The Pennsylvania State University Department of Aerospace Engineering Aerospace 401A Preliminary Spacecraft Design

Final Report SISO Explore Simulation Asteroid Retrieval

December 6, 2013 Deep Space Express
Zachary Armagost Adam Johnson Jacob Lampenfield Ramon Morales John Perla Galen I. Stuski

Abstract: SISO Explore Simulation Asteroid Retrieval Mission requires us to choose an asteroid, capture it, and return it to a retrograde lunar orbit. This is to be done so that research and raw materials can be gathered for future use. This mission has a budget of approximately $2.6 billion. The intended asteroid is 2009 BD. This asteroid is relatively small (4-11 meters in diameter), with an orbit near identical to Earths. It also has a low rotation rate which will make it easier to catch. These characteristics make 2009 BD an ideal candidate for capture. The current mission plan takes the spacecraft to a heliocentric orbit to rendezvous with the asteroid. Once captured, the spacecraft will return to an Earth orbit and eventually transfer into a lunar orbit. The main capturing mechanism is a claw like design. The claw will encapsulate the asteroid and will attempt to slow down its rotation. Due to the heliocentric flight, the structure system will protect the internal components from radiation. Research has been completed on possible candidates for launch vehicles such as the Delta IV and the Falcon Heavy. The main propulsion system is four Hall Effect thrusters powered by solar arrays. The attitude control propulsion are similar to Vernier thrusters which will provide small impulses. Ground control will use the Deep Space Network to communicate with the spacecraft and Mission control, payload operations, and spacecraft operations control center will be set at Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, CA. It will be mostly responsible for tracking and periodic updates of the spacecraft. The communication system will be responsible for sending ground control updates on position and state. It will need a high uplink frequency to receive any updates from ground control. The architecture of the computer network will be either bus or centralized and at least two computers will be used to increase the success rate of the mission as a result from redundancy. The command and data handling subsystem must be robust and withstand radiation because of the harsh conditions and be able to process a large amount of data. Guidance, Navigation, and Control is an important i

subsystem because it will be rendezvousing with a small asteroid and completing a number of thrust burns in deep space. To detect position of the spacecraft either Microcosm Autonomous Navigation System (MANS) and Earth and Star Sensing System will be used. Laser Doppler Velocimetry will measure relative velocity between the spacecraft to the asteroid to ensure a smooth capture. Two 22 meter disc solar arrays will generate power for the spacecraft. These solar arrays will generate approximately 53 kW of power. This power will be stored in Lithium ion power for when the spacecraft does not have access to the sunlight. Space blankets will coat the spacecraft to help reflect sunlight from heat. This will be used in combination with radiation fins to keep internal components at a working temperature. A claw mechanism will be carried on the spacecraft to capture the asteroid payload. The claw will have a net woven between the prongs as a backup system in the case of the claw failing to capture the asteroid. The initial mass is estimated to be 45,000 kg. Some of these designs are still in preliminary phases and need further refinement, proper trade studies as well as more accurate calculations need to be conducted to further the completion of this design. Specific studies that need to be completed include link budgets for the communications systems and data input from sensors.

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Table of Contents 1. Introduction .....1 2. Mission Architecture a. Overview of Mission ......3 b. Sequence of events: Low Earth orbit ..4 c. Sequence of events: Heliocentric orbit ..5

d. Sequence of events: Lunar orbit .7 3. Subsystems a. Structure .8 b. Launch Vehicle ......12 c. Propulsion .13 d. Ground Control .16 e. Communications ...17 f. Command & Data Handling .18 g. Guidance, Navigation, and Control ..23 h. Power 25 i. Thermal .....29 j. Scientific Instruments and Other Payloads31 4. Summary Tables ....33 5. Recommendations for Future Work ...35 6. Conclusion .37 7. References .....39

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1. Introduction The importance of finding raw materials in the void of space is becoming more pertinent to missions involving manned or unmanned spacecraft. In the solitude of outer space, supplies become progressively scarcer as time goes on. As a result, asteroid mining has become a feasible option in finding raw materials during missions. In order to determine if the asteroids can be utilized for mining resources, retrieval of a near Earth asteroid is necessary. This idea also supports future human deep space exploration. This mission also scouts other asteroid candidates that may be accessible for possible future missions. This would be highly beneficial in a number of various missions in outer space and will open up a new realm of possibilities for longer sustainability of interplanetary missions. Modeling and Simulation is a key component in the mission design phase. The purpose of this project is to design a spacecraft architecture prototype in order to be utilized in missions regarding asteroid retrieval. The Simulation Interoperability Standards Organization (SISO), will build a simulation based on the design of the spacecraft that will be created by the Deep Space Express team. The primary objective of this mission is to design a structure that can successfully capture a pre-determined near Earth asteroid and return it into distant retrograde Lunar orbit for further scientific exploration and research to be conducted. A Lunar orbit was preferred over a low Earth orbit to optimize the use of propulsion and avoid the specimen to avoid the influence of Earths gravity. LEO contains a plethora of space debris, satellites, and other obstacles that may interfere with the captured asteroid. Returning the spacecraft into Lunar orbit also avoids the risk of impacting the Earth. After the entirety of the mission gets completed, NASA will plan a mission of its own in order to utilize the asteroid. A few preliminary designs have already been analyzed and reviewed throughout this report. A final prototype will be selected based on efficiency, cost, sustainability, and re-usability and a final conceptual design review will be made. One of the 1

secondary objectives is to develop the methods and technology capable of completing the mission to enable implementation of similar missions in the future. The completion of this mission will further scientific understanding of celestial bodies and contribute to the success of missions to come. Having the asteroid accessible for research will provide valuable information of the elemental composition of asteroids. Once the process of extracting resources is implemented, other advanced techniques such as commercial resource production or distribution may be considered. The design level of this report is in the preliminary stage. The subsystems are beginning to determine the most efficient steps to take in order to create a well-balanced vehicle for the mission. Each subsystem is also beginning to complete mass, power, and cost estimates. The subsystems include structure, launch vehicle, propulsion, ground control, communications, command & data handling, guidance, navigation & control, power, thermal control systems, and scientific instruments and payloads. The payload for the mission has been decided based on a variety of factors. The asteroid named 2009 BD was chosen particularly for its size, which was determined to be 4 11 meters. The velocity as well as the rotation rate was also found to be relatively slower than other potential asteroids. The v and rotation rate for the asteroid is 1.2 km/s and less than one rotation every 2 hours respectively. These parameters make the capture of the asteroid much easier and helps for the design of the structure. Upon the departure of the launch vehicle the distance between the Earth and the asteroid will be around 0.7 Astronomical Units. The mission is expected to take about 5-8 years to complete.

2. Mission Architecture 2.a Mission overview The SISO explore simulation Asteroid Retrieval mission is to be completed in three phases. These include Low Earth orbit, heliocentric orbit, and lunar orbits. The timeline of the mission is shown in Table 1. The launch date for the mission is scheduled to be in June 2018 and the duration of the mission is expected to last around five to eight years. This date is of no particular importance since the asteroid remains relatively close to Earths orbit, at a range of 0.5 to 0.7 AU away. After the synodic period was calculated to be around 71 years, the idea to complete the mission was proposed to continue since a time limit is of no detriment. Upon launch, the structure will retrieve the asteroid and return it into lunar orbit with the payload to be further examined. The entire mission is currently predicted to need approximately 5 km/s of change in velocity. Figure 1

illustrates the mission scenario. A detailed sequence of events is shown in the following pages. Table 1: Mission Profile and Timeline. These are the earliest estimations that have been conducted. The actual mission will most likely be 5-8 years
Mission Profile Operations in Low Earth Orbit I. Launch II. Payload Separation III. Earth Orbit IV. Lunar Gravity Assist Operations in Heliocentric Orbit V. Enter Heliocentric Orbit VI. Thrust into Asteroid's Orbital Plane VII. Phase Orbit to Approach Asteroid VIII. Observe Asteroid IX. Capture Asteroid X. Phase Orbit back to Earth Operations in Lunar Orbit XI. Transfer into Low Earth Orbit XII. Transfer to Lunar Orbit XIII. Place Asteroid into Lunar Orbit Month and Year Jun-18 Jun-18 Jun-18 Jul-18 Jul-18 Aug-18 Aug-19 Aug-20 Oct-20 Nov-20 Feb-22 Mar-22 Apr-22

2.b Low Earth orbit The mission is expected to be launched from Cape Canaveral, Florida. The location was chosen due to the low inclination, which uses the Earths rotational speed to its advantage. The launch vehicle was determined to be the Falcon Heavy rocket, and the structural design of the system was constructed to fit the specifications of the mission as well as fit into the launch vehicle, aside from a few minor changes to the payload fairing. Shortly after low Earth orbit is reached, the spacecraft will orbit for a few days in order to ensure the systems and other electronics on board are operational. After all systems are assessed for their functionality, the launch vehicle separates from the structure and begins to make a Hohmann transfer into lunar orbit using four hall effect thrusters as its primary propulsion source. The spacecraft performs this maneuver in order to obtain a gravity assist from the moon and conserve fuel as well as increase speed. The estimated time for the first phase is around 1.5 years. Fuel is only used in this phase to maintain proper orientation if needed, as well as execute the orbital transfer.

Figure 1 - Mission Scenario 2.c.Heliocentric Orbit The location of the asteroid is on a slightly more eccentric orbit than Earth's orbit around the sun. The gravity assist obtained from the moon will assist in reaching a phase orbit slightly larger than the asteroid's orbit, in order to go a slower velocity and give time for the asteroid to complete one period. The spacecraft is to stay on its orbital path and transfer into the asteroid's orbit. Sensors and communication from the spacecraft to the payload operations control center will provide us with intricate information on the asteroid that will help with a successful mission. The exact size, mass distribution, topography, and precise rotational speed will be scanned in order to perform the mission as efficiently as possible. The spacecraft will approach the asteroid from behind, performing thrust maneuvers to attain a speed capable of catching up with the asteroid's velocity. Once the spacecraft is within the proper range, the capture phase of the mission will begin. The spacecraft must match the asteroids rotational speed to optimize the claws capturing parameters. A conceptual structural design is illustrated in Figure 2. A more 5

detailed examination of the structure's specifications is shown in the subsystems portion of this report. After the claw mechanism is securely latched onto the asteroid, the retrieval phase of the mission is initiated. A hydraulics system is used to power the claws grip. It is intended to hook around the asteroids geometrically smallest side. A secondary capturing mechanism will be deployed along with the claws grip to reinforce the capturing phase in the form of composite fiber chords. In the event that the hydraulics system fails and the claw is unable to perform its task, the chords would be able to latch itself to the target and complete the mission. Once the capture phase is complete the spacecraft must stabilize itself and align its orientation towards the correct path. The added payload increases the systems entire mass and decreases its initial speed. The counter masses and Vernier Thrusters will be used to maintain the proper orientation on its return trip. The estimated time for the second phase is about two to three years. Most of the fuel consumed is during this phase in the mission due to the multiple maneuvers, capture, and adjustments made to the spacecrafts position.

Figure 2 - Conceptual Structural Design of Spacecraft

2.d Lunar Orbit The spacecraft, along with its new payload, will orbit in its path until it is in a location close enough for another orbital transfer into Earth's orbit. A prograde burn will commence in effort to maintain the proper speed for the maneuvers. As it travels in the terrestrial orbit, the spacecraft's velocity will be adjusted to make its final transfer into lunar orbit. The velocity is 7

adjusted for the purpose of future missions, which may include rendezvous in order to gather resources from the captured asteroid. This particular phase was estimated to take about two to four years. The added payload mass will alter the speed of the spacecraft so fuel levels must be conserved during this portion of the mission in case of any unforeseen circumstances. Occasional controlled burns may be applied to maintain lunar orbit. Based on future mission requirements, the spacecraft may remain in lunar orbit anywhere from several months to several years. This parking orbit will serve as a convenient spot to begin the extraction of resources and scientific exploration. The entire structure may or may not be kept for use in future asteroid retrieval missions based on its condition and success in completing the mission requirements. 3. Subsystems 3.a Structures The structure is important for encasing the subsystems to form a cohesive spacecraft. It must endure the stresses and vibrations from launch, as well as the capture and retrieval of the asteroid. The spacecraft will have a diameter of 6 m and a length of about 12 m. This will require a redesign of the payload fairing. The spacecraft will have a prolate shape, with all of the onboard computers and circuitry in the lower end near the main propulsion system and the capturing mechanism near the top. The structure is responsible for protecting all of the onboard equipment from the harsh environment it will encounter in space. This environment includes hazardous radiation, large temperature fluctuations, and space debris. Radiation is a bigger concern to the integrity of the system because the spacecraft is traveling far from the Earths magnetic protection. Many of the onboard electrical systems are in danger of being damaged by the intensity and duration of radiation exposure. In order to prevent complications with the electronic systems, radiation hardened components will be selected. Special materials will also be selected to help shield the vital electronics in the interior of the spacecraft. 8

The structure must be designed to contain all of the electronics and essential equipment to the mission carry out the mission. All of the onboard equipment will add to the mass of the spacecraft and is estimated in Table 3. With the total mass of the spacecraft around 45810 kg, the amount of fuel and power needed could be calculated in order to stay within the parameters stated in the mission overview. The structure must also be able to withstand the forces and vibrations from the onboard propulsion system which was estimated to be around 1900 mN. During launch, the launch vehicle will transmit vibrations and stresses to the structure. The material that will be used to create a robust yet versatile mainframe for the spacecraft was determined to be aluminum. The lightweight material will decrease the mass of the spacecraft and the strength of the material will serve as a strong base for the rest of the subsystems. The geometry of the beams must be selected carefully so the spacecraft can survive the forces applied to it as well as keeping it from being greatly influenced by the perturbation effects it will encounter. When the asteroid is captured, there are many additional factors that must be accounted for. One of the primary concerns is the added mass to the system. The additional mass will also reduce the speed of the spacecraft, so therefore there must be adequate room allocated towards the consumption of fuel. The remaining space consists of the computer systems, capturing device, and communication systems. The structure must be able to handle any forces and moments applied to it by the capturing of the asteroid, while maintaining a hold of it. The attitude thrusters are positioned in four different locations along the spacecraft. The Vernier Thrusters will be closer to the lower portion of the spacecraft near the electrical systems and main propulsion system. This was decided in order to avoid contamination of the capturing mechanism from the fuel ejection. The asteroid must remain sterile to properly exploit the resources. Another important factor is that the center of mass of the spacecraft must be in line with the propulsion system. The attitude

thrusters will also help to maintain the proper orientation by applying occasional controlled burns. Another method to keep control of the spacecraft will be masses that can rotate to any position to get the center of mass back in line with the propulsion. Another way the spacecraft will acquire energy is through the use of solar panels. These were also designed to fold into a compacted form as well as maintain symmetric shape and reduce a dramatic change of the center of mass.

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Figure 3 - Spacecraft Concept Design

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3.b Launch Vehicle The choice of launch vehicle has been narrowed down to the Falcon Heavy. If needed, the spacecraft can be split and launched in two separate launches using either the Delta IV Heavy or Atlas V. For simplicity and cost reduction, the Falcon Heavy is the best choice. The preliminary mass estimate is at about 45810 kg which is well within the Falcon Heavys 53000 kg limit. This also gives a mass buffer in case the spacecraft exceeds the estimated mass. The Falcon Heavy has a payload fairing with an outer diameter of 5.2 m. This will be an issue because the spacecraft has a 6 m diameter. A new fairing will have to be designed to fit on the Falcon Heavy and encapsulate the spacecraft. (5) The Delta IV Heavy is the largest of the Delta IV family of rockets. They were designed by Boeing and are being built by United Launch Alliance. The Delta IV Heavy has the capability to lift 27569 kg into Low Earth Orbit (LEO). There have been seven launches of the Delta IV Heavy, with its first being a partial failure. This failure was due to a premature cut off of the booster rockets. This partial failure is the only issue that the Delta IV family of rockets has ever had. With a cost of $254 million, this is an expensive option, and 2 will be needed to lift the spacecraft into orbit. rendezvous. (2) The Atlas V is a rocket designed by Lockheed Martin and built by United Launch Alliance. It has the ability to lift 29400 kg to LEO. The Atlas V has had 39 successful launches and only one partial failure, where the second stage was shut down too early. The Atlas V has a payload fairing of either 4 or 5 meters allowing for larger payloads to be launched. There have also been proposals to allow payloads of up to 7 meters in diameter, expanding its capabilities. At This option would also complicate the mission by adding another

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a cost of $223 million, the Atlas V is not as affordable as the Falcon Heavy, but two must be used to launch the vehicle in its current configuration. The Falcon Heavy is the primary launch vehicle because of its heavy lift capacity and the ability to launch the entire spacecraft in one vehicle and avoid the complexity of a rendezvous. It has also has a low cost at $135 million, which is much cheaper than one of either the Delta IV Heavy or Atlas V. Although the Falcon Heavy has not been completed yet, SpaceX has a promising record with their Falcon 9 rocket, which is a smaller version of the Falcon Heavy. (5) 3.c Propulsion The original propulsion system that was considered was Magnetoplasmadynamic Thrusters. The MPD Thrusters use Lorentz Forces and have high specific impulses on the order of 4000-6000 s and high thrust capabilities on the order of 26,000-88,500 mN. The issue with the MPDT is, that it is still highly experimental and has not flown a technology validation mission due to the power requirements, which are on the order of 1,500-7,500 kW of power. This is why a specially designed nuclear reactor was considered for the mission that would provide 5-6 MW of power based on initial thermodynamic calculations. It was ultimately decided that a propulsion system with more flight heritage should be used for this mission. (15) The propulsion system that will be used is an arrangement of four Hall Effect Thrusters, with a maximum power usage of 25 kW per thruster. They will be arranged in a diamond shape so that two thrusters can be used rather than four to provide maximum thrust if needed. If all thrusters are firing, the maximum amount of power that could be used for each is 12.5 kW. If two are firing, 25 kW of power can be used to provide the most thrust for the spacecraft, which would be on the order of 1900 mN of thrust. The Hall Effect thrusters while using 25 kW could provide a specific impulse of 3250 s per thruster. It is estimated that this amount of specific impulse will be more

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than sufficient, including a reasonable storage of propellant to achieve the total required v for the mission. The propellant for the main thrusters will be Xenon gas, which was used on Deep Space 1 and the SMART-1 spacecraft and numerous other missions with a 100% success rate. Based on fuel consumption related to v for those missions, it is estimated that the amount of Xenon gas required for this mission will be on the magnitude of 240-500 kg. However, many more calculations and the consideration of the amount of mass must be accounted for, which could potentially alter this estimate dramatically. Figure 4 below demonstrates how a Hall Effect Thruster functions and Figure 5 below shows an example of a xenon gas HET in operation using 2 kW of power. (15)

Figure 4: Hall Effect Thruster Operation Method

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Figure 5: Hall Effect Thruster in Operation with 2 kW of power (21) In addition to the Hall Effect Main Thrusters, there are several attitude control thrusters that can be used to rotate the spacecraft or change its direction for orbital maneuvers and to properly match the asteroids velocity and rotation rate to make capture possible. These thrusters are small rocket burst fire engines that are based on the Vernier Rocket Engines used on missile attitude control systems. The spacecraft will have eight of these thrusters in the rear structure and four in the front structure that all will have the ability to rotate 90 for multi-direction impulse maneuvers. Two helium tanks supply gaseous helium pressure to the oxidizer and fuel tanks. The fuel for these thrusters will be monomethyl-hydrazine and the oxidizer will be nitrogen tetroxide, both supplied under a helium gas pressurization system. (15)

Figure 6: Vernier Thruster used on Space Shuttle (20)

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Figure 7: Attitude Control Thrusters Firing (23) 3.d Ground Control Due to the autonomy of the spacecraft, ground control will be mostly responsible for tracking the spacecraft. The spacecraft will communicate to Earth via the Deep Space Network (DSN). (18) The communication system will include an error detection and correction code which will have to be analyzed by ground control. This error code ensures that the signals received are less corrupted by noise and power loss. (4) Through the communication and GNC subsystems, ground control will receive updates on position and state. Based on this information, ground control can decide if an additional thrust burn is needed. The spacecraft is to follow the asteroid to measure its characteristics such as rotational speed and topography. Ground control will run simulations to confirm a safe capture is possible. If simulations do not have a positive mission outcome, a failsafe method will be executed. Along with the data from the spacecraft, NASAs Near Earth Objects (NEO) and space debris programs will help track any potential obstacles in the spacecrafts orbit. If any obstacles appear, ground control will be able to perform immediate thrust burns to avoid collision. Mission control, payload operations, and spacecraft operations control centers will be set at Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) in Pasadena, CA. JPL is currently mission control for over 100 16

satellite missions. (9) JPL is also home of NASA NEO and other useful resources making it an ideal location to set mission control. Their expertise and heritage in past space exploration missions would aid to the success of the mission. Since project is a mission proposed by NASA, the operations would be easily integrated into their facilities. This saves on the cost of renting or constructing control centers from scratch. The mission may also be given a certain level of priority, which will allow the mission to be executed on its scheduled time. 3.e Communications The communication subsystem is the connecting link from the ground station to the spacecraft. The spacecraft will be sending regular updates of its location and attitude. It will also send back the outcome of key mission plans. At the largest possible separation distance, messages may take up to 17 minutes to send one way. The main communication will be direct spacecraft to Earth due to interference of other bodies, like the moon, another communication satellite system may be used to relay messages between the spacecraft and ground control. Store and forward is a possible communication architecture for the spacecraft to ground control. However, this is not an ideal situation in case real time decisions are needed and cannot afford delays. To communicate with the ground station through the Deep Space Network (DSN), communications must be within a range of 2-35 GHz. (4) Average spacecraft communication equipment use approximately 20 Watts of power. The signal loses the majority of its energy while traveling to Earths surface meaning the ground station must be able to read small energies. One way to energize the signal is to send it at a higher frequency. This increase comes at a price since noise interference will also increase with frequency.

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Another way to decrease power consumption on the spacecraft is to add error detecting and correcting code techniques. (4) Using error detection and correction code will help improve

ground controls accuracy to analyze the spacecrafts signal. A high gain/high gain will be used to transmit the data between the spacecraft and Earth. Potential frequency bands are, Ka-Band Deep Space and X-Band Earth Science. Ka Band allows for faster links, which will be important for mission critical messages, but will be more susceptible to power loss. This frequency band will be used for uplink to earth communications which have a frequency of 34.20-34.70 GHz. (12) The downlink system will used X-Band frequencies due to their history of reliable spacecraft to earth communications. The downlink antenna will operate at frequencies between 8.4-8.45 GHz. (12) A third antenna will be added to the spacecraft for redundancy and near Earth communications (less than 2 million kilometers from Earth). It will operate in the X-band at 7.190-7.235 GHz for uplink signals and 8.45-8.50 GHz for downlink. 3.f Command & Data Handling The primary function of the command and data handling subsystem is to process and distribute commands, as well as process, store, and format data. This subsystem is related to the communications and ground control subsystems. Ground control uses the communications

subsystems to send procedures to the on board computer and vice versa. (18) The on board computer will primarily perform autonomously and likely receive very few commands from ground control. The command processing aspect of this subsystem will need to execute orbit and attitude corrections and changes throughout the mission. These commands will come from ground control, during the time the spacecraft is on its way from Earth to the asteroid. These commands are low

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in complexity and do not take up a lot of processing. These commands also do not need to be performed in real-time. The position of the spacecraft can be estimated and the command can be sent early, so the transmission delay can be ignored. These commands could also be predetermined and stored on the computer. The telemetry command processing aspect will be a highly important in this mission. Whenever the spacecraft arrives at the asteroid, many attitude commands will need to be processed in real time. This needs to be done autonomously as the transmission delay will cause the command to be executed while the asteroid is in a different position. A variety of sensors to track the position, relative velocity, and center of the asteroid will be used. The computer needs to be able to process all of this data quickly and accurately. There are three different architectures that can be used for the command and data handling subsystem. The first that can be used is the centralized architecture. This type has one central processor connected to each instrument or subsystem. This is a highly reliable

architecture. However, it works best with only a few subsystems. Another problem with this architecture is that there is a large amount of wiring that needs to be done. Whenever a new component is added, more wiring needs to be implemented as well as new software. (10)(18) The next architecture is the ring. The central processor and each component are connected in series. This allows for each component to have the same information as well as limits the amount of wiring. However, if one component fails, the other components can no longer receive information. (18) The last configuration is the BUS architecture. The central processor and all components are all connected via a network BUS. This results in a reliable system that can implement fault tolerance and redundancy with limited impact to physical constraints such as size, weight, and

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power. (18) The disadvantage is that the systems throughput is bottlenecked by the size of the BUS network. The BUS architecture is the most likely candidate at this time because the amount of data to compute is large, as well as multiple computers will be used. (10) Table 2 illustrates a trade study on possible computers that have all been on previous space flight missions. The key aspects in determining if the correct computer for the mission include the word length, memory, performance, radiation hardness, connectivity, heritage, and price. Each of these characteristics were given a weight based on the conditions of the mission. A higher weight indicates a bigger importance for that characteristic.

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Table 2: Trade Study of Computer Candidates

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There is a risk of radiation causing interference with the on board computer for this mission. Radiation hardness needs to be taken heavily into account when choosing the on board computer. The spacecraft will not have any protection from radiation due to not having the Earths protection. The radiation hardness was the largest portion that was taken into consideration for choosing the on board computer. Another important requirement is the performance of the computer. The computer will likely have to process many commands at the same time. The computer will be receiving a large variety of data from many different sensors. The computer will have to process all of the data quickly in order to act in time. If the computer takes too long to process the received data would be irrelevant. The memory of the computer is also important whenever many commands need to be handled at the same time. It needs a large amount of random access memory in order to process and use all the data. Price is always a large contributor for any mission. A cheaper product was given a better score. The connectivity, heritage, and word length were not considered to be as important so their weights were smaller than the other characteristics. They werent considered as important because they are not directly related to the main portion of the mission conditions. A trade study was conducted with a focus on these attributes and the Honeywell RH32 currently the best candidate. (10) The number of computers used on the spacecraft will be either two or three. There needs to be at least two computers so that there is enough processing power to handle all the data. There also needs to be redundancy so that there are no failure points during the critical parts of the mission. If there were a failure during the capture of the asteroid, the mission would be

compromised and the time, effort, and money put into it would be a waste. The added computer or computers would help increase the success rate of the mission. There is no human life aboard the spacecraft, which means that a backup to the backup is not necessarily mandatory. In order to

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decide whether two or three computers will be used, the amount of processes and data rates of each device needs to be known. This is going to be followed up in future work. (10) 3.g Guidance, Navigation, and Control To capture an asteroid, the spacecraft will have to undergo a series of burns to reach the asteroid and place it into lunar orbit. After being launched, the vehicle will continually spiral outwards from Earth to reach an orbit similar to that of Earths. Over roughly two years, the spacecraft will alter its orbit before it can rendezvous with the asteroid. This will be done using a phase orbit. During this time, very few adjustments in regards to orbit and attitude control would be needed. The capturing of the asteroid requires many or even constant attitude adjustments in order to ensure a successful capture. After capturing the asteroid, the spacecraft will enter another phasing orbit and make its way to the moon. Once the spacecraft arrives at the moon it will continue to complete a series of thrusts to place the asteroid into a retrograde lunar orbit. Lunar flybys will assist in propelling the spacecraft to the asteroid. rendezvousing with the asteroid and returning it. The vehicle will be semi-autonomous. It will be able to perform all major decisions and thrusts on its own. Ground control will be responsible for minor adjustments as needed and to repair any bugs. Ground control will receive periodic updates of the spacecraft and the success of each task. The spacecraft will receive confirmation from ground control that it is safe to capture the asteroid based on simulations on measured characteristics of the asteroid. The spacecrafts location must always be tracked. The spacecraft and asteroid location are essential to completing the task. NASA has Near-Earth Object Program (NEO) which has tracked various asteroids, including the intended target. To track the spacecraft, either Microcosm Autonomous Navigation System (MANS) or Earth and Star Sensing systems can be used. [8] Control is essential when

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Both systems allow for autonomy and planetary orbits. These systems are more accurate compared to other systems that could be used. Accurate tracking of the spacecraft is a key requirement for a successful mission, especially whenever the asteroid is being captured. Both MANS and Earth and Star Sensing systems will be used to ensure redundancy in case of a failure. These will be used to make sure the spacecraft can be accurately tracked at all times. The Earth sensor will also be used to guide the antennas to point accurately to ground control. Sun sensors will also be used to determine the spacecrafts orientation relative to the sun. The sun sensors will also be used to determine which direction to face the solar panel arrays. Relative position and distance between the asteroid and spacecraft is vital for proper control. The spacecraft will need to know how to alter its velocity upon arrival. One way to detect this is using laser Doppler velocimetry. The centers of the spacecraft and asteroid need to align for a proper capture. Image processing or active sonar will aid in alignment. This device will also determine the asteroids spin rate and spin axis. It is important to know these two characteristics so that proper measures can be taken to capture the asteroid. The capturing mechanism needs to approach the asteroid along the asteroids spin axis so that it will be easier to despin the asteroid. If the spin rate is known, it is also easier to estimate how much action and fuel is needed in order to despin the asteroid. The gathered information from this device will also be sent to ground control, so that ground control can simulate the capturing action to make sure there are no problems. Simulations are helpful to predict how the spacecraft will react to this key moment in the mission. Attitude control is another key system while capturing the asteroid. The spacecraft must keep its heading and not rotate while approaching the asteroid. While in the process of capturing the asteroid, it is important for the spacecraft to be aligned with the center of the asteroid. The

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attitude control system will have to keep the spacecraft aligned with the center during this phase. An IMU will be used to detect changes in attitude and Vernier Thrusters or reaction wheels will correct for the changes. The equipment must be able to provide large torques to counteract any forces caused by the asteroid. A system of moveable mass will also be needed to correct the inertia the asteroid adds to the spacecraft asteroid system. The asteroids mass is not perfectly distributed throughout it, which would cause a change in the spacecrafts inertia matrix. The moveable mass system will help fix this problem, so that the center of mass remains in line with the thrusters. 3.h Power Numerous different power supplies have been discussed, including: Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generators (RTGs), Nuclear Fission Reactors, Solar Panel Arrays, and other experimental technologies have been explored, including Low Energy Nuclear Reactors (LENR) and Kinetic Fluid Stabilized Nuclear Reactor (KIFSNR) which is a modified version of a ground based fission reactor with systems enabling operation in outer space. The reason for so many power sources have been considered is due to the power requirements for different propulsion systems. Taking into account for almost any space mission using ion propulsion, the propulsion system consumes the majority of the power. After much discussion on what propulsion system will best suite this mission, it has currently been determined that Hall Effect thrusters will serve as the spacecrafts main propulsion system. The specific type of Hall Effect thruster that is being considered uses up to 25 kW of power per thruster, which presented an enormous road block when it comes to the power system. (3) The best technology to supply that amount of electrical power is currently solar panels. For this mission, a solar panel array has been designed that will provide an estimated 26.26 kW of power per array. Two arrays are currently a part of the spacecraft design, which would supply an

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estimated total of 52.52 kW of electrical power for the Hall Effect thrusters and other sub-systems alike. These calculations are approximations, but have been calculated based on the type of solar panels which were used in the Deep Space 1 technology validation mission and have shown the capability to provide this amount of power for the missions solar panel area. The design of the solar panel array (SPA), is intended to maximize the area, but still allow the panels to be stowed in order to minimize the space they take up during the launch of the vehicle. The current design is shown on the following page. There are eight rectangular panels with six individual solar panels per disk shaped array. There are also two triangular panels hinged on each rectangular panel that fold onto each side for launch, for a total of 16 triangular panels per SPA. Multiple high capacity Lithium Ion Batteries will store the energy generated. The SPA design is presented in Figure 8. (14)

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Figure 8: Solar Array. Based on SCARLET Solar array used on Deep Space 1. Using the NASA Technology Validation Report it has been determined the solar array in this figure could produce 26.26 kW of power. There would be two of these arrays on the spacecraft that will have that ability to rotate completely around the spacecraft using a special direct drive electric motor that is discussed below (14) The power supply system was designed mostly around the propulsion system as previously mentioned. The SPA will power four Hall Effect Thrusters for the main propulsion system each thruster could use 12.5 kW of power at a time if all 4 are being fired, or two thrusters could be fired at a maximum of 25 kW each, which is the limit of power that can be used. The SPA can be rotated 180 in the x-direction (about the z-axis) from the origin of the SPA coordinate frame as shown in Figure 8, using motor-1. The entire coordinate frame can be shifted

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180 about the y-axis relative to motor-2s coordinate frame, allowing the array to be moved up or down. In addition to the motions described, both arrays can be shifted 360 about the entire

spacecrafts x-axis, (can rotate around the exterior of the spacecrafts hull). Enabling the SPAs to move in all of these directions was designed to ensure that the panels always receive the maximum amount of solar radiation possible given the spacecrafts relative position to the sun. All of the motors that move the SPAs are direct drive motors similar to the design shown in Figure 9. Using a modified direct drive motor to move the SPAs will proved a significant advantage over traditional electric DC or AC motors. The most important advantage is an increased efficiency, due to the removal of power waste from friction.

Figure 9: Example of Direct Drive Electric Motor (22)

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Figure 10: Hall Effect Thruster Operation Method

1 kW of power will be allocated for the electrical motor use to move the SPAs. Allocating 1 kW of power should be more than sufficient to move the SPA into an adequate position, because the motors do not need to move fast and they will not require a constant supply of power. 1520 W have been allocated for computer systems, communications, claw operation, sensors, scanners, and any other control systems that require electrical power. Once the power requirement calculations have been evaluated more thoroughly these allocations may change 3.i Thermal The ability for the satellite to perform in a wide range of temperature differences is extremely important for the success of the mission. The ability for the rocket to also maintain proper stability during launch is also dependent on the rocket itself to withstand the temperatures produced with the main thrusters active. Once the rocket has escaped the atmosphere, the outside temperature will drop dramatically which will need to be taken into consideration. On the low end of the extreme temperature spectrum, circuits and other parts of the electronics that were based on semiconductors were shown

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to still be operative even at temps as low as negative 55 degrees Celsius. Due to this constraint, a coating of Hughson White Paint A-276-1036 will be used on the outside of the spacecraft (13). This will create an ambient temperature inside the spacecraft of roughly -24C (18). The ambient temperature inside the craft does not take into account the heat output of the internal systems on board. However, through rough estimation at this point it could be assumed that when all electronics on board are running that the internal temperature will be somewhere close to the freezing temperature of water, 0C. The ambient temperature of the spacecraft without the electronics on will allow for the circuits and transistors of the computers to run correctly, the batteries however, would be best preserved at a temperature of at least 21C. This is due to the self-discharge rate of the batter increasing with an increase in temperature. The self-discharge rate is the amount of energy that is lost naturally because of the reaction occurring the battery. At 21C, the discharge rate is roughly 8% per month (16). This is an optimal level so that the battery loses the least amount of charge, while still being in an environment that will allow it to function. In order to maintain this temperature, heating pads will be placed on the batteries to keep them at this minimal temperature. The pads will be made of kapton with nichrome wires running through them. A battery heat sensor will be used to turn the heat pad on and off to maintain this minimum temperature (3). The electronics, the propulsion system, as well as the satellites position in the orbit with respect to the sun, can greatly increase the internal temperature of the satellite which may cause problems which will have to be taken into consideration. In the current design of the spacecraft, there is sufficient space between the booster and electronics to create a buffer that will absorb some of the heat produced by the propulsion system. The cavity that outfits the electronics portion may

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also require a type of refrigeration to keep the temperature inside the satellite at a certain range due to the energy produced by the sun. Two energy systems were discussed, a radioisotope thermoelectric generator and a solar panel system utilizing lithium ion batteries. Both energy systems release heat while in operation and will need to utilize a cooling system in order to maintain stability. With the number of heat sources on the spacecraft, a diphasic loop will most likely need to be implemented as the cooling system (1). The coolant that will utilized will be ammonia due to its properties. The heat distribution system will consist of copper tubing running the length of craft containing the electronics and ion batteries, as well as a compressor and a pump. Heat sensors will be placed on the computers on board as well as other electronic sensors to maintain an ambient temperature within the hull of roughly 21C to preserve an optimal temperature for all the onboard systems. 3.j Scientific Instruments and Other Payloads There are two additional payloads that the spacecraft has to carry besides its own components. These two payloads are the asteroid capturing claw mechanism and the asteroid 2009 BD. Each of these creates forces and torques that affect the spacecraft. The claw is one of the most vital parts for this mission to succeed. If the claw fails the asteroid cannot be captured making the mission a failure. The claw will be a four pronged mechanism that will encapsulate the asteroid. It will be designed with several joints so that a secure fit around the asteroid can be achieved. Each prong of the claw will also be connected to its surrounding prongs by a tether to ensure that the asteroid cannot slip out from in between them. It was designed to be 35 meters in length and made of titanium. This was chosen because it is the same length as the maximum circumference that the asteroid can possess. The asteroid is not a perfect sphere, but these factors of safety have to be used so that the mission can succeed. If

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the spacecraft arrived at the asteroid and could not fully wrap around the asteroid the mission would be a failure. The claw is also designed to be compact so that the total length of the spacecraft system will not be too long and so it can fit onto the launch vehicle comfortably. The claw will also have a backup system in the event that it could not successfully capture the target asteroid. There will be a net like structure made of a composite fiber woven between the prongs of the claw. If the claw cannot sturdily hold the asteroid in place the net will still be able to confine the asteroid to a controlled area. This backup system is a form of redundancy and fixes the major failure point of the mission. The asteroid that is going to be captured is asteroid 2009 BD. This asteroid was chosen due to many characteristics that make it an optimal choice. The asteroid has a diameter between 4 and 11 meters. This is not a large asteroid so it makes it easier to capture. It also has a relatively low excess hyperbolic velocity compared to other asteroids of its size at only 1.2 km/s. The asteroid also has a density that is slightly less than water. (7) This suggests that the asteroid is made of a very porous material similar to pumice. The low density would mean it has a lower mass than other asteroids of its size, which would lessen the loads it exerts onto the spacecraft system. The asteroid also has a similar orbital path to earth. The semi major access of the asteroids orbit is 1.0089 Au which is very similar to Earth. The eccentricity of its orbit is only 0.041 which is not that much different than the 0.0167 of Earths. The inclination difference between the ecliptic plane and the asteroid is only 0.3847 degrees, which makes it easy to approach the asteroid. These characteristics makes it so that there is not a large delta V needed to get to and from the asteroid when compared to other candidate asteroids. (9)

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4. Table Summaries Table 3: Mass Budget for the Mission. Total mass of spacecraft was estimated to be approximately 4500 kg. Of that weight, propellant was estimated to be at least half of the total mass. The rest of the subsystems were rough estimations for their total mass and subject to change. Mass Budget Payload Structure Thermal Power TT&C Computer Attitude determination & control Propulsion Propellant Other Total % of mass mass(kg) 0.15 2700 0.25 4500 0.06 1080 0.21 3780 0.07 1260 0.04 720 0.06 0.13 1.1 0.03 210 1080 2340 27000 1350 45810

Table 4: Power Budget for Mission. The solar power arrays produce 52 kW of power. Of this power, the propulsion system is predicted to use the majority of the power. The electromechanical systems include mechanisms to control the claw, movable mass, and reaction wheels. The remaining power is divided between C&DH, GNC, and communications. System Propulsion Electromechanical C&DH GNC Comm. Total Power % 0.8 0.1 0.02 0.03 0.05 1 Total Power (W) 42016 5252 1050 1576 2626 52520

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Table 5: Cost Budget Estimations for Mission. Estimated budget costs for each subsystem. NASA has a budget of approximately $2.6 billion which shows these estimations are valid. Payload Structure Thermal Power TT&C Computer GNC Propulsion Launch Vehicle Total Cost Combined Cost Non-recurring Cost($1000) Recurring($1000) 164160 4674 24624 912 96390 6400 1019700 3712 70416 4500 179172 10784 1293894 3308 135000 2983356 34290 3017646

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5. Recommendations for Future Work The project is in the preliminary design phase. A rough schematic will be used to create a more robust spacecraft with the given limitations and mission objective. A rough estimate of total mass, cost, and power has been conducted and were overestimated. The range of these values can be lowered and more accurate once more key decisions are made like the size and number of batteries, how much cooling will be needed on board the spacecraft, the size and number thrusters needed, and the most efficient design to maintain a certain center of mass on board the spacecraft. Varying availability of resources may also contribute to changes in the overall mission structure. Requirements may be based on budget constraints and possibly the advancement of modern technology. As far as the structure subsystem is concerned, more information will be needed concerning the size of the interior components such as the electronics, cooling systems, and energy source. Once a more detailed list of components are found the structure can be built around the interior to supply a sturdy encasing for internal parts. While there are many options concerning the launch vehicle, a cost effective choice will be made once the entire payload weight and size is calculated. This will most likely not be determined until late during the design process once most of the key details are found. The propulsion system is for the most part determined. However, the amount of onboard fuel that will be required will need further calculations to determine if the tanks containing the fuel will have room on the spacecraft.

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The ground control system will need further software development in order to maintain proper contact with the satellite. Ground control will also need more development for the data it will receive from the satellite. The communication system will need further research for

redundancy of systems. One important error that needs to be properly addressed is when the signal cannot reach Earth due to some interference of another body. Potential solutions include using existing systems like store and forward communication systems. The command and data subsystem is largely dependent on the amount of data that will be gathered during the mission. Further research needs to be done to see at what data rates each sensor and device sends to the computer. The data that is sent needs to be processed as quickly as possible, more computers need to be added to accomplish this. This can not be done until the amount of data that is being sent is known. The guidance, navigation, and control subsystem still has progress to be made. The location of each sensor and device needs to be chosen based on where it would be most effective. There is also a possibility of adding further devices to create redundancy in the system. Further calculations will be made to determine if the current plan is effective. There also needs to be more development for a movable mass system so moments of inertia about the axis of the thrusters are maintained. Also, the power output of the spacecraft will also need to be defined to choose the proper thrusting system to counteract unwanted forces. The power system has been determined for the most part. Additional calculations will have to be made once all other systems are in place to make sure there is enough power available. The future decisions for the thermal system will be decided by the length of the hull containing the onboard electronic and power systems. The amount of heat that will be given off by the electronics will need to be determined to better regulate the temperature of the onboard devices. These values

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need to be calculated to determine the amount of coolant needed, the amount of piping needed, as well as the type of pump can compressor that will be required. The claw mechanism needs to be further refined to ensure that it can accomplish the mission, such as adding more prongs or increasing its length. Another possibility that needs to be looked into is the addition of redundancies to ensure a successful mission. Other ideas along with a netting are still be considered and need further research. 6. Conclusion The work done so far has furthered the teams progress in creating a spacecraft that will be able to travel to an asteroid and return it to a lunar orbit. The overall structure has been further defined in shape and size as well as the allocation of power required by the various systems. The launch vehicle was decided on rough estimates of the total payload. The MCC, POCC, and SOCC will all be stationed at JPL in Pasadena, CA due to its resources available The X and K bands were are the frequencies that the communication system will use. The Deep Space Network will receive the communication signals and relay the messages to ground control. The bus architecture was chosen due to its quicker response time and its ability to add multiple computers which is desired for this mission. Thruster type and location were determined to maximize control of the vehicle. It was determined that a rechargeable power system by means of solar panel arrays would be the optimal choice due to the needs of the spacecraft because the duration and nature of the mission. The capturing mechanism was designed to ensure a successful capture regardless of the asteroids dimensions. Much thought has been put into the type of thermal control system that will be needed for the spacecraft. The decision to include both a type of heating and cooling system would be best

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to ensure an optimal temperature inside the spacecraft for all onboard electronics to function properly. The design will optimize the process of creating a spacecraft that will be able go into deep space and return celestial bodies of varying sizes. This goal has been a driving force in the decision making. This line of thought has brought about original ideas such as movable masses inside the spacecraft to move the center of gravity as well the claw capturing mechanism.

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7. References [1] Bensaada, M., R. Roubache, A. Bellar, and L. Boukhris. "Satellite Thermal Control: Cooling by a Diphasic Loop." Engineering and Technology 289th ser. 59.59 (2011): 1524-526. Waset.org. World Academy of Science. Web. <http://www.waset.org/journals/waset/v59/v59289.pdf>. [2] "Delta IV." United Launch Alliance, LLC. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2013.<http://www.ulalaunch.com/site/pages/Products_DeltaIV.shtml>. [3] "Blue Sky Energy Inc." Blue Sky Energy Inc. N.p., n.d. Web. 03 Dec. 2013. [4] "Deep Space Network." Deep Space Network. N.p., n.d. Web. 1 Dec. 2013. [5] "Falcon 9." SpaceX. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2013. <http://www.spacex.com/falcon9>. [6 ] "High Hydrogen Content Nanostructured Polymer Radiation Protection System." NASA. Nasa, n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2013. <http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/709702main_ignatiev_update.pdf>. [7] "ICED 2013 Innovation Boot Camp (PSU)." ICED 2013 Innovation Boot Camp PSU. N.p., n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2013. <http://iced2013.wordpress.com/miscellaneous/>. [8] LeCroy, Jerry, Dean Hallmark, Peter Scott, and Richard Howard. Comparison of Navigation Solutions for Autonomous Spacecraft from Multiple Sensor Systems. Tech. Huntsville: NASA, n.d. Print. [9] "Missions - NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory." Missions - NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Nov. 2013. [10] Null, Linda, and Julia Lobur. The Essentials of Computer Organization and Architecture. Sudbury, MA: Jones and Bartlett, 2006. Print. [11] "Reflecting on Space Benefits: A Shining Example." Reflecting on Space Benefits: A Shining Example. NASA, n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2013. <http://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2006/ch_9.html>. [12] Schier, James S., John J. Rush, Dan Williams, and Pete Vrotsos. Space Communication Architecture Supporting Exploration and Science: Plans and Studies for 2010-2030. Tech. NASA, n.d. Web. 2 Dec. 2013. [13] "The Solar-AC FAQ: Table of Absorptivity and Emissivity of Common Materials and Coatings." The Solar-AC FAQ: Table of Absorptivity and Emissivity of Common Materials and Coatings. N.p., n.d. Web. 02 Dec. 2013. [14] USA. NASA/JPL. AEC-Able Engineering Co., Inc. The Scarlet Solar Array Technology 39

Validation and Flight Results. By David M. Murphy. Pasadena, CA: AEC ABLE/ JPL, n.d. Print. USA. NASA/JPL. California Institute of Technology. Mission Design For Deep Space 1: A [15] Low-Thrust Technology Validation Mission. By Marc D. Rayman, Pamela A. Chadbourne, Jeffery S. Culwell, and Steven N. William. Pasadena, CA: California Institute of Technology, 2001. Print. [16] Valen, Lars Ole and Shoesmith, Mark I. (2007). The effect of PHEV and HEV duty cycles on battery and battery pack performance (PDF). 2007 Plug-in Highway Electric Vehicle Conference: Proceedings. Retrieved 11 June 2010. [17] Verma, S. S., Dr. "Maintaining Reliability Under Extreme Conditions in Space." Maintaining Reliability Under Extreme Conditions in Space. Electronicsforu, n.d. Web. 20 Oct. 2013. <http://electronicsforu.com/electronicsforu/circuitarchives/view_article.asp?sno=1378>. [18] Wertz, James Richard., David F. Everett, and Jeffery John. Puschell. Space Mission Engineering: The New SMAD. Hawthorne, CA: Microcosm, 2011. Print. [19] Brophy, John. Asteroid Retrieval Feasibility Study. Tech. Pasadenea: Keck Institute for Space Studies, 2012. Print. [20] http://www.flickr.com/photos/jurvetson/6914203893/ [21] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:HallThruster_2.jpg [22] http://www.autospeed.com/cms/A_113029/article.html [23] http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewpr.html?pid=28044

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