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Introduction
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Introduction
During the early stages of the drilling process, the hole will be lined with steel casing to prepare the well for production or deeper drilling. The steel casing provides a smooth bore for the tools necessary to drill and complete the well. The types of downhole equipment discussed in this section contribute to a good cement job; they help ensure a uniform cement sheath behind the casing. As you learn more about downhole equipment, keep in mind that any item that will be used inside the casing must be made of drillable material. A. Guiding and Floating Equipment B. Casing Attachments C. Primary Cementing Plugs D. Multiple-Stage Cementing Tools
Learning Objectives
Upon completion of this section, you should be familiar with: Functions of downhole equipment Descriptions of the basic types of equipment used downhole Uses and applications of downhole equipment
Topics
This chapter covers the following topics:
Guide Shoes
Guide shoes and down-jet guide shoes have the following primary purposes: They protect the casing string from the impact associated with landing casing on bottom They direct casing away from ledges, reducing the chance of sidewall cave-in They help casing pass through narrow, deviated holes and areas with hard shoulders
The standard guide shoe has a large-ID hole through its center, allowing maximum cement pumping rates and the passage of self-fill orifice tubes and balls dropped in the casing string. The
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rounded nose of these guide shoes is made from high-strength cement that can be drilled out easily with tri-cone rock bits or PDC bits. Down-jet guide shoes have additional side ports in the steel case that allow fluids to discharge through both the cement nose and the ports. The jetting action of the fluid pumped through these ports helps remove wellbore cuttings and filter cake.
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reports indicate that the HPUJ float shoe can substantially reduce the number of casing strings requiring secondary squeeze cementing operations. All casing sizes of the Super Seal II HPUJ float shoe use the same autofill strap used for the Super Seal II float valve. When engaged, this strap allows the casing to fill automatically with wellbore fluid while it is being run in the hole, saving time and reducing the ram effect of running casing.
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unit includes a weighted plastic valve and plastic orifice tube. The orifice tube holds the flapper open until a weighted plastic setting ball is dropped into the casing. Once the ball reaches the valve seat, pressure is applied to shear out the plastic orifice tube, which allows the valve to close. This equipment operates efficiently in mud systems containing high concentrations of lost-circulation material. The insert float valve is more economical than standard floating equipment but should not be used under any of the following circumstances: Figure 10.5 Super Seal Float Collar in wells over 7000 ft where pressures exceed the collapse pressure of the lightest weight range of casing being used (for example, 17 in., 20 lb/ft J55) when bottomhole temperature is more than 200F .
Figure 10.6 Insert Flapper Float Valve Self-Fill Unit and Insert Flapper Float Valve
Backpressure Valves
Backpressure valves were briefly discussed under float collars. They are one way valves that keep the flow of fluid from re-entering the
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casing. Two common types of valves are the flapper and poppet valves (Fig. 10.6). The flapper valve uses a spring-loaded flapper that has a rubber coating around a beveled edge, which seals on a tapered seat. The spring is a low force type (it requires only a small amount of pressure to open the valve). When pumping stops, the spring pushes the valve back against the seat, preventing fluid from entering the casing. The poppet valve uses a rubber-coated, springloaded valve, which seals on a plastic seat. The poppet is pushed downward by fluid pressure allowing the fluids to be pumped through the valve. Once the pumping has stopped, a shut off is created when the poppet is pushed up against the seat by a spring.
Automatic fill equipment is used to reduce rig time reduce fluid surge effects of running casing prevent the sticking of casing
Flapper type equipment can be converted to automatic fill by installing a fill tube through the middle of the tool. This holds the flapper off its seat. The diameter of the fill tube can be chosen to somewhat control the flow rate of fluid into the casing. To stop the flow rate and convert from automatic fill to float valve, a ball must be landed on a seat in the fill tube, pressure applied, and sheared out of the valve. To convert the poppet valve to automatic fill, specially designed stand-off lugs are inserted between the spring loaded valve and the seat. This allows fluid flow to occur through the valve from either direction. To cause the valve to act as a backpressure valve, a specified pump rate must be achieved that will open the valve sufficiently to free the stand-off lugs. The lugs then flow downward from the poppet, allowing the valve to seat when pumping is stopped.
Figure 10.7 Back Pressure Valves To decrease differential pressure in deep holes and minimize the possibility of collapsing the casing, it is necessary to allow some fluid to enter the casing as it is lowered in the hole. Flapper and poppet valve systems can be modified to allow the casing to be filled automatically, but you will have no control over how much fluid will enter; the amount of fluid in the annulus directly affects the amount of fluid which enters the casing.
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option. After the ball passes the float collar and/or shoe, the PDF flapper closes against its seat, preventing cement from re-entering the casing ID. The PDF floating equipment is supplied in either a float collar or a float shoe in common casing sizes. All equipment run with these tools must have an ID large enough to allow passage of the weighted ball that releases the backpressure valve. Tool sizes from 4 1/2 to 6 5/8 in. require a 1 3/8 in. diameter ball, while tools 7 in. and larger require a 2 3/8 in. diameter ball. PDF floating equipment should not be used in wells deviated more than 30 from vertical, and it should not be drilled out with PDC bits. PDF equipment cannot be used with Super Seal II floating equipment.
Figure 10.8 Pressure Differential Fill (PDF) Float Shoe and Collar.
Unit A Quiz
Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress. 1. The purpose of guiding equipment is to help casing travel downhole without causing ____________________________________________. 2. The purpose of floating equipment is to help prevent ____________________ problems. 3. A (an)______________________ is run on the first joint of casing. 4. Side ports in a guide shoe help to remove __________________________ and ____________________ . 5. The main difference between a guide shoe and a float shoe is that a float shoe contains a _____________________. Fluid can only flow ______________ the casing. 6. A (an)___________________________________ can sometimes be used instead of standard float equipment in a well less than 7000 ft and at bottomhole temperatures less than 200F. 7. The figure to the right is a (an) ___________________ type valve. 8. Some fluid should enter the casing in deep holes to decrease the differential pressure to minimize the possibility of _______________________.
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Centralizers
Bow-Spring Centralizers
Bow-spring centralizers help center the casing in the wellbore during cementing operations, allowing the cement to be evenly distributed around the casing string. The degree to which the casing is centered (standoff) depends on the performance of the centralizer and the spacing between the centralizers installed on the casing OD. Bow-spring centralizers, both welded and nonwelded, provide the following advantages: They help center the casing in the wellbore, allowing even distribution of cement around the casing. They help reduce casing drag on the wellbore during casing running operations. They help prevent differential sticking of the casing. They increase fluid turbulence at the tool, helping remove filter cake from the wellbore. They can be run through hole restrictions in the wellbore or through smaller casing strings that are cemented in the well, thereby centering the casing below the restriction.
Clamps
All casing attachments must be installed or fastened to the casing by some method. If they are not installed over a casing collar, then a clamp must be used to secure or limit the travel of the various casing attachments. There are a number of different types of clamps (Fig. 10.9). One type is simply a friction clamp that uses a set screw to keep the clamp from sliding. Another type uses spiral pins that are driven between the clamp and the casing to supply the holding force. Others have dogs (or teeth) on the inside, which actually bite into the casing. Where corrosion problems exist, any clamp that could scar the surface of the casing is unusable. Clamps should drawnot pushthe casing equipment into the hole.
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The dual-contact (double bow) welded centralizer is designed for small-clearance casing-to-hole size applications. The centralizer will perform as a standard bow centralizer in holes up to 1/2 in. smaller than the centralizers nominal OD. When run in holes less than 1/2 in. smaller than the OD, the center of the centralizer contacts the casing OD, performing as a rigid centralizer. Because of its high restoring force with very little spring deflection, the dualcontact centralizer is excellent for deviated and horizontal wellbores. The dual-contact centralizer should only be installed between a collar and stop ring never over a casing collar.
Centralizers with turbofins attached to each bow spring are designed to create localized turbulent fluid flow at the centralizer. The turbofins divert the fluid flow, more evenly distributing cement around the casing. All welded and nonwelded bow-spring centralizers are available in most common hole/casing sizes.
Wall Cleaners
Since drilling fluid and cement should not be mixed together, good cement bonds between casing and cement and between cement and formation depend upon removal of the filter cake from across formations. Wall cleaners or scratchers (sometimes called mud stirrers) are installed on the outside of the casing to mechanically remove mud filter cake from the wall of the hole with spring steel spikes or cables. Mechanical cleaners on the casing agitate the mud and make it easier to displace. The motion of the scratchers breaks the gel strength of the mud in the annulus and helps thin the fluid so that it can be displaced out of the hole. Mud removal is also helped by pumping the cement
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slurry at a rate high enough to create turbulent flow. Two common types of scratchers are rotation and reciprocation. The rotation-type scratcher (Fig. 10.12) cleans the formation when the casing is rotated at about 15 to 20 rev/min. A continuous length of scratchers is needed across the zones to be cleaned.
Cement Baskets
Cement baskets are also installed on the outside of casing. They help support some of the hydrostatic pressure that the cement slurry produces until it sets and protect the producing formation against cement contamination. A cement basket has a canvas or metal liner supported by steel staves (Fig. 10.13). This canvas liner filters out the cement solids, which may form a bridge between the casing and hole. The maximum amount of pressure that any cement basket should ever be expected to hold is approximately 50 psi. A cement basket should be able to travel the full length of the pipe joint.
Wire Type
Cable Type
Cable-Type
Wire-Type
Figure 10.12 - Scratchers The reciprocation-type scratcher has either long steel spikes (Fig. 10.12) or a cable (Fig. 10.12). These devices scratch or clean the formation as the casing is picked up 10 to 15 ft off the bottom of the hole. Be carefulsome reciprocation type scratchers can be installed upside down and would be useless when they reach the producing formation. It is good practice not to have scratchers working across a lost circulation zone, since the filter cake and lost circulation material should not be removed. However, it is possible to run the reciprocation type (no cable type) scratcher in a lost circulation zone with minimal disturbance of the filter cake. Movement of the casing, in addition to the use of mechanical cleaners, greatly increases the ability of the cement slurry to more completely displace the mud and prevent mud channels through the cement. This movement can be Figure 10.13 Cement Basket Cement baskets are used above weak zones that may break down under the hydrostatic pressure of the cement slurry for cementing casing through a shoe joint to provide extra support for the column of cement.
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Unit B Quiz
Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress. 1. If a casing attachment is not installed over a casing collar, then a (an) _____________ is used to fasten the equipment to the casing. 2. If youre working on a well that will likely have corrosion problems, youll want to avoid the use of any clamp that could ____________ the casing, like a clamp which has ________________. 3. A uniform cement sheath around the casing largely determines the effectiveness of the __________________ between the wellbore and casing. 4. The casing attachments used to center the casing in the hole are called _______________________________________. 5. Scratchers are used to mechanically remove ________________ from formations. 6. Rotation type scratchers clean the formation when the casing is___________. 7. Reciprocation type scratchers clean the formation when the casing is ______________________________. 8. In addition to using mechanical scratchers, mud displacement is also helped by the ___________________ of cement, and the _______________________ of the casing during a cement job. 9. Cement baskets support some of the _________________________, which the slurry produces until it sets. They have a ____________________ liner, which filters out cement solids that can form a ___________________between the casing and the wellbore. 10. Cement baskets are usually used above a ________________________.
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Top Cementing Plug Accumulation of mud-contaminated cement from wiped away boundary layer
Casing
Bottom Plugs
The function of the bottom plug is to enter the casing ahead of the cement slurry. It wipes mud and solids from the casing wall and keeps those solids ahead of the plug. Bottom plugs are almost always used in primary cementing, except when lost circulation materials are being run with the cement. When the bottom plug reaches the float collar or float shoe, the differential pressure between the inside of the casing and annulus ruptures the diaphragm on top of the plug to allow the slurry to flow out of the shoe and up the annulus. The plug body is strong enough to withstand the forces of impact and the differential pressure to rupture.
Top Plugs
Top Plugs
A top plug is pumped down by displacement fluid after all the slurry has been pumped (Fig. 10.15). It prevents the displacement fluid from channeling through the more viscous cement slurry. Top plugs have no diaphragm and fluid can not be pumped through them. When it reaches the top of the bottom plug, pressure will build up and indicate that the job is complete. Although the top and bottom plugs perform somewhat the same function (separating two fluids), they are quite different structurally (Fig. 10.16).
Bottom Plugs
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Top plugs have rubber wipers to wipe the casing and can withstand considerably more pressure. To help with easy identification, top plugs are black and bottom plugs are red. Top and bottom plugs have a solid core of plastic.
Latch-down Plugs
Latch-down plugs are usually used with tubing, casing and interstring cementing; however, they may also be used with conventional casing float equipment. The latch-down plug functions as a top plug, and its snap ring locks into a groove in the baffle when it is pumped down after the job (Fig. 10.17). The latch-down feature helps ensure that the cement and top plug will not move back up the casing. The Latch-down Casing Plug and Baffle may be used above most conventional floating equipment to help control fluid and pressure from below. The Latch-down plug may also be used when there is no floating equipment run on the casing string. Prevention of fluid entry into the casing string also permits immediate release of surface pressure when the cement column has been pumped in place. Additionally, the latchdown feature helps assure that the cement or top plug will not back up the casing which might necessitate drilling out if completions are made close to the float collar. The baffle is installed either on top of the float or in the desired casing collar above and held in place by the pin end of the casing. A rubber gasket seals against the upper joint and the coupling threads. The latch-down plug acts as the top cement plug and follows the cement slurry down the casing to reduce the possibility of contamination or channeling with the drilling mud or fluid used to displace the cement. When the plug reaches the baffle, normally 500 to 1,000 psi above circulating pressure forces the latching nose of the plug into the baffle and locks it in place.
The maximum pressure that the baffle will withstand is dependent upon the proper make-up of the casing joints and the weight range of the casing. A differential of 3,000 psi should not be exceeded in any light weight casing. Higher differential pressures are allowable in heavier weight casing with a maximum of 5,000 psi in the heaviest weights.
Figure 10.17 Latchdown plug and baffle. The latch-down baffle may be installed either on top of the float shoe or float collar, or in any casing collar above a float collar. It is held in place by the thread end of the casing. A rubber seal on the plug provides a fluid seal from both directions. Instead of a float collar, a latch-down plug may be used in conjunction with a guide shoe to save rig time.
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1-3 joints above shoe (depending on depth of well) 1-3 joints above shoe
Clamp Centralizer
As required 1 per joint from 200 ft. above formation to 200 ft below it, 1 per 3 joints in open hole From 100 ft above producing formation through it Above weak formations
To remove mud filter cake from wall of hole To help protect formations from hydrostatic pressure of cement until it sets To Act as a mechanical spacer between mud and cement slurry To act as a mechanical spacer between cement slurry and displacement fluid Same as top plug To cement in two (or more) stages To pack off formations To isolate zones
Between well fluids and cement Between well fluids and cement
Between well fluids and cement Depends on hole conditions Depends on hole conditions
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Unit C Quiz
Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress. 1. Primary cementing plugs minimize _____________________ by _____________ the casing clean. 2. These plugs serve as a (an) _____________ between fluids and cement. 3. A bottom plug enters the casing _______________ the cement slurry. The _________________ pressure between the inside of the casing and the annulus causes the plug(s) ________________ to rupture. 4. Bottom plugs are almost always used in primary cementing, except when ______________________________________ is (are) being run. 5. A top plug enters the casing ______________________ the cement slurry. When it seats on/at the _______________________, pressure will increase. This indicates that cement placement is ____________________. 6. _____________________ are black and have a deep cup on top; ______________________are red and shallow. 7. A (an)_______________________ plug functions in the same way as a top plug, but it has a (an)______________________, which locks into a groove in its baffle. 8. To save rig time, you might use a latchdown plug in conjunction with a guide shoe instead of a (an) _______________________.
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During cementing operations, the first-stage cement is mixed and pumped into the casing in a conventional manner. The first-stage shutoff plug, which is launched in the casing after the first-stage cement, lands on the shutoff baffle installed on the float collar. This shutoff plug provides a positive shutoff, which helps prevent cement over displacement around the shoe joint. After the first-stage cementing operation is completed, a free-fall opening plug is dropped down the casing ID to land and seal in the cementer. Pressure applied to the casing opens the cementer, allowing wellbore fluid to be pumped into the casing/wellbore annulus. Fluid circulation to the surface is normally maintained until the first-stage cement has set up in the annulus. The second-stage cement is then pumped through the open cementer ports, followed by a second-stage closing plug. The closing plug seats in the cementer, and pressure is applied to the casing to close the tool. After both stages are cemented, the cementer seats, and plugs are drilled out with a rock bit or a PDC bit.
Figure 10.19 Halliburton Type-H External Sleeve (ES) Cementer plug dropped through the casing ID. The TypeH cementer can be used in highly deviated wells, in horizontal wells, and above an openhole completion or slotted liner. After the secondstage cementing operation, a second-stage closing plug pumped behind the second-stage cement closes the cementer. Lock rings in the external closing sleeve lock the cementer in the closed position. After both cementing stages, the cementer seats, and plugs are drilled out with a roller-cone rock bit or a PDC bit. Type-H ES cementers are available in 4 1/2 to 20 in. casing sizes. The standard material grade is L-80 grade steel. Other grades can be provided at the customers request.
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A standard plug set for two-stage cementing consists of the following equipment: a shutoff baffle installed on top of the float collar (for 8-rd and buttress) a shutoff plug (for both Type-P and TypeH cementers) a free-fall opening plug (required for the Type-P cementer; optional for the Type-H cementer) a closing plug (for both Type-P and TypeH cementers) a baffle adapter installed one or more joints above the float collar (for the TypeH cementer)
Figure 10.21 Halliburton Type-H Stage Plug Set Use of a baffle adapter is the preferred method when using a Type-H cementer with a first-stage bottom plug. Wells can also be cemented in three stages with two cementers and a three-stage plug set. A three-stage plug set must be ordered separately from the cementers.
FO cementers are available by special order for any casing grade or premium thread. For pricing information, customers must provide information about casing OD, thread type, weight, grade, and hole size.
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damage during inflation. This inflatable packer element allows packer differential pressures up to 4,000 psi. The ESIPC is commonly used in horizontal well applications for cementing casing in the bend radius or vertical portion of the wellbore above an openhole completion or a slotted liner. The packer element is inflated to prevent cement from flowing downhole when it is pumped into the annulus above the tool. The Type-H ESIPC is available by special order for any casing grade or premium thread. For pricing information, customers must provide information about casing OD, thread type, weight, grade, and hole size.
Figure 10.23 Halliburton External Sleeve Inflatable Pack Collar (ESIPC) Type H
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Unit D Quiz
Fill in the blanks with one or more words to check your progress. 1. Multiple stage cementing tools are used when you want to cement behind the same casing string in ___________ stages. 2. The decision to cement in multiple stages would be made when high hydrostatic pressure might cause the _________________ to break down. 3. If the Type-H ES cementer doesnt open with _________________ pressure, a _____________________ can be dropped if the well is not deviated more than _______. 4. During the second stage, cement is displaced through _______________ in the multiple stage tool. 5. A multiple stage tool called a __________________________ has two sleeves which are operated _____________________. One sleeve moves to uncover the __________ and the other moves to close the _____________________. 6. The first part of the plug set to enter the hole when the free fall method is used is the _______________________. 7. Once the opening plug has landed, the Type-P ES cementer is opened by ___________________. 8. Unlike the ES cementers, the FO cementer operates _____________________ and can be opened and closed _________________________________. 9. Formation packer equipment is used when you want to ________________ cement from flowing _____________________.
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Items from Unit B Quiz 1. clamp 2. scar, dogs (teeth) 3. cement 4. centralizers 5. filter cake 6. rotated 7. picked up 8. pumping rate, movement 9. hydrostatic pressure, canvas, bridge 10. weak zone
Refer to Page 10-10 10-10 10-10 10-10 10-12 10-12 10-12 10-11,12 10-12 10-12
Items from Unit D Quiz 1. several 2. formation 3. hydraulic, free fall plug, 30 4. ports 5. Type-H ES Cementer, hydraulically, ports, ports 6. shut off baffle 7. pressure 8. mechanically, as many times as necessary 9. prevent, downward
Refer to Page 10-17 10-17 10-17, 18 10-18 10-18 10-19 10-18 10-19 10-20
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