Unit Ii

SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS
- 18 -
UNIT II
DEFINITIONS
Alternating quantity: An alternating quantity is one which has alternate positive and
negative directions whose magnitude undergoes a define series of changes in definite
intervals of time and in which the sequence of changes
while positive is identical with the sequence of changes
while negative.
Waveform: The graph showing the variation of
alternating quantity with time. Usually alternating
quantity will be along the x axis and time will be along
the y axis.
Instantaneous value: The value of an alternating Fig 1: Waveform of a
quantity at any instant of time Sinusoidally varying
quantity
Cycle: When an alternating quantity goes through a complete set of positive and
negative values it is said to have completed one cycle.
Time Period (T): The time taken by an alternating quantity to one complete one
cycle is known as time period. Unit is seconds(s).
Frequency(f): The number of cycles per second is called as frequency. Unit is Hertz
(Hz). In India the standard frequency of power supply is 50Hz or 50 cycles/sec.
Amplitude: The maximum positive or negative value which an alternating quantity
attains during one complete cycle is called as amplitude or peak value or maximum
value.
GEERATIO OF SIUSOIDAL AC VOLTAGE
Alternating voltage can be generated by
(i) rotating a coil in a uniform stationary magnetic field as shown in fig.2.
(ii) Rotating magnetic field within a stationary coil as shown in fig 3.

Fig 2 Fig 3


- 19 -
The magnitude of alternating voltage depends on the no: of turns of the coil, strength
of the field and the strength at which the coil or magnetic field rotates.

AVERAGE VALUE OF SIUSOIDALLY VARYIG QUATITY
Analytical method:
Consider a thin strip of thickness d.
Area of the strip= i.d
Total area under the curve from 0 to

0
id
=

0
d Sin I
m

=

0
d Sin I
m
] cos [
0

=
m
I
] 0 cos cos [ + =
m
I
m
I 2 =
Average value I
avg
=
Base
Area
m
I 2
=
Similarly, V
avg
=
m
V 2

RMS VALUE OF SIUSOIDALLY VARYIG QUATITY.
Analytical method:
Consider a thin strip of thickness d in the squared waveform.
Area of the strip= i
2
.d
Total area under the curve from 0 to

0
2
d i
=

0
2
) ( d Sin I
m

=

0
2 2
d Sin I
m

|
\
|
=

0
2
d
2
cos2 - 1
I
m

(
=
2
2 sin
2
0
2

m
I

( ) ( )
(
= 0 sin sin
2
1
0
2
2

m
I
2
2
m
I
=

- 20 -
RMS value I
rms
=
Base
wave squared of Area
=
2
2
m
I
=

2
m
I
=
Similarly, V
rms
2
m
V
=

FORM FACTOR
The ratio of rms value to average value of an alternating quantity is called as form
factor
value avg
value Rms
K factor Form
f
= ,
For sinusoidal wave, 11 . 1
2 2
2
2
= = =

m
m
f
I
I
K
PEAK FACTOR (Amplitude factor)
The ratio of maximum value to rms value of an alternating quantity is called as peak
factor
value ms R
value ax M
K factor eak P
p
= ,
For sinusoidal wave, 414 . 1 2
2
= = =
m
m
p
I
I
K
PHASE : Phase of an alternating quantity at any particular instant is the fractional
part of a period or cycle through which the quantity has advanced from the selected
origin.
PHASE DIFFERECE:
When two alternating quantities (two voltages, two currents or one voltage and one
current) are considered simultaneously, the frequency being same, they may not be
passing through the same point at the same instant of time. Then there is a phase
difference between those alternating quantities.
The phase difference is measured by the angular difference between the points where
the two curves cross the base or reference line in the same direction. It is specified
either in degrees or in radians.

- 21 -
The quantity that is ahead in time is said to lead the other quantity or the quantity that
is behind in time is said to lag the other quantity.

In the waveform shown in fig 4 the voltage v is
leading current i by an angle or the current i is
lagging voltage v by an angle . Or the phase
difference between voltage and current is .

Fig 4.
The two quantities are said to be in phase with each
other if they pass through the zero values at the same
instant of time and rise in the same direction as shown
in the fig 5. In this case the phase difference is zero.
F
Fig 5.
The two quantities are said to be in phase opposition
with each other if they pass through the zero values at the
same instant of time but rise in opposite direction as
shown in the fig 6. In this case the phase difference is
180
0
.

Fig 6.
When the two quantities have a phase difference of 90
0
or /2 radians , then they are
said to be in phase quadrature.


- 22 -
AALYSIS OF AC CIRCUITS

Purely Resistive Circuit
Consider a resistor having resistance value of R ohms as
shown in fig, across which an alternating voltage v is
applied.
Let the applied voltage be given by
t Sin V Sin V v
m m
= = .(1)
As a result of this alternating voltage, an alternating current i will be flowing
through the circuit. Because of the alternating current there will be a voltage drop
across the resistor
Voltage drop across the resistor R, iR v
R
=
The applied voltage has to supply the drop in the resistor
i.e. v v
R
= or v iR =
t Sin V iR
m
=
t Sin
R
V
i
m
=
Alternating current i will be maximum when t Sin =1
i.e. Maximum current,
R
V
I
m
m
=
Sub
m
I in the expression for i
t Sin I i
m
= (2)
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the voltage and current are in phase with each other or
the phase difference between voltage and current is zero. Fig shows the waveform and
vector (phasor) diagram of voltage and current.


- 23 -

Power
Power is the product of voltage and current. Since voltage and current are varying at
every instant of time, power is also varying.
Instantaneous power i v p = t Sin I t Sin V
m m
=
t Sin I V
m m

2
=
|
\
|
=
2
2 1 t Cos
I V
m m

t Cos
I V I V
m m m m
2
2 2
=
Thus the instantaneous power is having two terms, one constant term
2
m m
I V
and an
alternating term t Cos
I V
m m
2
2
of frequency double that of voltage and current
Average power over a cycle P
|
|
\
|
|
\
|
=

2
0
2
2 2 2
1
t d t Cos
I V I V
m m m m

=
2
m m
I V
2 2
m m
I V
= = VI =
Where V and I are the rms values of voltage and current.
Power Curve

PURELY IDUCTIVE CIRCUIT
Consider an inductor having inductance value of L Henries as
shown in fig, across which an alternating voltage v is applied.
t Sin V Sin V v
m m
= = .(1)
As a result of this alternating voltage, an alternating current i
will be flowing through the circuit. Because of the alternating current there will be a
voltage developed across the inductor.

- 24 -
Voltage developed across the inductor L,
dt
di
L v
L
=
Voltage developed across the inductor will be same as supply voltage v
i.e. v v
L
= or v
dt
di
L =
t Sin V
dt
di
L
m
=
tdt Sin
L
V
di
m
=
= tdt Sin
L
V
i
m
\
|
=
t Cos
L
V
m

|
|
\
|
|
\
|
=
2
t Sin
L
V
m

L is called as the inductive reactance (X
L
)

of the circuit. It is similar to
resistance in the case of a resistive circuit. Its unit is ohms
|
|
\
|
|
\
|
=
2
t Sin
X
V
i
L
m

Alternating current i will be maximum when
|
\
|

2
t Sin =1
L
m
m
X
V
I =
Sub
m
|
\
|
=
2
t Sin I i
m
(2)
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the current is lagging voltage by an angle
2
rad (90
0
)
or the voltage is leading current by an angle
2
rad (90
0
) and the phase difference
between voltage and current is
2
rad (90
0
). Fig shows the waveform
and vector (phasor) diagram of
voltage and current in purely
inductive circuit.


- 25 -

Power
every instant of time, power also will be varying.
Instantaneous power i v p =

|
\
|
=
2
t Sin I t Sin V
m m
) ( t Cos t Sin I V
m m
=
t tCos Sin I V
m m
= t Sin
I V
m m
2
2
=
Thus the instantaneous power is having an alternating term |
\
|
t Sin
I V
m m
2
2
of
frequency double that of voltage and current
Average power over a cycle P t d t Sin
I V
m m

\
|
=
2
0
2
2 2
1
= 0
Thus the average power in the case of a purely inductive circuit is zero.
Power Curve

PURELY CAPACITIVE CIRCUIT
Consider a capacitor having capacitance value of C Farads as
shown in fig, across which an alternating voltage v is applied.
t Sin V Sin V v
m m
= = (1)
As a result of this alternating voltage, an alternating current i
will be flowing through the circuit.
Alternating current,
dt
dq
i = (rate of change of charge)
Charge
c
Cv q = , where C is the capacitance value and

- 26 -
v
c
is the voltage developed across the capacitor.
Voltage developed across the capacitor will be same as supply voltage v
i.e. v v
c
=
Cv q =
Sub q in the expression for i
( )
dt
Cv d
i = ( ) t Sin CV
dt
d
m
=
( ) t Cos CV
m
=

|
|
|
\
|
= t Cos
C
V
m
1
|
|
\
|
|
\
|
+ =
2
1

t Sin
C
V
m

C
1
is called as the capacitive reactance (X
c
)

of the circuit. It is similar to
resistance in the case of a resistive circuit. Its unit is ohms
|
|
\
|
|
\
|
+ =
2
t Sin
X
V
i
c
m

Alternating current i will be maximum when
|
\
|
+
2
t Sin =1
c
m
m
X
V
I =
Sub
m
|
\
|
+ =
2
t Sin I i
m
(2)
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the current is leading voltage by an angle
2
rad (90
0
)
or the voltage is lagging current by an angle
2
rad (90
0
) and the phase difference
between voltage and current is
2
rad (90
0
). Fig shows the waveform and vector
(phasor) diagram of voltage and
current in a purely capacitive circuit.


- 27 -

Power
|
\
|
+ =
2
t Sin I t Sin V
m m

t tCos Sin I V
m m
= t tCos Sin I V
m m
=
t Sin
I V
m m
2
2
=
Thus the instantaneous power is having an alternating term t Sin
I V
m m
2
2
of
frequency double that of voltage and current
Average power over a cycle P t d t Sin
I V
m m

\
|
=
2
0
2
2 2
1

= 0
Thus the average power in the case of a purely capacitive circuit is zero.
Power Curve

R-L CIRCUIT
t Sin V Sin V v
m m
= = .(1)
As a result of this alternating voltage, an alternating
current i will be flowing through the circuit. Because
of the alternating current there will be a voltage developed
across the resistor and across the inductor.
Voltage across the resistor R, iR v
R
= , in phase with i.
Voltage across the inductor L,
L L
iX v = , leading i by an angle of . 90 or radians 2 /
0


- 28 -
The applied voltage has to supply the voltage across the resistor and inductor.
i.e.
L R
v v v + = (vector sum, since they are in different directions.)
+ =
2 2
L R
V V + =
2 2
) ( ) (
L
iX iR + =
2 2
L
X R i
,
2 2
Z X R
L
= + Impedance of RL series circuit.
Thus = Z i v
Z
v
Z
v
i

=
Z
t Sin V
m
) (
=
Alternating current i will be maximum when ) ( t Sin =1
Z
V
I
m
m
=
Sub
m
) ( = t Sin I i
m
(2)
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the current lags voltage by an angle . Fig shows the
waveform and vector (phasor) diagram of voltage and current in an R L series circuit.
R
X
IR
IX
V
V
L L
R
L
= = = tan
|
\
|
=

R
X
L 1
tan

Power

- 29 -
) ( = t Sin I t Sin V
m m

) ( = t Sin t Sin I V
m m

( )
2
) 2 (
=
t Cos Cos
I V
m m

( ) ) ( ) ( 2 B A Cos B A Cos SinASinB + = Q
) 2 (
2 2
= t Cos
I V
Cos
I V
m m m m

Thus the instantaneous power is having two terms a constant term |
\
|
Cos
I V
m m
2
and
an alternating term |
\
|
) 2 (
2
t Cos
I V
m m
of frequency double that of voltage and
current
Average power over a cycle P t d t Cos
I V
Cos
I V
m m m m

\
|
=
2
0
) 2 (
2 2 2
1

= Cos
I V
m m
2
= VICos
Where V and I are the rms values of voltage and current
Power Curve

R-C CIRCUIT
t Sin V Sin V v
m m
= = .(1)
As a result of this alternating voltage, an alternating
current i will be flowing through the circuit. Because
of the alternating current there will be a voltage
developed across the resistor and across the capacitor.

- 30 -
R
Voltage across the Capacitor C,
C C
iX v = , lagging i by an angle of . 90 or radians 2 /
0

The applied voltage has to supply the voltage across the resistor and inductor.
i.e.
C R
v v v + = (vector sum since they are in different
directions.)
+ =
2 2
C R
V V + =
2 2
) ( ) (
C
iX iR
+ =
2 2
C
X R i
,
2 2
Z X R
C
= + Impedance of RC series circuit.
Thus = Z i v
Z
v
Z
v
i

=

=
Z
t Sin V
m
) ( +
=
Alternating current i will be maximum when ) ( + t Sin =1
Z
V
I
m
m
=
Sub
m
) ( + = t Sin I i
m
(2)
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the current leads voltage by an angle . Fig shows the
waveform and vector (phasor) diagram of voltage and current in an R C series circuit.
R
X
IR
IX
V
V
C C
R
C
= = = tan
|
\
|
=

R
X
C 1
tan

Power

- 31 -
Instantaneous power i v p = ) ( + = t Sin I t Sin V
m m
) ( + = t Sin t Sin I V
m m

( )
2
) 2 ( ) ( +
=
t Cos Cos
I V
m m

) 2 (
2 2
+ = t Cos
I V
Cos
I V
m m m m

\
|
Cos
I V
m m
2
and
\
|
+ ) 2 (
2
t Cos
I V
m m
current
I V
Cos
I V
m m m m

\
|
+ =
2
0
) 2 (
2 2 2
1

= Cos
I V
m m
2
= VICos
Power Curve

R-L-C CIRCUIT
t Sin V Sin V v
m m
= = .(1)
As a result of this alternating voltage, an
alternating current i will be flowing through
the circuit. Because of the alternating current

- 32 -
there will be a voltage developed across the resistor, across the inductor and across
capacitor.
R
Voltage across the inductor L,
L L
iX v = , leading i by an angle of . 90 or radians 2 /
0

Voltage across the Capacitor C,
C C
iX v = , lagging i by an angle of . 90 or radians 2 /
0

The applied voltage has to supply the voltage across the resistor, inductor and
capacitor.
i.e.
C L R
v v v v + + = (vector sum since they are in different
directions.)
+ =
2 2
) (
C L R
V V V + =
2 2
) ( ) (
C L
iX iX iR
+ =
2 2
) (
C L
X X R i
, ) (
2 2
Z X X R
C L
= + Impedance of RLC series circuit.
Thus = Z i v
Z
v
Z
v
i

m
=

=
Z
t Sin V
m
) ( m
=
Alternating current i will be maximum when ) ( m t Sin =1
Z
V
I
m
m
=
Sub
m
) ( m t Sin I i
m
= (2)
From (1) and (2) it is clear that the current leads or lags voltage by an angle
depending on the values of X
L
& X
C
.
R
X X
IR
IX IX
V
V V
C L C L
R
C L

=
= tan

- 33 -
|
\
|
=

R
X X
C L 1
tan
(i) If X
L
> X
C
(similar to RL series circuit)
Current i will be lagging voltage v by an angle .
(ii) If X
L
<X
C
(similar to RC series circuit)
Current i will be lagging voltage v by an angle .
(iii) If X
L
= X
C
(similar to purely R circuit)
Current I will be in phase with voltage v.
Power
Instantaneous power i v p = ) ( m t Sin I t Sin V
m m
=
) ( m t Sin t Sin I V
m m
=

( )
2
) 2 ( ) ( m t Cos Cos
I V
m m

=
) 2 (
2 2
m t Cos
I V
Cos
I V
m m m m
=
\
|
Cos
I V
m m
2
and
\
|
) 2 (
2
m t Cos
I V
m m
current
I V
Cos
I V
m m m m

\
|
=
2
0
) 2 (
2 2 2
1
m
= Cos
I V
m m
2
= VICos
*******************************************************************************

Circuit Relation between V and I Power
R Voltage and current in phase with eachother VI
L Current lagging voltage by an angle of 90
0
0

- 34 -
C Current leading voltage by an angle of 90
0
0
RL Current lagging voltage by an angle VICos
RC Current leading voltage by an angle VICos
RLC
Current lags voltage by an angle ( X
L
> X
C
)
Current leads voltage by an angle ( X
L
< X
C
)

VICos

POWER
Real Power (Active Power)(True Power)(Power)
Active power is the product of rms values of voltage (V) & current (I) and
Cosine of the angle between voltage and current. The unit is Watts (W) or KiloWatts
(kW)
VICos Power =
Reactive Power
Reactive power is the product of rms values of voltage (V) & current (I) and Sine of
the angle between voltage and current. The unit is VoltAmpereReactive (VAr) or Kilo
VoltAmpereReactive (kVAr)
VISin active = Power Re
Apparent Power
Apparent power is the product of rms value of voltage (V) & rms value of current (I).
The unit is Volt-Ampere (VA) or Kilovolt Ampere (kVA)
VI Apparent = Power
Power Factor (pf)
The power factor of a circuit is the Cosine of the angle between voltage and current.
Cos pf = OR
It is also defined as the ratio of resistance to impedance of the circuit
Z
R
pf = OR
It is also defined as the ratio of real power to apparent power.
Power
Re
Apparent
power al
pf =
The maximum value of pf is unity.
Importance of powerfactor
The power consumed in an ac circuit is given by VICos P = . If the pf is
small, the active power generated decreases. To generate same active power

- 35 -
(as at good pf) from the generator at low pf, the capacity of the generator has
to be increased which involves additional investment.
While transmitting power, if the pf is small, the current in the transmission
line increases and hence copper loss (I
2
R) in the line increases and thus the
efficiency of transmission decreases.
If the pf is small, the current carrying capacity of the conductors has to be
increased. Thus large size conductors have to used for transmission of power,
which involves additional investment.

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SINGLE PHASE AC CIRCUITS

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