power to the circuit under test, touch the probes to the diode. % forward voltage drop is about !.6$ (for Ei diode) will be displayed. +or measuring transistor gain, set the range switch to the desired h+2 range depending on type of the transistor -*- or *-*. Bnsert the transistor directly in to the h+2 soc?et by properly identifying 2, ( and terminals. Gou may read the h+2 directly from display.
+or measuring the value of capacitance, set the range switch to the desired P range and insert the un?nown capacitor directly in the , soc?ets. The value of the capacitance may be read directly from the display.

RESISTORS "!

Bn electronic circuits resistances of wide range of values are used. The large variety of types and forms of discrete resistors are available in your laboratory. Fesistors may be classified as being fi,ed or variable in their value. $ariable resistors are commonly refered to as potentiometers or pots. The carbon composition resistors are most widely used in discrete circuits. These resistors are available with resistance values from " ohm to "!!= ohms and typical power ratings of 1/8 w to '5. Their ohmic value will not appreciably change with the rise in temperature and their cost is low. 1oo? at the various carbon resistors available in the laboratory. The resistance material is a form of carbon such as graphite embedded in a binder. The resistance and insulation material and the wire leads are made simultaneously under high temperature and pressure. arbon resistance do not e,hibit inductive properties, that is why they are used for applications of low as well as high frequency. 5ire&wound resistors are used in instruments and in several applications including industrial electronics applications. 5ire&wound resistors are made by winding a single&layer length of special alloy wire in the form of a coil around an insulating core. The unit is then covered with a coating such as vitreous enamel or silicone. The coating protects the winding against moisture and brea?age. %lloys used include nic?el&chromium&aluminum and nic?el& chromium&iron (*ichrome). The cylindrical core is ceramic or a vitreous material. (ecause the wire&wound resistor acts li?e a coil, its inductance is a problem at high frequency operation. These resistances are available from a fraction of an ohm to "!= ohmsC their tolerance in the range of # to '!N their power rating from a fraction of a wait to "#!! w. Colour coding: Different colour bands are used to designate the resistance value and tolerance. The first
two bands indicate the first and second digits of the resistance value and the third band indicates how many Aeros follow the first two digits. Tolerance is given by the fourth band. +or e,ample a resistor with the following coloured bandsC yellow&violet&orange&silver denotes a 37!!! ohms M"! percent tolerance resistor. +or wire& wound resistors the resistance value and tolerance are stamped on the body of the resistor. -ractice colour coding using different resistors available in the laboratory. The following table gives colour coding information.

+ig 9. Fesistor

""

olours and digits (lac? (rown Fed )range Gellow :! :" :' :0 :3 Kreen (lue $ilot Krey 5hite # :6 :7 :8 :9

Fesistance is shown by 0 bands : (and " "st digit (and ' 'nd digit (and 0 =ultiplier (and 3 tolerance
2,amples: red violet ' 8 grey red 8 , red violet

Tolerance band: *o band M'!N Eilver M"!N Kold 7#N Fed M'N (rown M"N

brown ! Q '7 yellow !!!! Q 8'!? gold Q'.7

% gold multiplier band means devide by "! :

% variable resistor, commonly referred to as potentiometer on pot converts the rotation of a shaft to an output voltage. Eingle turn pots are manufactured in resistance ranges from #! ohms to #= ohms and higherC in the tolerances of "!N and '!N and in power ratings of ' and 0 watts. Bt is used for e,ample as a gain, treble or bass control in an amplifier and as the brightness and contrast controls in a T$ receiver. Bn some applications two or more pots share a common rotating shaft. Euch a combination is ?nown as a ganged pot. The trimmer pot is used generally for a one&time ad.ustment of resistance. Trimmer pots are available from a few ohms to #= ohms in the tolerance of "!N and with a power rating of "5. %ll the types of resistances manufactured are not discussed here. Gou may refer to other boo?s or manufacturer>s boo?lets for fabrication methods and specifications.

"'

CA'ACITORS
apacitors are the most widely used passive elements ne,t only to resistors in electronic circuits. They are available as fi,ed and variable units having capacitance values from a few -ico farads (-+) to thousands of micro farads. % large variety of capacitors of different types are available in your laboratory. These are used in various circuits as bloc?ing capacitors, coupling capacitors, bypass capacitors, filter capacitors and tuning capacitors. % capacitor essentially consists of two conductors separated a dielectric. The basic unit of capacitance is +arad. (ecause practical capacitors have a capacitance much less than a +arad, typical units employed are the micro +arad and pico&+arad. %nother important rating of the capacitor is wor?ing voltage. This voltage is the ma,imum voltage that can be impressed across a capacitor for continuous operation 2lectrolytic capacitors find applications where large value of capacitance in a small volume is required such as a filter capacitor in a power supply. There are two basic types, aluminium and tantalum electrolytic capacitors and are either polariAed or nonpolariAed. Bn the polariAed electrolytic capacitor, a plus sign is printed on the pac?age near one of the two leads. 5hen the capacitor is put in a circuit, the lead near the puis sign must be connected to a higher dc potential than the unmar?ed lead. Bf this is not done the capacitor may be damaged. *o such restrictions are there for nonpolarised electrolytic in a circuit. +or the polariAed type of electrolytic capacitor to increase its surface area, the aluminium foil is etched. Then a very thin layer of aluminium o,ide is electro& chemically formed on the anode foil. The o,ide layer becomes the dielectric for the capacitor. (ecause the o,ide film is e,ceedingly thin and the surface area of the etched foil is large, the volumetric efficiency of the electrolytic capacitor is high. Eeparating the cathode and o,ide&coated anode is a paper spacer which is soa?ed in electrolytic solution. The spacer is required to prevent short circuiting between the cathode and anode foils. -aper capacitors are also as popular as electrolytic capacitors. The dielectric in paper capacitor is craft paper impregnated with wa, or resin. Bt is generally pac?aged as a rolled sandwich. -aper capacitors come in a large variety of values from #!! pico&+arad. They can be operated at high temperatures and can withstand high voltages. % variety of small variable capacitors using air, ceramic, mica, quartA and other dielectrics are available for circuit applications. These capacitors are ?nown as trimmer capacitors. These are used for fine tuning and in micro electric circuits. Their values range from a few pico&+arad to about "!! pico& +arad.

"0

+ig "!. apacitor colour code

)n most of the capacitors the value of capacitance will be printed along with the operating voltage. 4owever, on some capacitors colour bawls ate printed .ust as resistors. Vast, first two bands indicate the significant digits, the third band the number of Aeros, the fourth band the tolerance and the fifth band indicates the voltage rating. +or more details consult reference boo?s and manufacturer>s data boo?s. The following is the colour code for moulded paper capacitors. apacity is given in pico& +arad
olour Digital =ultiplier Tolerance olour Digital =ultiplier Tolerance

(lac? (rown Fed )range Gellow Kreen (lue

! " ' 0 3 # 6

" "! "!' "!0 "!3 "!# "!6

$iolet Kray 5hite Kold Eilver

7 8 9

!."

*o colour

"!N #N "!N '!N

"3

#READ #OARD
The bread board available in the laboratory is very convenient for constructing any electronic circuit very fast and reliable. *o soldering of components is required.

Bt has three distinctive strips: the top, the bottom and middle. The top and bottom strips are small compared to the middle strip. The top and bottom strips have small soc?ets in two rows each. 2ach row has #! soc?ets out of which '# soc?ets each are connected together inside the bread board. Thus, the top strip contains "!! small soc?ets connected as 3 electrically separated groups. Eimilarly the bottom strip contains four groups.

()g 99- #rea #oar

"#

The middle strip construction is different. Bt has a groove at the center. The rows are mar?ed %( D2 and +K4:. Bt has 6# columnsC each column is insulated from the ne,t. 4owever in each column the five rows %( D2 are connected together inside the bread board. Eimilarly +K4B; rows are connected in each column. The distance between rows and columns are made in such a way that integrated circuits may be inserted in the soc?ets. omponents such as resistors, transistors, diodes, capacitors, wires and integrated circuits can be inserted, removed and used again. Therefore bread boards are useful for temporary circuits. =ost of the practicalIs in the electronics laboratory are done using bread board. They are used for designing new circuits and testing them. Bt is advised to have single&strand solid&core wires for ma?ing connection. Bt is impossible to push multi&strand wire into the soc?et. Gou have to strip the insulation from both ends of the wire .ust sufficient to insert in the soc?et. % longer end of the wire will bend and it will not ma?e proper connection. Bt is better to have potentiometers and switches with wires soldered to them to use with the bread board. The bread board used in the laboratory is shown in the figure "". %t the beginning of the academic session your instructor will e,plain and demonstrate the construction of electronic circuits using components li?e resistors, diodes, capacitors and integrated circuits(B E) using bread board in the laboratory.

'N :UNCTION DIODE C%ARACTERISTICS

The two most widely used semiconductor materials are silicon and germanium. Eilicon is more widely used than germanium because it is less heat sensitive as its reverse saturation current lies in the order of nano amperes when compared to microamperes for germanium. These materials are highly purified before they are used as semiconductors. Eilicon or germanium in their pure crystalline form is ?nown as intrinsic semiconductors. These materials e,hibit insulation properties under intrinsic condition at room temperature. Their conductivity can be increased if trivalent elements or penta valent elements are added to them. The process of adding impurities is ?nown as doping. Thus doping with trivalent or pentavalent impurities to intrinsic semiconductors ma?es e,trinsic semiconductors. Bf the impurity added is trivalent the semiconductor becomes p&type. The ma.ority carriers in -&type semiconductor are holes. Bf the impurity added is penta valent, the semiconductor becomes *&type. The ma.ority carriers in *& type semiconductor are electrons. -&* .unctions are made by metallurgical process (details are not given here). The -&* .unction will permit current to flow through it in one direction only. Bt will not allow the current to flow through it in the reverse direction. The basic property of the diode is thus unidirectional current flow. The diode has two terminals: i) - and ii) * Bf the positive terminal of a power supply is connected to the - side and negative terminal of the supply to the * side, the diode is said to be forward&biased. Bf the - side of the diode is connected to the negative terminal of the supply and the * side of the diode to the positive terminal of the supply, the diode is said to be reverse& biased. The reverse&biased current of a diode is very small compared to the forward&biased current. The reverse&biased current is also ?nown as lea?age&current or reverse saturation current. )nly minority charge carriers flow in the reverse&bias. The reverse&bias current is a function of temperature. Bt will be usually of the order of microamperes for Ke diode and nano amperes for Ei diode. "6

There must be at least !.7$ forward&bias voltage for silicon diodes before it will conduct appreciably. This voltage is ?nown as cut&in voltage. This cut&in voltage for germanium diode is ! 0$. The current in the forward&biased diode increases with an increase in voltage across it. The current in the revere biased diode is almost constant with an increase in voltage. 4owever there is a limit to the ma,imum forward current and ma,imum reverse voltage. The operation of the diode beyond these limits will destroy the diode by overheating due to e,cessive current flow. The volt&ampere characteristic is shown in the figure. Bdeally a diode acts li?e a closed switch when forward biased and li?e an open&switch when reverse&biased. The forward resistance of a diode may be found by drawing a tangent to volt&ampere characteristic at the operating point.

E6per)!e/t I Objective " .To plot volt&ampere characteristics of a given -&* .unction diode.. '. To find the cut&in voltage, static and dynamic forward&bias resistance and reverse&bias resistance. > II Test equi !ent Eemiconductor trainer module containing (read board !&"#v power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! & "' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D Digital ammeter !&'!! R%/m% D III Co! onents Diodes "*3!!7, Fesistor l < required DF'#

IV " ecifications of t#e diode: +or DF. '#: Kermanium alloy .unction diode %verage rectified current Q '#!m% =a,imum power dissipation Q '#! m5 -ea? inverse voltage Q '#$ pea? +orward current Q "% "7

+or "*3!!7: Eilicon .unction diode Feverse voltage Q "!!!$ +orward current Q "% Feverse current Q 0!R% +orward voltage Q !.8$

=a,imum .unction temperature Q 9!D

Temp.rangeQ &6# to '!!D

V $rocedure: ". onstruct the circuit as shown in the figure. :se DF '# diode a/ forward bias it. Ket the circuit verified by your instructor. '.Bncrease the voltage applied to the diode gradually in steps and note the ammeter and voltmeter reading. Eample readings are shown below. 3.Fepeat the steps " and ' using the diode (G "'7. #.To reverse&bias the diode, construct the circuit as shown in the fig. :se DF '# diode. 6.Bncrease the voltage in convenient steps and note the micro ammeter and voltmeter readings. Eample readings are shown below. 7.Fepeat steps # and 6 using the diode (G "'7

VI Circuit diagra!:

()g- 9 (orwar $)as c)rcu)t o+ a 'N ;u/ct)o/ )o e VI "a! le readings: +or "*3!!7:

v( $olts B+ m%

!."# !

!.3

!.#

!.#0 !.#7 !.7

!.6

!.60 !.66 !.67 #.! 9.0 "'.!

!.68 "3.!

!.!3 !.09

".#" '.7'

+orDF'#:

"(
$olts B+ m%

! !

!."" !."0 !."# !."8 !.!8 !.03 !.66 ".6 "8

!.' '.7#

!.'' !.'3 !.'6 #.! 7.!3 "!.#

!.'7 "3.#

()g- Re"erse $)as c)rcu)t o+ a 'N ;u/ct)o/ )o e

VIII Sample readings: (or 9N<558: VR 5 Volts IR 5 @A (orDR,=: VR 5 Volts IR 5 @A

5-9= 5-== 5 5-=

9 5-A

> ,-4

= <->

? 8

95 ?-8

9, 95-<

9< 9,-,

5-9= 5

5-, 4->

, ?-=

<

95

9,

9<

99-5 9>-= 94-9 9?-4 ,9-= ,<-4

IX Graphs: Draw grap*s s*ow)/g t*e "olt3a!pere relat)o/ $y ta2)/g "oltage o/ B3a6)s a/ curre/t o/ Y3 a6)s- Sa!ple grap* )s s*ow/ )/ t*e +)g-

"9

()g- Volt3a!pere c*aracter)st)c o+ a 'N ;u/ct)o/ )o e +orward bias: Draw your circuit here

'!

Tabulate your readings here: +orDF'#:

$+ $olts B+ m%
+or "*3!!7:

$+ $olts B+ m%

Feverse bias:

Tabulate your readings here: +or DF'#:

'"

$F $olts BF R%
+or "*3!!7:

$F $olts BF R%

$ B

atconstB

Fdc Q

-lot volt&ampere characteristic of a -* diode and calculate resistance parameters using the formulas given below:

$ B

atconstB

rdc Q

Eummarise your readings here: ut&in voltage $ Etatic forward resistance Fdc Dynamic forward resistance rac Q '' Q Q $olts. )hms. )hms.

Etatic reverse resistance Fdc

< <

Dynamic reverse resistance rac Q Ouestions:

l. 5hat is a diode and what are its applicationsS '. 2,plain the formation of depletion layer in a -* .unctionS 0. 2,plain the effect of forward and reverse bias voltages on the width of the depletion layer. Kive e,pressions. 3. 5rite down the current equation of a diode and draw its typical volt&ampere haracteristicsS #. Draw volt&ampere characteristics of an ideal diodeS 6. 2,plain the action of diode as a switchS 7. Describe how a diode can be used as a capacitorS 8. Define static and dynamic resistances of a -* .unction diodeS 5hat is more significant parameterS 9. 5hat is the order of reverse saturation in a (B) Ei and (BB) Ke diodesS l!. 2,plain why Ei devices are preferred to Ke devicesS "". Define cut&in voltage and note its typical values for (i) Ei and (ii) Ke diodesS

/2*2F DB)D2 4%F% T2FBETB E


Gou have learned that the diode must be operated between the limits of ma,imum forward&biased current and ma,imum reverse&biased voltage (also called pea? inverse voltage or brea?down voltage). Epecial diodes ?nown as Aener diodes are manufactured to operate at a precise value of brea?down voltage without destroying the diode. +or this diode the reverse brea?down voltage is called the /ener voltage. This voltage is determined at the time of manufacture and is in the range of ' to '!!$. The important characteristic of this diode is that the Aener voltage is constant whatever may be the current through the diode (within the limits of the current rating). Bn the forward biased direction the Aener diode functions li?e an ordinary diode. The volt&ampere characteristic of the Aener diode is shown in the figure. /ener diodes li?e all other electronic devices can be destroyed by heat. The ma.or limiting factor is the power that can be dissipated by the device. /ener diodes are available with power rating between "/35 and #!5. Thus the ma,imum current a Aener diode can pass through depends on Aener voltage and power rating of the diode. /ener diodes are mostly used in voltage&regulation and voltage&reference circuits. $oltage regulator circuits are used when the load needs a constant voltage but varying current. Gou may obtain the volt&ampere characteristic of Aener diode e,perimentally as e,plained in the ne,t article.

'0

E6per)!e/t I Objective ".To plot volt&ampere characteristic curve of a Aener diode. ".To find the Aener brea?down voltage, forward&bias resistance and reverse&bias resistance after Aener brea?&down. II Test equi !ent Eemiconductor trainer module containing (read board !&"# $ power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! & "' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D Digital ammeter !&0!!u%/m% D III %ating of t#e diode 2 A #$B Aener diode (rea?&down voltage Q#," $ +orward&bias resistance Q "' ohms -ower dissipation Q !.7# 5att.

IV $rocedure ". onstruct the circuit as shown in the figure. :se 2 / #."$ Aener diode. Ket the circuit verified by your instructor '. Bncrease the voltage applied to the diode gradually in steps and note the ammeter and voltmeter readings. Eample readings are shown below. 0. onstruct the circuit as shown in the figure using 2 / #."$ Aener diode to reverse bias the diode. 3. Fepeat step '. Eample readings are shown below:

'3

+ig. /ener diode forward bias circuit Eample readings are given here:

V(
$olts B+ m%

! !

!.## !.6# ! !.'

!.7 !.6#

!.7" !.70 !.7# !.76 !.77 " ' 0 # 8

!.79 "0

+ig. /ener diode reverse bias circuit

Eample $F $olts BF R% . !

are given 0 ! 3 3.# 3.9 ' 3.96 #.! #.!# #.!7 #.!8 ""

!."" !.3#

0.09 3.0# 7.'" 8.8#

=odel graph: $olt & %mpere characteristic of /ener diode.

'#

+)F5%FD (B%E: Draw your circuit here :

Fecord your readings here:

"(

$olts B+ m%

F2$2FE2 (B%E: Draw your circuit here

'6

Fecord your readings here:

VR
$olts BF R% Draw graph by ta?ing voltage on H&a,is and current on G&a,is and calculate the resistance parameters using the formulas given below. Dynamic or ac resistance:

$ B atIF&const Etatic or dc resistance: $ B atIF&const

rdc Q

Fdc Q

Eummarise your readings here: /ener brea?down voltage $br Q Etatic forward resistance F.c Q Dynamic forward resistance rac Etatic reverse resistance Fdc Q Dynamic reverse resistance rac

$olts. )hms. )hms. )hms. )hms.

Ouestions: l. 5hat is the deference in the fabrication of /ener diode and ordinary -* .unction diodeS '. *ame various brea?down mechanisms and e,plain themS 0. 5rite down the doping concentrations of the materials used for fabricating Aener and avalanche diodesS 3. 2,plain the significance of brea?down regionS #. Draw the equivalent circuit of a /ener diode in the brea?down regionS 6. =ention applications of /ener diodeS 7. 4ow does /ener diode behave in forward biasS

'7

&I.%T EMITTIN. DIODE C%ARACTERISTICS


Bn a forward&biased .unction diode free electrons and holes recombine at the .unction. 5hen a free electron falls into a hole, it drops from a higher energy level to a lower energy level. %s the electron falls to a lower energy level, it radiates energy in the form of heat and light. (ecause silicon semiconductor is not transparent none of the light escapes to the environment. Epecial diodes ?nown as light&emitting diodes (12D) are manufactured with binary semiconductor materials formed by combining BBB&$ elements li?e gallium, arsenic and phosphorous to give Ka%s, Ka-, Ka%s-, etc., the bandgap of these materials is high compared to elemental semiconductors li?e Ei and Ke and they contain energy levels inside the forbidden gap and are called traps. %n electron which tries to recombine under the influence of e,ternal electrical field will be trapped '8

by these traps and the resultant energy lies in the wavelength of visible range. Bn a forward &biased 12D heat and light are radiated when a free electronic falls into a hole to recombine at the .unction. (ecause the materials are transparent, some of the light which escapes is visible to us. 12Ds are manufactured to produce red, green, yellow and amber colours of light. 12Ds have varied applications in instrument displays, calculators, digital cloc?s etc. The typical voltage across an 12D is from ".#$ to '.#$ for a current of "!m% to #!m%. The advantages of 12D are low voltage, long life and fast )* &)++ switching. %n 12D array is a group of 12Ds that display numbers, letters and symbols. The most common 12D array is the seven&segment display. This can display the numbers ! to 9 as well as some letters of the alphabet. +or more details consult manufacturer>s manuals. Gou may obtain the characteristic of an 12D e,perimentally with the circuit shown in the figure "6 E6per)!e/t I Objective ". To plot a volt&ampere characteristic curve of a light emitting diode (12D) OG'3. '. To predetermine the cut&in voltage, dynamic and static forward&bias resistances. II Test equi !ent Eemiconductor trainer module containing (read board !&"#v power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! & "' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D and Digital ammeter !&'!!u%/m% DK. Ill %ating of t#e '() OG '3 Kallium arsinide diode +orward current ma,imumQ#!m% Feverse $oltage ma,imum Q0$ -ower ma,imum Q"0! mw.

IV Procedure:
". onstruct the circuit as shown in the figure. '.:se OG '3 12D and ma?e forward bias connection. Ket the circuit verified by your instructor 0.Bncrease the voltage applied to the diode gradually in steps and note the ammeter and voltmeter readings. Eample readings are shown in the table. 3.

V(
$olts

"

".#

".6

".7

".77 ".83

".9

".90

".9#

'9

B+ m%

!.!8 !.3" ".#7

3.!

7.!

"!

"'

"0

V* CI%C+IT )I,-%,.

+ig. 1ight 2mitting Diode +orward bias circuit

$i Kraphs: Draw graphs showing the volt&ampere relation by ta?ing voltage on H&a,is and
current on G&a,is.otting. Eample graph is shown in the fig.

+ig. $olt&ampere characteristic of 12D Draw circuit diagram here:

0!

Fecord your measurements in the table

V(
$olts B+ m%

-lot the graph and calculate cut&in voltage, static and dynamic resistances using the formulas given below. Dynamic or ac resistance: $ B atIF&const rdc Q

Etatic or dc resistance:
$ B atIF&const Fdc Q

Eummarise your results here: ut&in voltage $ Q Dynamic resistance rac Etatic resistance Fdc Q $olts. )hms. )hms.

0"

Ouestions: ". '. 0. 3. #. 1ist out the materials used for fabricating 1ight 2mitting DiodesS 5hat are trapsS 5hat is their role in Ka%sS 5hat materials are used to fabricate 12Ds of different coloursS 5hat are the uses of 12DsS 5hat is the band gap of Ka%sS

%A&(3CAVE RECTI(IER
2lectronic equipment needs for its operation both alternating current (ac) power and direct current (dc) power. The ac power is available to us through the distribution networ? of Etate 2lectricity (oard. 5e get dc power by changing ac power to dc using rectifiers. Thus a rectifier is an electronic circuit to change alternating to direct current. There are three basic rectifier circuits: /a0 #alf12ave rectifier /b0 full12ave rectifier and /c0 bridge rectifier 0'

Direct current passes only in one direction. The diode has this property of allowing the current in one direction. Thus, diodes are used in rectification circuits. The circuit shown in figure is a half wave rectifier. The load F1 and a filter to smoothen the rectified wave is also shown in the same circuit. Transformer is connected to the supply to step&down the voltage from '0!$ to "' & ! & "'v. The input voltage is ac. which changes in polarity for every "/"!! second. During the positive half cycle of the input (sinusoidal waveform) the - side of the diode is positive with respect to the cathode and current flows through the diode. During the negative half cycle of the input (sinusoidal waveform) there is no current because the -& side is made negative with respect to *& side. Thus, the process of diode conducting in positive half of the input cycle is called half&wave rectification. The rectified voltage is pulsating dc voltage. *ote that the output voltage is always positive. This voltage is called pulsating because the magnitude of the voltage changes from moment to moment. Euch a wave form is not useful for operating D circuits unless it is first filtered. The purpose of filtering is to ta?e out the pulsations. The procedure for filtering the voltage usually involves charging a capacitor to the pea? of the voltage during a time when the diode is conducting and then having the capacitor to discharge through the circuit in order to maintain the output voltage with out pulsations. The filter capacitor used will be usually electrolytic type with a high capacitance value which enables it to store a considerable amount of energy during the diode conducting half&cycle. The positive sign on the capacitor indicates that it is an electrolytic type.
EXPERIMENT

I Objective ".To e,amine the input and output waveforms of a half&wave rectifier '.To find the ripple&factor 0.To find the regulation 3.To repeat ob.ectives ",' and 0 with capacitor filter II Test equi !ent Eemiconductor trainer module containing (read board !&"#v power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! & "' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D Digital ammeter !&'!!R%/m% D

For 345667: Eilicon .unction diode Feverse voltage Q "!!!$ +orward current Q "% Feverse current Q 0!u% +orward voltageQ !.8$

III Rat)/gs Transformer: -rimary voltage Q '0!v r.m.s., #!4A Eecondary voltage Q "'$ r.m.s, #!4A +ull&load secondary current Q "%

00

Temp. range

Q &6# to '!!D

IV $rocedure ". onstruct the circuit as shown in the figure ". :se the diode "*3!!7 and load resistance F1 Do not connect the capacitor. Ket the circuit verified by your instructor. '.)bserve the voltage across the secondary of the transformer and across the output terminals using a F). 0.$ary the load in convenient steps and note the ac. voltage and dc. voltage across the load. The following are the sample readings. 3. onnect the capacitor across the load as shown m figure ' and repeat the procedure steps ",' and 0. V Circuit diagra!s

+ig. 9- %al+ 5ave Fectifier circuit R& O*! 955 <85 I2 <-82 952 VDC Volts <-?, =-54 =-99 =-9A =-,9 R)pple (actor Q$ac/$D 9-,8? 9-,98 9-,5= 9-9?4 9-9?, DEF GRegulat)o/ 9?->, >-<> ,-<? 5-A= 5-=8

S-No9,><=-

$acQ!.08#$p 4-94 494 4-94 4-94 4-94

03

$*1 Q E.*o. ". '. 0. 3. #. F1 "!! 37! B? 3.7? "!? $D "'.0" "3.8# "#.#' "#.9! "#.9! Vac & / Vr/ 1 00/89 "."9 !.367 !."70 !.!30 !.!"7

$olts Fipple +actor $ac / $D !.!96 !.!0" !.!"" !.!!0 !.!!" NFegulation '3.'3 8.6! 3.39 '."! '."!

0#

Draw your circuit of 45F without filter here .

Tabulate your readings for 45F without filter here $*1 Q

$olts

06

E.*o. 9,><=-

F1 )hm

$D $olts

$acQ!.08#$p

Fipple +actor Q$ac/$D

UVW NFegulation

N Fegulation Q

(($*1 X $+1) / $*1) "!!

Draw your circuit for 45F with capacitor filter here:

Tabulate your readings for 45F with capacitor filter $*1 Q $olts. E.*o. F1 $D Vac & / Vr/ 1 00/89 07 Fipple +actor $ac / $D NFegulation

". '. 0. 3. #.

VI -%,$H": Draw ri le vs load by ta?ing load resistance F1 on H&a,is and ripple factor on G&a,is for both with and without capacitor filter for comparison. Draw :regulation vs load by ta?ing load resistance F1 on H&a,is and Nregulation on G&a,is for both with and without capacitor filter for comparison

"u!!arise your results #ere: Fipple factor without capacitor filter at B? )hm. Fipple factor with capacitor filter at B?) hm. Q NFegulation without capacitor filter at " ? )hm. Q NFegulation with capacitor filter at B? )hm. 08 Q

Ouestions: ". '. 5hat is a rectifierS 5hat is a transformer and what is its role in 4alf 5ave Fectifier circuitS

0. 2,plain how the given circuit converts applied ac voltage to pulsating D S 3. Define ripple, ripple factor and regulationS Kive equationsS #. 2,plain the action of capacitor in a rectifier circuitS 6. =ention typical values of ripple factor for half wave rectifier without and with capacitor filterS 7. 5hat is the practical application of rectifier circuitS 8. Define rectification efficiency and evaluate its value for half wave rectifierS 9. Define the following: (i)pea? to pea? value, (ii)rms value, (iii)average value. Kive their interrelation e,pressions. "!. 5hat is the significance of -B$ rating and what is its quantity for a diode used in half wave rectifierS "". Draw the waveforms for a half wave rectifier circuit at the following points: (i) Transformer secondary side, (ii)output across the load for a)without capacitor filter and b) 5ith capacitor filter.

(U&& CAVE RECTI(IER


The disadvantage with the half&wave rectifier circuit is the difficulty in filtering its output waveform. Bt is possible to rectify both the half&cycles of the input voltage by using two diodes as shown in figure l. The transformer used has a center tap. This produces two sine waves that are out of phase by "8!D. 5ith respect to one another, ta?ing center tap as reference. Bn the positive half&cycle the first diode, Dl will conduct because its p& side is positive with reference to the center tap. The second diode, D' will not conduct because its p&side is negative with reference to the center tap at the same time. Therefore current will flow through D" and load, F1 during the positive half 09

cycle. Bn the ne,t half cycle first diode, Dl will not conduct because its p&side how becomes negative with reference to the center tap. The second diode D' however conducts because its p&side is positive. Thus the current now will flow through F 1 has the same direction whether the diode Dl is conducting or the diode D' is conducting. The output of the full&wave rectifier is also pulsating direct current as shown in the figure. )bserve that the rectified output of a half&wave rectifier and full&wave rectifier is unidirectional current pulses. +or half&wave rectifier we have the output as single pulse whereas for the full&wave we have two pulses for every sine wave input. These pulses can be filtered by connecting capacitor in parallel with the load resistance F 1. The rectifiers have internal resistance. (ecause of this resistance there is a voltage drop which varies with the load current

(;$(%I.(4T I* Objective ".To e,amine the input and output waveforms of a full&wave rectifier '.To find the ripple&factor 0.To find the regulation 3.To repeat ob.ectives ",' and 0 with capacitor filter II* Test equi !ent Eemiconductor trainer module containing (read board !&"#$ power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! & "' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D Digital ammeter !&'!!u%/m% D .F.).

III Rat)/gs +or "*3!!7: Eilicon .unction diode Feverse voltage Q "!!!$ +orward current Q "% Feverse current Q 0!%

3!

+orward voltage Q !.8$ Temp. range Q &6# to '!!D

Transfor!er: -rimary voltage Q '0!$ r.m.s., #!4/ Eecondary voltage Q "'v r.m.s, #!4/ +ull& load secondary current Q "%

IV $rocedure ". onstruct the circuit as shown in the figure ". :se the diode "*3!!7 and load resistance F1 Do not connect the capacitor. Ket the circuit verified by your instructor. '. )bserve the voltage across the secondary of the transformer and across the output terminals using a F). 0. $ary the load in convenient steps and note the ac. voltage and dc. $oltage across the load. The following are the sample readings. 3. onnect the capacitor across the load as shown in figure ' and repeat the procedure steps ", ' and 0. V Circuit diagra!s

(I.:9- (U&& CAVE RECTI(IER CIRCUIT

S-No9,><-

R& O*! 955 <85 I2 <-82

VDC Volts A-,? A-88 A-?8 95-54

$acQ!.08#$p 94 94 94 94 3"

R)pple (actor Q$ac/$D 5-=> 5-=5< 5-<AA 5-<?A

DEF GRegulat)o/ ?-?< <-5, >-55 9-98

=-

952

95-9=

94

5-<?=

5-,A

E.*o. 9,><=-

F1 )hms 955 <85

$D )hms 9>-84 9=->4 9=-=4

Vac & Fipple +actor / Vr/ 1 00/89 $ac / $D 5-=8 5-98 5-5?= 5-598 5-55?= 5-5<9 5-599 5-55= 5-559 5-555=

NFegulation 9=-55 =-9? >-A= 9-A8 9-?=

1K <-82H 952

9=-?? 9=-A

3'

MODE&

.RA'%S

Draw your circuit of +5F without filter here. 30

Tabulate your readings for +5F without filter here $*1 Q

$olts

E.*o. 9,><=-

F1 )hm

$D $olts

$acQ!.08#$p

Fipple +actor Q$ac/$D

UVW NFegulation

N Fegulation Q

(($*1 X $+1) / $*1 ) "!!

33

Draw your circuit for +5F with capacitor filter here :

Tabulate your readings for +5F with capacitor filter $*1 Q $olts. E.*o. ". '. 0. 3. #. F1 $D Vac & / Vr/ 1 00/89 Fipple +actor $ac / $D NFegulation

VI -%,$H": 3#

Draw ri le vs load by ta?ing load resistance F1 on H&a,is and ripple factor on G&a,is for both with and without capacitor filter for comparison. Draw :regulation vs load by ta?ing load resistance F1 on H&a,is and Nregulation on G&a,is for both with and without capacitor filter for comparison Eummarise your results here: Fipple factor without capacitor filter at B? )hm. Fipple factor with capacitor filter at B? )hm. NFegulation without capacitor filters at B? )hm. NFegulation with capacitor filters at B? )hm. Ouestions: ". 5hat is the difference between transformers used in half wave rectifier and full wave FectifierS '. *ame two types of full wave rectifier circuitsS 0. 5hat are the merits of full wave rectifier over half wave rectifierS $indicate the direction of current flow for both the half cycles of the input waveformS #. =ention typical values of ripple factor without and with capacitor filter for full wave rectifierS 6. Draw secondary waveforms at the two sections of the center tapped transformerS 7. 5hat is the value of rectification efficiency of full wave rectifierS 8. 2,plain the action of capacitor in the given circuitS 9. Kive the -B$ rating of a diode used in full wave rectifier. "!. .Draw output waveforms for full wave rectifier without and with capacitor circuitS "". =ention applications of full wave rectifierS "'. ompare performance of center tapped full wave rectifier and bridge rectifierS Q Q Q Q

#I'O&AR :UNCTION TRANSISTOR


The bipolar .unction transistor ((;T) is fabricated with three semiconductor regions. The three regions are called emitter, base and collector. There are two n .unctions in the transistor. The first .unction called base emitter .unction .oins the base region and the emitter region. The second .unction called base&collector .unction .oins base region and collector region. There are two types of transistors :(a) *-* and (b) -*-. %n *-* transistor is fabricated by sandwiching the -&type semiconductor material between two *&regions and the -*- transistor is fabricated by sandwiching *&type semiconductor material between two -&regions. The base region of a transistor is lightly doped compared to the other two regions. The emitter region is heavily doped and collector region is moderately doped. The width of the base is made thin compared to emitter and collector to reduce the recombination in the base region. (oth holes and electrons present in the semiconductor regions of the transistor contribute current and hence it is called bipolar .unction transistor ((;T). There are three different configurations of a transistor. They are a0 Co!!on <ase configuration, b0 Co!!on (!itter configuration and c0 Co!!on Collector configuration* $arious regions of operation of a transistor are i0 ,ctive region, ii0 "aturation region and Ill0 Cut off region* Bn the active region, the emitter .unction of the transistor is forward biased and collector .unction of the transistor is reverse biased. Bn the saturation region 36

both emitter and collector .unctions are forward biased where as in the cut off region both the .unctions are reverse biased. Transistors are used as: "0 a! lifiers that can enhance the level of the input signal at its output, ') electronic s2itc#es and are also used for i! edance !atc#ing purposes. The emitter and collector .unctions of the transistor should be biased correctly for proper operation. To use the transistor as an amplifier, the base&emitter .unction should be forward biased and base&collector .unction should be reverse biased. This particular biasing arrangement is called the active region operation of a transistor. 5hen a transistor is biased properly the base&emitter .unction has a low resistance due to forward bias. +or an n n transistor, electrons flow from emitter to base .ust as in a forward biased diode. The base region is lightly doped and very thin so that very few electrons recombine with the holes available in the base region. Therefore, the base current is very small compared to emitter current. The remaining electrons present in the base region are pulled across base collector .unction. The base&collector region is reverse biased and hence only minority charge carriers flow through the .unction. The electrons in.ected from the emitter to the base region due to its forward bias, flow towards the collector because they are minority charge carriers in that .unction. This collector current is appro,imately equal to the emitter current. The ratio of collector current to emitter current is denoted by a and has a value close to ". The dc beta is the ratio of collector current to base current. This current gain can have values from '! to several hundred. Bn the common emitter configuration of transistor, if the current in the base of a transistor is varied, there is a large variation in the collector current. This property of the transistor may be used to wor? it as an amplifier. %n amplifier is an electronic circuit to faithfully reproduce the input signal and to have a voltage gain, current gain or power gain. +or e,ample if the input of !." $ pea?&to&pea? sinusoidal waveform is applied to an amplifier and if the output voltage is B$ pea?&to&pea? sinusoidal waveform, the voltage gain of the amplifier is "!.

5hen a transistor is connected with the base as the common terminal for both input and output, it is called a common&base connection of common&base ( () configuration. Bn this configuration the input is at the emitter, the output is at the collector and the base is common for both input and output. Eince B2 is the input current and Bc is the output current, the current gain is " /B2 . Bt is also called static forward current transfer ratio, hfo This ratio we have defined earlier as dc alpha. Eince Bc is almost equal to B2 the ratio is near unity. %ctual values range from !.9# to !.998. 5hen a transistor is connected with the emitter as the common terminal for both input and output, it is called a common&emitter connection or common&emitter ( 2) configuration. Bn this configuration the input is at the base, the output at the collector and the emitter is common for" both input and output. Eince B( is the input current and Bc is the output current, the current gain is B /B( * This ratio is also called beta dc. Typical values of beta dc range from '! to more than '!!. (eta dc is often called the =static for2ard current transfer ratio>, h+( 5hen a transistor is connected with the collector as the common terminal, it is a common& collector ( ) configuration. This particular configuration is also called emitter&follower. *ote mat collector is common to both input and output as far as ac signal is concerned. Bn this circuit $cc is connected directly to the collector and an e,ternal resistor F2 is connected from emitter to ground. The output voltage is ta?en at 37

the emitter with respect to ground that is across F 2. B2 is the output current, B( is the input current. The current again is therefore B2/B( which is appro,imately equal to beta dc. The transistor has limitations on its operation range. These limitations are stated in the form of ma,imum ratings are given for collector&base .unction voltage, collector current and power dissipation.

E6per)!e/t COMMON BASE TRANSISTOR CHARACTERISTICS I Objective ". To plot a family of output and input characteristics of a transistor connected in common&base configuration. II Test equi !ent
"e!iconductor trainer !odule containing

(readboard !&"#v power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! & "' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D Digital ammeter !&'!!u%/m% DK

BBB components required Transistor ( "!7 Fesistors l< & ' *os. IV Ra ing of he !C 1"# transistor lc (ma,) Q '!!m% $ceo Q 3#$ -tot Q 0!! mw T. Q "7#d.c. *-* transistor V$rocedure ". onstruct the circuit as shown in the figure. Ket the circuit verified by your instructor. +or plotting output characteristics: '.Eet B2 to "." m% by varying the voltage applied to the emitter .unction i.e. $2( and ?eep it constant. 38

0. & $ary the collector .unction voltage i.e. $ ( in convenient steps and note down the collector current lc at each voltage step. 3. Fepeat steps ' Y0 for constant values of B2 equal to '." m%, 0." m% and 3." m%. #. Tabulate the readings. =)D21 F2%DB*KE: ( TF%*EBET)F: ):T-:T 4%F% T2FBETB E
IE Q 9-9!A $( $olts B2 ni% ".!3 ".!3 ".!3 ".!# ".!# ".!6 ".!7 ".!7 ".!8 ".!8 IEI,-9 !A $( $olts B2
m%

IEI>-9 !A $( $olts B2
m%

IEI<-9 !A
$(

$olts

B2 m%

!.! !.# " ' 0 3 # 6 7 8 9 "!

!.! !.# "


'

'.!3 '.!3 '.!3 '.!3 '.!# '.!# '.!# '.!6 '.!7 '.!7 '.!9 '.!9

"." "."

0 3 # 6 7 8 9 "!

!.! !.# " ' 0 3 # 6 7 8 9 "!

0.! 0.! 0.! 0.! 0.! 0.! 0.! 0." 0." 0." 0." 0."

!.! !.# " ' 0 3 # 6 7 8 9 "!

0.9# 0.9# 0.9# 0.96 0.96 0.98 3.!' 3.!0 3.!7 3.!8 3.!8

3."

(or plott)/g )/put c*aracter)st)cs:

39

6. =a?e $ ( Q open. 7. $ary the input voltage $2( in convenient steps and note down the emitter current B2 at each step. 8. Fepeat steps 6 and 7 for different constant values of $ ( Q !&#$, 0$. 9. Tabulate the readings. , MODE& READIN.S:: C# TRANSISTOR :: IN'UT C%ARACTERISTICS

$ (Q! $olts $2( $olts !.! !.' !.3 !.# !.#8 !.#9 !.6' !.60 !.63 !.66 !.67 !.68 !.69 !.69 B2 m% !.! !.! !.! !.!" !.'# !.0# "."" '.!' 3.! 6.! 8.! "!.! "'.! "3.!

$ (Q!.# $olts $2( $olts !.! !.' !.3 !.# !.#8 !.#9 !.6' !.60 !.7 !.73 !.7# !.76 !.77 !.78 B2 =a !.! !.! !.! !.!' !.'6 !.06 "."0 '.!3 3.! 6.! 8.! "!.! "'.! "3,!

$ (Q0 $olts $2( $olts !.! !.' !.3 !.#' !.#9 !.6' !.60 !.6# !.66 !.69 !.7' !.7# !.77 B2 =a !.! !.! !.! !.!0 !.06 "."0 '.!3 3.! 6.! 8.! "!.! "'.! "3.!

#!

VI Circui diagram: C)rcu)t )agra! +or Co!!o/ #ase tra/s)stor co/+)gurat)o/

Circui

arrangemen for plo ing inpu charac eris ics

Circui arrangemen for plo ing ou pu charac eris ics

Draw your circuit for output c*aracter)st)cs here

#"

Tabulate your readings for output c*aracter)st)cs here:

IE I VC# Volts

!A !A

IE I VC# Volts

!A IE !A

IE I VC# Volts

!A IE

IE I !A VC# Volts It !A

Draw your circuit for )/put c*aracter)st)cs here

#'

Tabulate your readings for input characteristics here $ (Q! $olts $( $olts B2 m% $ (Q!.# $olts $2( $olts B2 m% $ (Q0 $olts $2( $olts B2 ma

VII -%,$H": #0

B) -lot a family of output characteristics by ta?ing the collector voltage $ ( on H&a,is and collector current Bc on G&a,is for constant values of input current B2. The model set of output characteristic curves are shown below.

') -lot a family of input characteristics by ta?ing emitter voltage $2( on H& a,is and emitter current B2 on G&a,is for constant values of output voltage $ (. The model set of input characteristic curves are shown above. VIII %esult: I;

?+("TIO4": ". '. 0. 3. #. 6. 5hat is the difference between a diode and a transistorS 1ist out the types of bipolar .unction transistorsS Draw symbols of -*- and *-* transistors and indicate their terminalsS 5hat does the arrow head on emitter terminal of a transistor indicateS 4ow many .unctions are there in a transistor and name themS 5hich region of the transistor is lengthier and which has higher doping levelS 7. 2,plain why the base region of a transistor is thinner than other two regionsS 8. 5hat are the various regions of operation of a transistor and give bias modes for each of the regionsS 9. 1ist out various types of configurations of a transistor. "!. 2,plain current components of a transistor. "". 5rite the e,pression for collector current for a transistor in common base configuration. "'. Define a and a> for a transistor in common base configurationS "0. 2,plain the action of the transistor as an amplifierS "3. 5hat is base width modulation and what are its consequencesS "#. Draw family of input and output characteristics of a transistor in common base configuration and indicate various regions of operation on output characteristicsS COMMON EMITTER TRANSISTOR C%ARACTERISTICS I Objective #3

". To plot a family of output and input characteristics of a transistor connected in common&emitter configuration. II Test equi !ent Eemiconductor trainer module containing (read board !&"#v power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! & "' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D Digital ammeter o&'!!%/m% D

BBB Co! onent required

Transistor Fesistors

( "!7 "< and "! < & " each

IV %ating of t#e <C 367 transistor IC /!a@0 1 8

$ 2) Q 3#$ -tot Q 0!!m5 Ti & "7#d.c. *-* transistor IV $rocedure ". onstruct the circuit as shown in the figure. Ket the circuit verified by your instructor. (or output c*aracter)st)cs1 '.Eet the input current B( by ad.usting the input power supply #! %. 0.$ary the output voltage $ 2 in convenient steps and note down the output current Bc at each step. 3.Fepeat steps ' and 0 for constant values of B(Q"!! %, BE) % and '!! %. , #.The model readings are tabulated below. 6.Eet the output voltage $ 2 open. 7.$ary the input voltage $(2 in convenient steps and note down the input current B( at each step. 8. Fepeat steps 6 and 7 for the values of $ 2 Q!.#$, $ 2Q'$ and $ 2 Q0$. 9. The model readings for input characteristics are shown below.

=)D21 F2%DB*KE:: 2 TF%*EBET)F:: ):T-:T 4%F% T2FBETB E I# I 95 A I# I>5 A ## I# I 45 A

$cc $olts ! !!' !.!7 !." !.0 !.6 " ' 0 3 # 6 7 8 9 "!

Bc m% ! !.!' !.'0 !.#3 " ".!3 ".!# ".!7 ".!9 "."" "."0 "."6 "."9 ".'" ".'3 ".'8

$c $olts ! !.!' !.!7 !." !.' !.0 !.6 " ' 0 3 # 6 7 8

"c m% ! !."" !.86 !.8" 3.# # #.'# #.0' #.3# #.6# #.77 #.98 6." 6.' 6.#

$2 $olts ! !.!' !.!# !.!6 !.!7 !.!8 !." !."0 !."# !.' !.0 !.# !.8 " ".# '

Bc m%. ! !&' "."0 ".#7 ".97 '.#3 0.9# 6.! 7."# 9 "!.' "".7 "'.# "'.8 "0 "0

+or input characteristics =)D21 F2%DB*KE:: 2 TF%*EBET)F:: B*-:T 4%F% T2FBETB E $ 2 Q )pen $(2 B( m% $olts
! !." !.# !.#3 !.#8 !.6" !.60 !.6# !.66 !.68 !.69 !.7 ! ! ! !.!" !.!# !." !.' !.0 !.# !.8 "! ".3

$ 2 X "$ $(2 $olts


! !.# !.6" !.60 !.60 !.6# !.66 !.67 !.68 !.7 !7 !.7 !.7

$ 2 Q 0$ $(2 $olts
! !.6 !.60 !.6# !.66 !.67 !.67 !.69 !.69 !.7" !.7" !.7" !.7"

$ 2 Q #$ $(2 $olts
! !.6# !.67 !.67 !.68 !.69 !.69 !.7 !.7 !.7" !.7" !.7" !.7" !.7' !.7'

B( m%
! ! !.!" !.!# !." !.' !.0 !.# !.7 " ".' ".0 ".3'

B( m%
! ! !.!" !.!# !." !.' !.0 !.# !.7 " ".' "&0 ".3#

B( m%
! !.!" !!# !." !.0 !.3 !.# !.6 !.7 !.8 !.9 " "." ".0 ".3

V Circuit diagra!s: (or co!!o/ e!)tter co/+)gurat)o/

#6

C)rcu)t to plot CE output

C)rcu)t to plot CE )/put

#7

Draw your circuit for CE output c*aracter)st)cs here

Tabulate your readings for output c*aracter)st)cs $elow:

B( Q "!% $2 Volts B m%

B( Q % $2 $olts B m%

B2 Q $2 $olts

% B m%

Draw your circuit for plotting CE )/put c*aracter)st)cs here

#8

Tabulate your readings for 2 input characteristics here $ 2Q )pen $(2 $olts B( m% $ 2Q " $ $2( $olts B( ma $ 2Q0 $olts $2( $olts B( m% $ 2Q0 $olts $2( $olts B( m%

#9

VIII -ra #s: % family of output and input characteristics has to be drawn. The output characteristics are drawn between collector voltage $ 2 and collector current B for constant values of base current B(& The input characteristics are drawn between base voltage $ (2 and base current B( for constant values of collector voltage $ 2 The model graphs are shown below.

?uestions: Ouestion *os. from " to 9 given in ( characteristics e,periment are common for all transistor circuits. "!. 5hat is the difference between common emitter and common base configurationsS "" .Define and give its inter&relation with

6!

C$%%$& C$''(CT$R TR)&SIST$R C*)R)CT(RISTICS

/ Objective ". To plot a family of output and input characteristics of a transistor connected in common&collector configuration. // Test equi !ent Eemiconductor trainer module containing (read board !&"#v power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! & "' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D Digital ammeter !&'!! %/m% D III Co! onents re+uired Transistor Fesistors ( "!7 "< and "! < & " each

IV %ating of t#e <C 367 transistor Bc(ma,) Q' $ 2) Q 3#$ -tot X 0!!m5 Ti Q "7#d.c. *-* transistor IV $rocedure "!. onstruct the circuit as shown in the figure. Ket the circuit verified by your instructor. (or output c*aracter)st)cs1 "". Eet the input current B( by ad.usting the input power supply #! %. "'. $ary the output voltage $2 in convenient steps and note down the output current B2 at each step. "0. Fepeat steps ' and 0 for constant values of B(Q"!! %, "#! % and '!! % (or )/put c*aracter)st)cs "3. Eet the output voltage $2 open. "#. $ary the input voltage $(c in convenient steps and note down the input current B( at each step. "6. Fepeat steps 6 and 7 for the values of $2 Q!.#$, $2 Q'$ and $2 Q0$.

6"

V Circuit diagra!s: +or common ollector configuration

Draw your circuit for

characteristics here

6'

Tabulate your readings for output c*aracter)st)cs $elow:

B( Q "!% $2 Volts B2 m%

B( Q % $2 $olts B2 m%

B2 Q $2 $olts

% B2 m%

Tabulate your readings for input characteristics here $2 Q )pen $( $olts B( m% $2 Q $ $2( $olts B( ma $2 Q $olts $( $olts B( m% $2 Q $olts $( $olts B( m%

60

VIII -ra #s: % family of output and input characteristics has to be drawn. The output characteristics are drawn between emitter voltage $2 and emitter current B2 for constant values of base current B(. The input characteristics are drawn between base voltages $ ( and base current B( for constant values of emitter voltage $2 Result:

?uestions: Ouestion *os. from " to 9 given in ( characteristics e,periment are common for all transistor circuits. "!. 5hat are the differences between common emitter and common base and common collector configurationsS "". 5hat are the important electrical properties of common collector configurationS "'. 5here do we use configuration

:UNCTION (IE&D3E((ECT TRANSISTOR(:(ET)


+ield&effect transistors (or +2Ts) can be divided into two general types: ;+2T (;unction +ield 2ffect Transistor and =)E+2T (=etal ),ide Eemiconductor +ield 2ffect Transistor) or BK+2T (Bnsulated Kate +ield 2ffect Transistor). There are two types of =)E+2T structures. They are enhancement type =)E+2T and depletion type =)E+2T. The three terminals of a +2T are called Kate, Eource, and Drain. The fabrication of +2T starts with a semiconductor bar of either n& type or p&type. Bf an n& type semiconductor bar is used it is called *&channel +2T and if a p&type semiconductor bar is used then it is called -&channel +2T. Two terminals are attached too opposite ends of a region and are named "ource and )rain* )n the wider faces of the semiconductor bar -@ material is diffused and forms the Kate region. +2Ts are voltage&controlled devices whereas bipolar transistors are current &controlled devices. The other difference between (;T and +2T is this for (;T the operation depends on the two types charge carriers, holes and electronsC +2T operation depends on holes or electrons only. Thus +2Ts are unipolar whereas (;Ts are bipolar because the conduction is due to both die types of carriers. The operation of a ;+2T can be e,plained as follows. Bf a battery $ dd is connected with its positive terminal to the drain and negative terminal to the source of the n& channel +2T, current flows .ust as it flows in a semiconductor bar. Bf the drain voltage is varied the current magnitude changes. *ow, we connect a voltage $KK to die Kate terminal to reverse bias it. :nder the influence of gate voltage, as the drain voltage is increased , the drain current initially increases linearly and for slightly higher drain voltages it ta?es a curvy path and for moderate voltages it gets saturated and at very high voltages the avalanche brea?down results and current increases rapidly even for small variation in drain voltage. The reason for this type of current variation is attributed to variation in the channel with applied bias. +or Aero gate 63

voltage, at low drain voltages the channel between the gate region from source to drain is uniform and rectangular in shape. %s the drain voltage is increased the drain side of the -* .unction between gate and channel will be more reversed biased than at the source end. %s the channel is lightly doped compared to the gate material under this reverse bias the depletion layer penetrated more into the channel region than and is more pronounced on drain side and so the channel width is not uniform. (ecause of this nonuniformity in the channel with the current starts reducing and reaches saturation when the drain voltage is sufficient to produce enough reverse voltage to ?eep the saturation current . Bf the voltage is increased further to higher values from this, then avalanche brea?down ta?es place and current increases drastically for little variation in the drain voltage. The shape of this characteristic is shown in the graph. %s the drain voltage is increased from )$, ?eeping the gate voltage constant the drain current Bd increases until the pinch&off voltage, $p is reached. Then the drain current Bd levels off and further increase in the drain supply voltage cause very small increase in Drain current. Bn amplifier applications the +2T is used in the region beyond pinch&off. This region is also called current&saturation region. 1et the saturation drain current is BDE and its value be loss when $KEQ!. The relation between BDE and BDEE is given by:

% graph representing the relation between input voltage, $gs and output current 1C is called transfer characteristic. To use ;+2T as an amplifier, it is necessary to design bias circuit such that gate& source .unction is always reverse&biased. This condition requires a negative $gs for an n&channel ;+2T and a positive $gs for a -&channel ;+2T. This can be achieved using the self&bias arrangement. UGour instructor will tell you about self bias arrangement. %lthough self&biasing is simple and effective, voltage&divider biasing is also used. 1earn voltage&divider biasing from your instructorW. )f the possible three configurations for ;+2T amplifiers, common&source ( E) configuration is mostly used. The advantage of using E configuration is that it has very high input impedance. EB'ERIMENT :(ET C*aracter)st)c
I $,-ec i.e ". To plot a family of drain characteristics and transfer characteristic of a given +2T.

II Test e0u)p!e/t
Eemiconductor trainer module containing (readboard !&"#v power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! &"' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D 6#

Digital ammeter o&'!! %/m% D

III Co! onents required

+2T (+5 "" & B *o. Fesistors "!! and #6! & " each IV %ating of t#e <FA36 BF(T BDQ 'm% $DEQ 0! $ -tot Q 0!! t. Q '!!d.g * Q channel ;+2T

V Procedure
To obtain drain characteristics ". onstruct the circuit as shown in the figure. Ket the circuit verified by your instructor. '.Eet $KE to Aero by short circuiting the terminals of input power supply. 0.$ary the drain power supply $DE in convenient steps and note the value of current, B D and at each setting of $DE& 3.Fepeat step 0 for different values of gate voltage, $KEQ l $ and 0 $. #. Tabulate the readings.
DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS OF FET:: MODEL READINGS

$KEQ !$ $DE $olts ! !.!# !." !.0 !.# BD m% ! !.0# !.7" ' 0."

$KEQ"$ $DE $olts ! !.!# !." !.0 !.# 66 BD m% ! !.'3 !.38 ".# '.3

$KEQ0$ $DE $olts ! !.!# !." !.0 !.# BD m% ! !.!8 !.' !.#7 !.9

!.8 " ".# ' '.# 0 3 # 6 7 8

3.8 6 7.8 9.0 "!.6 "".0 "'.' "'.0 "'.3 "'.3 "'.3

!.8 " ".# ' '.# 0 3 # 6 7 8

0.## 3.0 #.67 6.7' 7.0 7.8 8.' 8.0 8.0 8.0 8.0

!.8 " ".# ' '.# 0 3 # 6 7 8

".' ".3 ".6 ".7# ".8 ".8# ".9 ".93 ".97 ".99 '.!

To obtain transfer characteristics 6. Eet the value of the drain power supply $DE to " $. 7. $ary the input source voltage $KE in convenient steps and note the corresponding values of BD at each step. 8. Tabulate the readings and the sample observations are shown below. (ET TRANS(ER C%ARACTERISTICS:: MODE& READIN.S V.S Volts ID !A 5 =-A 5-= =-4< 9 =-,> , < > 9-A $DE Q " $ < = 5-, 5

67

+2T circuit diagram for Drain and Transfer characteristics

Tabulate your observations here : Drain characteristics $KEQ !$ $DE $olts BD m% $KEQ"$ $DE $olts BD m% $KEQ0$ $DE $olts BD m%

68

$DE Q " $ $KE $olts


m%

BD

VII0 .odel -ra #s: Dra)/ c*aracter)st)cs: -lot the family of drain characteristics by ta?ing $DE on H&a,is and BD on G&a,is for constant values of $KE. Tra/s+er c*aracter)st)cs: -lot the transfer characteristic by ta?ing $KE on H&a,is and BD on G&a,is at constant value of $Ds. This plot will lie in second quadrant as $KE is negative for n& channel +2T. The typical shapes of the characteristic plots are shown below.

69

+ig. Dra)/ c*aracter)st)cs VIII result:

()g- Tra/s+er c*aracter)st)cs

?uestions:

". 5hat is the chief advantage of +2T over ( ;TS '. 5hat is the main disadvantage of +2T compared to ( ;TS 0. Define hannel, Kate and Eource of a +2T. , 3. 2,plain the shape of the drain characteristic of +2T with the help of its physical structure. #. 5hat is the difference between +2T and =)E+2TS 6. lassify =)E+2Ts. 7. 5hich type of =)E+2T is normally )* and which type is normally )++S 8. Draw and e,plain the shape of the transfer characteristic of a +2TS

* 3 'ARAMETERS O( A TRANSISTOR
,i!: To calculate the hybrid parameters of transistor in (, 2 and // Test equi !ent Eemiconductor trainer module containing (read board 7! configurations.

!&"#v power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! & "' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D Digital ammeter !&'!! %/m% D

III Co! onents required

Transistor Fesistors

( "!7 "< & ' *os.

IV %ating of t#e <C 367 transistor

lc (ma,) Q '!!m% $ceo Q3# $ -tot Q 0!! mw T. Q "7#d.c. *-* transistor V T#eory:

The terminal behavior of a two port large scale networ? is specified by two voltages and two currents. 5e may select two of the four quantities as independent variables and e,press the remaining two in terms of the chosen independent variables. The typical representation of a two port networ? is shown in +ig. ". Bf the current i3 and voltage v8 are the independent parameters and if the two port is linear, we may write

V3 & #33i3 C #38v8 i8 & #83i3 C #88v8

The quantities h"", h"', h'Z and h'' are called #1 or *y$r) parameters because all are not ali?e dimensionally but are hybrid in nature i*e*, combinations of ad!ittance, i! edance and di!ensionless quantities*

7"

The h&parameter model for a general two port networ? is characteriAed by the above two equations and is shown below.

Tra/s)stor %y$r) Mo el
The basic assumption in deriving #1!ode for a transistor is that the variations about the quiscent point are small so that the transistor parameters can be considered constant over the signal e,cursion. Bn order to derive transistor hybrid model, we consider the 2 circuit. The voltages and currents related to input and output ports of a transistor respectively in 2 configuration are vb ib and va ic* 4ence the h&parameter equations related to transistor can be written as

vb &#ei ib C #revc ic &#fi ib C #oevc

where

The above partial derivatives define the h&parameters for the 2 transistor configuration. The h& parameter models of a transistor in (, 2 and configurations are depicted below.

7'

alculation of h&parameters from the family of input and output parameters for 2 configuration is e,plained below. Gou may consider the shape of the graphs from the corresponding configuration e,periment given in this manual. #fe +rom definition hfe is the s#ort circuited for2ard current grain and is a dimensionless parameter. This parameter can be calculated from the graph as follows.

The current increments are ta?en around O point, which corresponds to base current B( Q B( and
VCE I VC

hfe Q > Q small signal current gain and Q hfe Q large signal current gain. hoe: Bt gives the output admittance with input open circuited and the units are !#os* This parameter can be calculated from the graph using the formula given below.

The above two h&parameters can be calculated from the family of output characteristics of the given configuration, we can calculate other two h&parameters from the family of input characteristics as e,plained below. hre Bt is defined as o en circuited reverse voltage gain and is a dimensionless quantity. This parameter can be calculated from the graph using the formula given below.

hre (y definition #ie represents in ut i! edance 2#en out ut ter!inals are s#ort circuited and its units are ohms. Bt can be calculated using the formula given below

".

onnect a common base transistor configuration circuit for plotting its input characteristics.

70

'. Ta?e a family of readings for variation in B 2 with $2( at different fi,ed values of output voltage $ ( 0. Tabulate the readings and plot the input characteristic curves of ( configuration. 3. +rom the graphs, calculate the input resistance #3< and reverse voltage transfer ratio #D, by ta?ing the slopes of the curves and using the formulae given in the theory above. #. Fepeat the above steps for 2 and configurations. 6. +rom the corresponding graphs, calculate #ie , #/c and #re, #rc as done in the step 3 above. Typical values of hybrid parameters of a transistor in 2, given below. and ( configurations are

-arameter hi hr hf ho "/ho

2 ","!! )hms '.# H"!&3 #! '3 %/$ 3!<ohm

","!! )hms " &#" '# %/$ 3!<ohm

( '".6 )hms '.9 H"!&3 &!.98 !.39 %/$ '.!3 =ohm

EummariAe your values for h&parameters in 2,

and ( configurations here.

-arameter hi hr hf ho "/ho

Fesult:

Ouestions: ". what is the significance of hybrid parametersS '. ompare transistor configurations with reference to hybrid parameters. 0. Kive typical values of h&parameters for each transistor configuration. 3. =ention applications of different transistor configurations based on h&parameters.

73

/ni 0unc ion Transis or 1/0T)


The physical structure and constructional features of a :ni ;unction Transistor (:;T) are shown in +ig. ". Bt consists of a bar of lightly doped (high&resistivity) * material to which a heavily doped, -&type material is attached on one side. )hmic contacts are made at opposing ends of the *&type bar, which are called base 3 ((") and base 8 ((') of the transistor.

7#

'%YSICA& &AYOUT O( U:T


The terminal ta?en out from the -&side is called the e!itter and forms a conventional -* .unction with the *&type semiconductor bar. Eince this device has only one .unction, it behaves quite differently from a conventional bipolar transistor. Bt is named +ni Bunction Transistor because it has only one .unction. Bt is also called a double 1 base diode* The symbol of :;T is shown in +ig.'. and has an arrow pointing in the direction of conventional forward current through the .unction. :;Ts are also manufactured with *&type emitters and p&type bars.

The equivalent circuit is shown in the fig.0. Bn the equivalent circuit, the -* .unction is represented by an equivalent diode. (ase " is the common for both the emitter input circuit and the supply voltage, $((. The total resistance between ( " and (' when the emitter circuit is open (B2Q!) is defined as inter base resistance and is denoted as F(( that is given by the equation F(( Q (F(" @ F(' )["2 Q ! (")

(y the voltage&divider rule, the voltage $i across

The voltage divider ratio in equation (') is called the intrinsic standoff ratio , that is

(0) 76

The value of n clearly depends on how close the emitter terminal is to base ', since F(" becomes larger and F(' becomes smaller as the emitter is moved closer to ('. is typically in the range from !.#! to !.8#, while F(( may range from 3 < to "' E

+ig. . shows the equivalent circuit with e,ternal emitter voltage $2 connected. The resistance F(" in this case is shown as a variable resistance. Bf $2 is less than the positive voltage $i across F(" then the diode is reverse biased, and F(W has essentially the same resistance as when B2Q!. 4owever, if $2 is increased to the onset of forward bias, a small amount of forward current B 2 begins to flow through the emitter and into the base " region causing the resistance of that region to reduce. The decrease in F(" is attributable to the presence of additional charge carriers resulting from the forward current flow. Bf the forward bias is increased slightly, there is a sudden and dramatic reduction in F(". This phenomenon occurs because the increase in current reduces F(", which further increases the current, which further reduces F(", and so forth..

Bn other words, a regenerative action occurs. The value of emitter voltage at which regeneration is initiated is called the eaF voltage, $-. Bt is clear from the fig. . that the value of emitter voltage must reach is $" plus the forward drop $D across the diode. Eince $" Q $((, we have V$ & V<<CV) (3)

77

The $&B characteristics of :;T are shown in fig. )nce the emitter voltage has reached $- emitter current increases even as $2 is made smaller. This fact is conveyed by the negative slope of the characteristic in the region to the right of the pea? point . the region is therefore appropriately referred to as the negative & resistance portion of the characteristic. This region is said to be unstable because the :;T can not actually be operated there. The curve simply shows the combinations of $2 and B2 that the :;T undergoes during the regenerative transition. (eyond the valley oint shown in the figure, the resistance F(" has reached its minimum possible

value, called the saturation resistance* Bn this saturation region, emitter current can only be increased further by again increasing $ 2. the characteristic in this region is similar to that of a conventional forward&biased diode. The region to the left of the pea? point is called th cutoff region. Bn applications, the :;T is used as a voltage&controlled switch. 5hen the input voltage is raised to $-, the :;T LfiresL, or turns on, allowing a generous flow of current from $(( to ground. To turn the device off, i.e., to return it to the cutoff region, the emitter current must be reduced below the valley current B$. +rom equation (3), it is clear mat $- is a function of $((. Thus, if $(( is increased, the emitter voltage must be raised to a higher value to switch the :;T on. %bove +ig. shows a typical family of characteristic curves, corresponding to different values of $((. The intersection of each characteristic curve with the $2 &a,is is appro,imately the value of $- corresponding to a particular $((, and it can be seen that $- increases with increasing $((.

2H-2FB=2*T
U:T c*aracter)st)cs
,i!: To plot the $& " characteristics of given :ni ;unction Transistor (:;T). Test equi !ent: 78

Eemiconductor trainer module containing (read board !&"#v power supplies & ' *os. % power supply "' & ! & "' $ Digital voltmeter !&'!$ D Digital ammeter !&'!!%/m% D Co! onents: :;T & '*'636 & " *o. Fesistors l< & '*os. +BT ratings: :;T '*'636: -D r(( V Bv BB2('! Q Q Q Q Q Q 0!!m5 3.7< & 9."< !.#6&!.7# 3m% #% "'%

$rocedure: G ". onnect the circuit diagram as shown in the fig. Ket it chec?ed by your instructor. '. Eet the base to base voltage $(( to 0$. 0. $ary the input emitter voltage $2 in convenient steps and note the emitter current B2 at each step. 3. Fepeat step 0 for $(( Q #$ and $(( Q "!$. #. =odel readings are shown in the table.

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$((Q 0 $olts $2 $olts ' !.99 !.99 ".!! ".!" ".!3 ".!# "."! "."0 "."# "."6 B2 m% ! ".36 '.! '.# 0.! 3.! #.! 8.'# "!.8 "0.! "0.77

$((Q # $olts $2 $olts 0.9' ".!# ".!6 ".!6 ".!7 ".!7 ".!8 "." "."0 "."3 "."# "."6 "."7 B2 m% ! '.88 0&# 3 3.# # #.# 7 9 "! "" "' "0

$((Q "! $olts $2 $olts 7.37 "."# "."6 "."7 "."8 "."9 ".'! ".'" ".'' ".'' B2 m% ! 6." 7 8 9 "! "" "'.# "0.0 "0.7

8!

Draw your c)rcu)t *ere

$((Q 0 $olts $2 $olts B2 m%

$((Q # $olts $2 $olts B2 m%

$((Q "! $olts $2 $olts B2 m%

-ra #s: -lot a graph between $2 vs B2 by ta?ing B2 on H & a,is and $2 on G & a,is. The typical shape of the graph for family of characteristics is shown in the plot included in theory. Bndicate various regions on the graph. %esult:

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Juest)o/s: ". 5hat is the difference between (;T, +2T and :;TS '. 2,plain the principle of operation of :;TS 0. 2,plain the origin of negative resistance region in :;TS 3. -lot the characteristics of :;TS #. =ention various applications of :;T. 2,plain with relevant circuit diagrams.

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VO&TA.E RE.U&ATORS
,i!:1 To study the operation of voltage regulators. T#eory: %n ideal power supply maintains a constant voltage at its output terminals, no matter what current is drawn from it The output voltage of a practical power supply changes with load current, generally dropping as load current increases. -ower supply specifications include a +ull3 loa curre/t (Bn,) rating, which is the ma,imum current that can be drawn from the power supply. The terminal voltage when full&load current is drawn is called +ull3loa "oltage ($+1). The /o3loa "oltage ($*1) is the terminal voltage when Aero current is drawn from the supply (no&load condition) or open circuit terminal voltage. )ne measure of power supply performance, in terms of how well the power supply is able to maintain a constant voltage between no&load and full&load conditions, is a factor called

Vo !"#$ R$#% "!&o'. D$(&'&!&o': *o load voltage & +ull load voltage $oltage Fegulation Q +ull \ load voltage $*1 & $+1 N$F Q $+1 6!$ X #6 $ N$F Q #6 $ +or e,ample, a dc voltage supply provides 6! $ when the output is unloaded. 5hen connected to a load the output drops to #6 $. Bf the value of full&load voltage is same as the no&load voltage, the $.F is Aero percent, which is best e,pected. %n ideal supply therefore has Aero percent regulation. T*e s!aller t*e "oltage regulat)o/1 t*e $etter t*e opera ion of t*e "oltage supply )&*)%&!. $oltage Fegulators may be classified as i) E2FB2E F2K:1%T)FE ii) E4:*T F2K:1%T)FE E2FB2E F2K:1%T)F: The basic components of a series regulator are shown in the bloc? diagram of figure(a).

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(:nregulated input) output)

ontrol element

$! (Fegulated

Eampling ircuit

Feference voltate

omparator circuit

()g-(a) +u/ct)o/al $loc2 )agra! o+ a ser)es "oltage regulator

Eerves as a useful model for understanding the underlying principles of series regulation. $in is an unregulated dc input, such as might be obtained from a rectifier with a capacitor filter, and $ ! is the regulated output voltage. The control element, which is a device whose operating state ad.usts as necessary to maintain a constant $! , )s )/ ser)es pat* $etwee/ $in a/ V5- % sampling circuit produces a feedbac? voltage proportional to $! and this voltage is compared to a reference voltage. The output of the comparator circuit is the control signal that ad.usts the operating state of the control element ". Bf the output voltage increases, the comparator circuit provides a control signal to cause the series control element to decrease the amount of the output voltage thereby maintaining the output voltage. '. Bf the output voltage decreases, the comparator circuit provides a control signal to cause the series control element to increase the amount of the output voltage. +igure (b) shows a simple transistor voltage regulator of the series type. 4ere, the control element is the *-* transistor, often called the pass transistor because it conducts, or passes, all the load current through the regulator. Bt is usually a power transistor, and it may be mounted on a heat sin? in a heavy&duty power supply that delivers substantial current. The Aener diode provides the voltage reference, and the base&to&emitter voltage of the transistor is the control voltage. Bn this case there is no identifiable sampling circuit, since the entire output voltage level $! is used for feedbac?. The Aener diode is reverse biased in the circuit, and the reverse current is furnished to it through resistor F. %lthough $in, is unregulated, it must remain sufficiently large, and F must be sufficiently small, to ?eep the Aener in its reverse brea?down region. Thus, as the unregulated input voltage varies, $/ remains essentially constant.

83

()g ($): A tra/s)stor ser)es regulator

5riting <irchhoff s voltage law around the output loop. $(2 Q $/&$! Eince $/ is constant, any change in $! must cause a change in $(2 in order to maintain the equality. The regulation action can be put in brief as follows: ". Bf the output voltage decreases, the increased base&emitter voltage causes transistor to conduct more, thereby raising the output voltage]maintaining the output constant. '. Bf the output voltage increases, the decreased base&emitter voltage causes transistor to conduct less, thereby reducing the output voltage]maintaining the output constant. E4:*T F2K:1%T)F: +igure^ is a functional bloc? diagram of the shunt&type regulator. 2ach of the components shown in the figure performs the same function as that of series regulator, $ut *ere t*e co/trol ele!e/t )s )/ parallel w)t* t*e loa - The control element maintains a constant load voltage by shunting more or less current from the load.
5hen the load voltage decreases, the resistance of the control element is made to increase, so less current is diverted from the load, and the load voltage rises. onversely, when the load voltage increases, the resistance of the control element decreases, and more current is shunted away from the load, and the load voltage drops]to maintain constant voltage.

8#

+ig(c) : +u/ct)o/al $loc2 )agra! o+ s*u/t regulator +igure(d) shows a shunt regulator in which transistor O " serves as the shunt control element. Eince $A is constant, any change in output voltage creates a proportional change in the voltage across F). Thus, if $! decreases, the voltage across F" decreases, which is nothing but the base voltage of O'. Therefore, O' conducts less heavily and the current into the base of O" is reduced. O" then conducts less heavily and shunts less current from the load, allowing the load voltage to rise. onversely, an increase in $! causes both O"and O' to conduct more heavily, and more current is diverted from the load, causes load voltage to fall]maintaining constant voltage.

()gure( ): A tra/s)stor s*u/t regulator

INDEB

86

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