Transmission Line _ hse, Electric Power Research InstituteTransmission Line Reference Book 345 kV and Above/Second Ed Prepared by Project UHV Technical Resource Operation Large Transformer Division General Electric Co. Pittsfield, Massachusetts Transmission Engineering Electric Utility Systerns Engineering Department Energy Systems and Technology Division General Electric Co Schenectady, New York Electric Power Research Institute 3412 Hillview Avenue, Palo Alto, CaliforniaLcopyiht ©1962 by the Elactie Poner Research Inte, Ic. Al rights {eesti Fiat cin, 1975. Reprinted T878. Second econ, 1082 Notice “Tis report was prepared by General Electric Company as an account ‘of wore sponsored by the Electric Power Research Institute, Inc. (EPRI Neither EPRI, memoors of EPRI, General Electric Company, ror any parson acting on behalf of any of them: (a) makes any warran- {y. expe or mplie, with respect othe use of any information, appa rats method, or process csclased inthis report or that such use may ‘ot Infinge privately owned rights or (b) assumes any bili with ‘eapedt to the use of, o for damages resiting from the usec any i= ‘formation, apparatus, method, oF process disclosed in his report Keywords EHVUAV Conder Corona Audibe Noise letra Fels (Ordering Information ‘Requests for copies ofthis book should be directed to Research Re- ports Genter (RRC), Box 60490, Palo Alto, CA 94302, (416) 965- 44081, There is no charge for reports requested by EPRI member tutliias and afliates, contibuting nonmembers, U.S. utity associ ‘ations US, government agencies (federal, state, and local), media land foreign ‘rganizations with whicn EPRL has an information ‘exchange agreement. On request, FAC will send a catalog of EPA repors.This book is intended as a source of technology and data for, the electrical design of EHV and UHY transmission lines up to, 1600 kV. Much of the information was developed at Project UHV over the past twenty years, Four major design areas are treated: insulation design, corona performance, electric and, magnetic fields, and circuit performance including conductor, ‘characteristics. In each area, a common set of base-case clr cuit designsis analyzed to help the design engineer understand, ‘and become sensitive to the lems atfecting design. Means 10, ‘measure each discipline ae fully explored. Insulation design for switching surge, lightning, and contami- nation is treated in depth. Stress versus strength arguments, together with strength data forall practical design situations, are featured for switching-surge design. A step-by-step analy- sis procedure for lightning insulation suitable for hand-held cal= Cculator use is an innovation in this book. For contamination, specific recommendations are made for insulator configura- tions from 345 to 1100 KV. The topics for corona performance are radio noise, audible ‘noise, and corona loss. Design charts and equations as wel as their underlying technology are developed in each of these areas for both single and double circuits. Special consideration to the concepts of generation, transmission, and detection is, given for each parameter. Eleciic fields at ground level are treated in detail to support the goals of obtaining maximum field values and understanding the effects of electric fields on objects in the ROW. Mitigation means, calculation techniques, and effects of magnetic fields are alzo included. For conve rience, tables of conductor and bundle phase characteristics, ‘along with electric and magnetic transmission line parameters, are presented for EHV and UHV base cases,Editor J. J. LaForest Editorial Committee M. G. Comber LE. Zaifanella Authors Chapter 1 Chapter 2 chapter 3 Chapter 4 Chapter 5 chapter 6 chapte 7 Chapter & chapter & Chapter 10 Chapter 11 chapter 12 Chapter 13. Project UHV: A Trat ion Research Facility JR, Doyle and L. E. Zaffanella EHV-UHV Transmission Systems F.J. Glert,S. A. Miske, Jp, and ©. J. Trax Electrical Characteristics of EHV-UHV Conductor Configurations and Circ ‘TR. Doyle, J J. LaForest, and T. S, Lauber (Rensselaer Polytechnic institute) Corona Phenomena on AC Transmission Lines MG. Comber, 0. W. Deno, and L. E. Zatfanella Radio Noi M.G, Comber and R. J. Nigbor ‘Audible Noise M.G. Comber, R. J. Nighor, and L. €. Zatfanella ‘Corona Lost M.G. Comber and L. E. Zatfanella Field Effects of Overhead T 1D. W. Deno and L. E. Zaffanelia mission Lines and Stations Insulation — Design Criteri J.D. Brown, FA. Fisher, W. Neugebauer, and J. Panek Insulation for Power Frequency Voltage K. J. Lloyd and H. M. Schneider Insulation for Switching Surges K.J. Lloyd and L. E Zatfanelia ightning Performance of Transmission Lines 4J.G. Anderson Planning and Electrical Design of Transmission Lines D.W. Deno, L. L. Garver, and J. J. LaForestAcknowledgments It is impossible to list all the people who contributed their time. and effort toward the successful completion of this book, The authors are indebted to the enti staff of Project UHV, who lover the years helped accomplish the results that made this, book possible, The enginesring assistance of Messrs. R. J Caola, Jt. and J. DiPietro and of Ms. M. R. Stambach of the Electric Utility Systems Engineering Department; the work of, preparing the manuscripts by Mmes. Le Pore and Mazza: and, ‘the graphic att contributed by Mr. J. W. Betts and his staff are ‘gratefully acknowledged. ‘The authors especially wish to acknowledge and commemo- rate the work of Joseph R. Doyle, who passed away before this, project was completed. His many years of devoted service at Project UHV will long be remembered by his many friends and colleagues, ‘Among the many members of industry committees who gave their time and support to mold and finance the Project UHV. program, particular recognition must be given to those who ‘served on the Indusiry Advisory Committee. The Committee {fixed the project objectives for each year, ensured that e- ‘search goals ware met, served as a review board for the work of the research engineers, and approved the structure and the ‘content ofthis book. A team of experianced, practiced protes- sionals, the Committee kept the research directed toward im- mediate needs and, hence, toward the needs of the utiities in the United States. Present members of the Advisory Commit- tee and former members ofits predecessor, the Steering Com- mittee, are listed below. UHV Project Advisory Committee ‘George Baicerston (Chairman) Ear H, Boosenberg Murray W. Davis PPhiladeipia Electric Company Commonwealth Edison Company ‘The Detrot Edison Company George R. Elder Los Angeles Department of Water ‘and Power overt W. Flugum US, Department of Energy Eawara H. Gervig Gone H. Huston Fichard €. Kennon Bonneville Power Administration GPU Service Corporation Electric Power Research Institute Fred klum ‘Southern Caitoria Eaison ‘Company DonaléT. Mois ‘yero-duobec ‘Brendan J. Ware ‘American Electric Power Service Company ‘ohn & Anderson (Manager, General Eletie Company Project UHV: 1967-1972) Robert C. Osthott Luciano. Zattanela (Manager, Project UHV: 1972 to present) Steering Committee Paul. Lumnitzer (Chairman) John Mt Schamoerger (Chairman) Harrson R. Armstong A.W. Atwood, J Howard C, Barnes Fred Chambers EA Chiarito Bary H.Oaly Paul R. Doan Lous 0. Eteaesser sJohn M, Ends, J Falph 8. Gens ‘Arthur Hauspurg Foss M. King Bonjamin D. Miter Irvin. Philips Thomas W. Tice Gorge E. Watkins rian J. Witte Lone! 0. Barthold Joseph R. Doyle Thomas H, Lee Donne. MacCarthy James R. Stevenson General Electric Company General Electric Company Pennsyvania Electtie Comoany Northeast Utes Service Company Detroit Edison Company Southern Caltornia Edkson Compeny ‘Amorican Electric Power Service cor. Tennessee Valley Authorty Baltimore Gas and Elerrc Company Eeison Electric Institute ‘Southern Callfomia Eaison Company Eatson Electric Institute olson Electric Institute Bonnevile Power Admiistration ‘Consolicated Edison Company of New Yorke ‘Southern Calforia Edison Company ‘The Detroit Edison Company Pennsytania Electric Company Baltimore Gas and Elecite Company Eoison Electric Institute Baltimore Gas and Beer Company General Electric Company Genera Electric Company General Electie Company General Electric Company General Electric CompanyQuick Reference Chart for Major Design Items ‘To acltate the use ofthis book by experienced line designers, ‘a pation of the contents of Chapter 13, Sections 13.9 and 12.8, is presented below for quick reference. Section 13.9 ‘summarizes the main design topics covered by this Second Edition, and Section 13.8 summarizes general citculation per- formance items useful for design. Each topical summary d- rects the reader to specific design sections elsewhere in the book. Design Topic: Switching Surge Insviation Lightning insuiation Insulation tor Contamination Ground Electric Field Magnetic Induction ‘Audible Noise Radio Interference ‘Television interference Corona Loss Ground Wire Design (60 Hz) 614 615. 616 617 618 619 620, 621 62 622 Design Topics: Station Transient Voltage Insulation Ingulation for Contamination Gorona Performance Gorona Shields Ground Electric Field Circuit Performance items ‘Compensation Stabilty Line Loading Routing ‘Transposition ‘Teansmission-Line Protection Power-Line Carrier Environmental Measurements Line Parameters 623 624 624 625 625 608 608. 607 608, 609 610 eit 612 613Contents Foreword Chapter 1 Project UHV: A Transr Research Facility 4.1 Introduction 1.2. Deseription of Project UHV Facilities ‘900-Kv Surge Arestors Precision Capacitor Single-Phase Cascade Operation ‘Switohing Suge Operation ‘Tnree-Phase UHV Test Line Insulator Strings Corona Testing Cage Insulator Contamination Research 1. Instrumentation for Data Acquisition ‘Data Acquistion Computer Instrumentation Systems References Chapter 2 EHV-UHV Transmi 2.1 Introduction Foie of Transmission General Transmission Design Citera jon Systems 2.2 Load Growth and Transmission System Evolution Historical Load Growth Forecast Loac Gromh [AC Tranemisson Line Growth Evalution of DC Transmission 2.3 Factors Affecting EHV-UHV ‘Transmission Growth Load Growth Generation Siting Fuel Costs and Avalabiity Felabilty Eedlogy Government Energy Centers 2.4 EHV-UHV Transmission System Characteristics Stabiity Considerations ‘Saree Compensation Shunt Compensation Power Transmssion Capability 2.8 EHV-UHV Line Design — Principal Areas to Be Considered Elctica Environmental 7 w a 18 8 18 8 9 18 19 20 20 2 24 24 25 2.6 Optimization of Transmission Systems Long-Range Transmission Planaing Optimum Line Design 2.7. EHV Tower Geometries and Line Characteristics References Chapter Electrical Characte EHV-UHV Conductor Configur ‘and Circuits 311 Introduction 8.2 Conductor Surface Gradients Gradient Terminology Calculating Conductor Gradients Graphical Method — Singie-Ccuit Horizontal Graptical Method — Single-Circut Vertical {Graphical Method — Singlo-Chout Delta ‘Approximate Method for Single-Cicult Calelations Graphical Method — Double-Cicuit Higner Phase Order Distribution of Gradont in a Bundle ‘Asymmetrical Bundle Gradients Graphical Method — Teridal Shielding Electrodes 3,8 Reactance and Resistance of Bundle Conductors. Introduetion “Types of Conductors and Conductor Materials inductive Reactance Capacitive Reactance ‘Surge impedance ano Surge Impedance Loading Resistance Ground Wires Equivalent Single Condvctor “Transrjasion-Line Parameters 8.4 Transmission-Line Unbalance Electrostatic Unbalance Single-Ciruit Electromagnetic Unbalance Unbelance in Peale! Doube-Circut Untransposed Lines ‘Summary 25. Induced Voltages on Parallel Lines Electrostatic Induction onthe De-energized Circuit Electromagnetic induction on the Dewenergized Creut ‘Appendix 3.1 Calculation of Electric Fields ‘Appendix 3.2. Inductive Reactance of Bundled Conductors, Appendix 3.3. Capacitive Reactance of Bundled Conductors, 26 26 ar 30 62 100 105 105 305 405 123 124 124 125 125 105 131 131 133 136 140 140 142 142 143 145, 146:‘TraNsMissioN LINE REFERENCE BOOK 345 KV AND ABOVE: ‘Appendix 3.4 Conductor Table Calculations Appendix 3.5. Transmission-Line Parameters (60 He) Appendix 3.6 Unbalance Factor Equations References Chapter 4 Corona Phenomena on AC Transmission Lines 4.1 Introduction Mechanism of Corona Gas Discharge Processes ‘The Townsend Avalanche Process DC Corona Modes AC Corona 4.3 Corona Loss Concept Field Without Corona Frei in the Presence of Corona, CCorana Loss in Fae Weather Corona Current 4.4 Effect of Surtace and Atmospheric Conditions Fai-Weathor Corona Sources Corona Due to Particles Near the Conduetor Etec of Water on the Conductor Efect of Air Density, Humidity, and Wind Ettect of Surace Conditions ‘Surface Treatment — Measurements and Results 4.5 Evaluation of Corona Etfects from Single-Phase and Three-Phase Tests Measurement and Analysis Using Single-Phase Test Facies Corona Generation and Surface Gracient Generation Quantities Audible No'se-Generated Power Fagio Noise Generation Function Measurement and Analysis Using Three-Phase Test Facities 4.6 Influence of Corona Currents on Switching-Surge Overvoltages Project EHV Test Program Project UHV Test Program 4.7 "Ozone Introdvetion| ‘Ambient Concentration Acceptable Levels Measurements at Project UHV (zone Measurements in Other Location Cacuiations ot incremental Ozone Concentration Othe: Corona Products References Chapter5 Radio Noise 6.1 Introduction 5.2 Radio Noise Measurement The Radio-Noise Meter Weignting Circuits Meter Response — Bandwdth and Pulse Repetition Rate ‘Actual Band-Pass Characteristics 148 150 165 167 189 169 169 169 170 170 175 175 175 175 176 180 180 181 181 181 182 185 187 187 187 188, 189 189 191 192 192 195 199 199 199° 199 200 202 202 203 203 205 205 206 206 208 210 ‘Antenna Systems Measurement of Transmssion-Line Noise * Design Considerations Characteration of Transmission-Line Radio Noise Etfect of Line Geometry and Conductor Surtace Conestions Noise Tolerability Criteria 33 5.4 Calculation of Transmission Line Rl Generation and Propagation ofA Fil Generation Data Determination of Propagation Cheracterstios Fi Design Curves ‘Comparison of the Reference Book Fi Calculation ‘Matnod with Measured Data PiStavstios 5.8 Television interference Ti cateulation Procedure Exampie Galeuation ‘Comparison of Calculations wth Measurements ‘5,8. Radio Noise from Substations Calouaton of i trom Substations Fl Generation ftom Toroidal Grading Rings ‘Additional Topics Radio Noise of Insulator Stings hosting and Blocking Interference to Other than AM and TV Broadcast Services 87 Appendix §.1 Rl Analysis for Single Conductor ‘Above Ground ‘Appendix 5.2. Transmission-Line Propagation in Modal Quantities Appendix 6.3. Reference Method of Ri Analysis of ‘Three-Phase Transmission Lines Appendix 6.4 Attenuation Constants and Modal ‘Transtormation Matrices References Chapter Audible Noi 6.1 Introduction 6.2. Audible Noise Characteristics and Measurement Characters of Teansmission-Line Noise Measures of Audible Noise Instrumentation Measurements 6 Design Considerations Elect of Weather Conditions Eft of Line Geometry and Conductor Surface Conaitone Assessing the Impact of Transmisslon-Line Audibe Noise 6.4 Calculation of Transmission-Line Audible Noise Introduction Generation and Propagation of AN [AN Goneration Data — Broad-Banc Noise Calcviaton of Aucible-Nosse Levels — ‘Random Noise Influence of Tower, Sag, ané Ground Wires 210 att an 212 212 213, 217 2i7 222 225 229 245, 247 248 249 250 250 251 251 252 253, 253, 253. 283 254 256 258 261 264 267 267 267 267 268, 269 270 270 270 an 272 274 2T4 218 278 281 283[ANUDesign Curves 283 Etect of Rain Rate 284 tect of Conductor Sutace Aging 299 Efect of AirOensty 299 (Comparison o the Reference Book AN Calculation Method with Measured Data 300 Bincle Geometry Optimization 301 Generation of 120-Hz Hum 305 Clculation of Ausibie Nolse — 120-Hz Hum 306 ‘Ausible Noise in Dry Conditions 307 6.5 Audible Noise from Corona in Substations 307 AtcibleNoise Generation of Basic Electrode Shapes 308 Celcultion of Ausibie-Noie Levess for a Substation 309) 6.6 Techniques of Audible-Nolse Reduction 310 6.7 Correlation Between Audible Noise, Radio Noise, and Corona Loss 312 ‘Audible Noise [48 (A) ] Versus Radio Noise 312 ‘Aucible Noise Hum Versus Corona Loss 314 ‘Appendix 6.1 Ambient Noise During Rain 314 ‘Appendix 8.2. Sound Attenuation of Structures 314 Appendix 6.3. Adjustment of Measured Noise Levels to ‘Account for Ambient Noise Intrusions 318 References a7 Chapter? Corona Lo: 319 7.1 Inroduction 319 7.2 Corona Loss in Fair Weather 319 7.8 Corona Loss in Foul Weather 320, Corona Loss in Rain 320 Garona Loss in Fog, Snow, and Frost 322 Results wth the Three-Phase UHV Test Line 823 7.4 Evaluation of Corona Loss 924 CCoona Loss Weather Mode! 324 Aglusment for Precipitation Within aGivan Gimate 325 7.5 Heawy-Raln Corona Loss for Base Case Geometries 325 7.6 Example of Corona Loss Computations 307 7.7 Comparison of Corona Losses with Resistance Losses 927 References 328 Chapter 8 Field Effects of Overhead Transmission Lines and Stations 328 8.1 Inlroduction 328 8.2 Electric and Magnetic Fields: Definitions 329 Prasore and Vectors 329 Electric Ftd 328 Megretic iad 330 Frequency 330 Harmonie Content 330 “Maximum Value of the Electic (Magnet) Fla 330 Unperturoed Feld 330 Singl-Phaso and Thvee-Phase Flas 330 Untorm Fes 330 Vertical Component ofthe Eletvc Fld 330 ‘Space Potential « 330 2.3. Caloulation of Electric Fields 330 {General Method fr Transmission Lines 330 Lateral Protie of Electric Field at Ground Level 332 Maximum Eeotic File t Ground — Generaleed Cues 332 Etfect of Changes in Line Geometry 333 Electric Fld of Double-Ciccuit Lines 335 Electrc Fld at Line Bends 338 lectrc Fila in Substations 338 8.4 Calculation of Magnetic Fields 341 General Method for Transmission Lines 341 Example Calculation 342 8.5. Measurement of Electric Fields 343 “Techniques fr the Measurements ofthe Unperturbed Electric Field 343 Moasurements ofthe Electric Fits on a Boundary Surace 346 Measurement ofthe Space Potential 366. Z 8.6 Measurements of Magnetic Fields 8.7 Comparison Between HV Transmission-Line end | ‘Common Environment Electric and Magnetic Fields 88 Electric-Field Induction in Objects Introduction Transmission-Line Induced Currents Currents Induced on a Sphere Above Ground ‘Current Induced on @ Round-Topped Hemisphere ona Ground Piane (Current Inauced on a Gyfinder Above Groune Gurren Induced on a Hall-Cyinder on a Ground Plane Methods for Approximate Calculation of Curent Induzed ‘on Objects Close tothe Ground CCutrens Induced in Large Objects (Currents Induced in TVand FM Antennas Induced Gurrent Summary Tables ‘Accuracy Expected in Calculating induced Currents ‘Examples of Electric Indtion Calelation Single-Phase vs Three-Phase Induction Electric nuction Catultion with impedance to Ground Statistical Impedance with Vehicles Example Caleulations 8.9 Magnetic Induction on Objects Impedance Matric with Ground Return ‘Shei Wire Currents Induction in Conductive Objects Parallel tothe Line 8.10 Electric-Fleld induction in People Induotes Curtents and Thee Distribution Bctic Field Exposure Monitors Exposure Measurements Within Feld Ranges Currents nuced by Spark Discharges “Transient Currents Induced by Switching Transients People Response to Short-Term Exposure to Electc Files 8.11 Biological Etfects of Electric Fields (on People and Animals 8.12 Magnetic Field Induction in People 8.18. Biological Effects of Magnetic Fields (on People and Animals 347 ‘a7 348, 348, 348, 348, 349 349 349 349 350 352 354 354 357 358 359 360 362 363, 364 364 364 365 365 369 370 372 373. 374 379 379 380"TRANSMISSION LINE REFERENCE BOOK 345 KV AND ABOVE 8.14 Fuel ignition Introduction Fuel ignition Induced by Spark O'scharge CCorona-induced Fue! gation Flashovers Caused by Fires ‘Trees and Poles in High-Intensity Electric Fields Inttoduetion Dead TreeTip Burning Pole Fire with Grounded Hardware Pove Fire Without Groundes Hardware Mechanism Causing Wood Fires Live Tree Tip Corona Damage Corona from Grounded Objects Introduction Measuring Techniques Space Potentla asthe Indopendent Variable Corona Current and Corona Power Corona Onset Rado Nose ‘Audlle Noise Ozone Conatusons Shielding Methods Introduction Shielding by @ Horizontal Grd of Groundes Wires Design Procedure Shieiding bya Vertical Gi of Grounced Wires Shielding by Mashes of Grounded Wires Natural Shields — Trees and Houses Unceroult Loweoltage Lines ‘Appendix 8.1 Appendix 8.2 818 8.16 at7 Calculation of Maximum Field Measurements of Electric Field with a Free-Body Meter Appendix 8.3. Alr Model Facility ‘Appendix 8.4 Transmission-Line Electric Induction Calculation with Matrices ‘Magnetic Induction with Resistive Ground Return Appendix 8.5 References Chapter 9 9.1 Introduction Insulation-Design Criteria, 9.2. Voltage Stress on Insulation Introduction system Voltage Ovenvotage 9.9 Characteristics of Overvoltages ‘Temporary Overvltages Switching Overvotages Switching of Reactive Circuits — Observed Phenomena Fault Occurrence and Fauit Clearing ‘Other Switching Operations Recovery Voltage Across Breakers Lghtring Overvoitages 8.4 Methods of Analysis Introduction 381 381 381 383 384 386 386 388 389 369 392 392 392 302 392 393 394 394 396 396 306 397 397 397 397 309 309 403 403 405 409 410 an 413 418 air aan 421 at 421 422 422 424 424 428 430 433 434 435 436 436 ‘Transient Network Analyzers Digital Mocels a TNA Compared with Digital Programs, [As to Caleuiation of Transients 9,5 Methods of Controlling Overvoltages Introduetion Resistor insertion ‘Breaker Timing Control system Modifeation Switching Restrictions Une Discharge Resistors Surge Arresters 9.6 Weather Consider ns 9.7 Insulation Dielectric Strength \Witnstane Votage ‘Types of insulation 9.8 Statistical Properties of Withstand Voltage 9.9 Stress vs Strength ‘Appendix 9.1 Resonant Voltages on Parallel, Reactor-Compensated Lines Appendix 9.2 ABCD Method of Analysis ‘Appendix 9.3. Electrostatic Method of Analysis or Resonant Voltages ‘Appendix 9.4. Probability of Overvoltage Occurrence References Chapter 10 Insulation for Power Frequency Voltage 10.1. Introduction ‘Contamination Flashover on Transmission Systems esearch n the Field af Contamination Flashover ‘Survey of the Contamination Performance ‘of Power Transmission Systems Spot and Area Contamination ‘Types of Contaminants and Weather Conditions Countermeasures 10.2 40.3 Contamination Test Methods Introduction (Outine of Test Methods ‘Comparison of Tast Methods 10.4 Research at Project URV Introduction Insulators Tested Power Sources for Testing infuence ofthe Parameters ofthe Test Creu Factors that Afect Wetting Mechanisms Investigation of Natural Wetting Conctions ‘letting Method ane Contaminants Used at Project UHV Fashover Probabilty of Contaminated Insulators Performance of Various Types of Insulators in ‘shor strings Performance of Insulators in Long Strings ‘Contamination Test wth Natural ang Artilat Wetting Conditions Noniinearty of Rashover Strength with Insulator Length ‘Comparison o Electrial Strength for Different Sting Orientations 437 437 439 441 441 441 441 442 442 443, 443, 443 444 445, 445, 448 448 449 452 455 458 458 460 463, 463, 463 463 484 464 465 465 468 468 467 468, 468 468, 469 489 469, 472 473 473, 474 478 a7 478 479 4atContents Dubie sings win Coe Spacg 483 11.9 Comparison of Fundamental Gaps se ase fo Prase instore 4 ; Baers ais 4834510. Comacin of @vtcring Surge PashovieDsato ior Fashover Perfomance 43s Standard Conditions 525 ‘Carona on Long insulator Strings: 408 nad Effects of Geometry on Switching-Surge 10.5 Mechanism of Contamination Flashover 489 Fiashover Strength: Corrections to Base Case Jntroduction 489 Conditions 825 Fstover Mechanism oj Single nslator Units 489 owe: Window Hight 525 Fiashover Mechaiom of Long etter Sirngs 492 Sveand shape of Becodes 528 Doousson 498 Towa With 526 Fectangula Window 827 ee 4 Basan Wo 52 InauetorOesinfr Clean Areas 4 EsGeIGi ae oiceen Gases {23.11.12 Effects of Waveshape on Switching-Surge Fut Scale UHV Tesi tic! Paln 404 Fiashover Strength: Corrections to Base Caso Inavation Desig or Contamination: Prediction ot Conditions 827 cennatn Cnt $85 1419 etets of Atmoapterie Condon on Switching-Surge Flashover Strength: Corrections [Appendix 10.1. Meteorologcal Corrections for toStandard Conditions 528 Power-Frequoncy Tests 498 tect ot amity 528 verces Etec o Raat A Densty 529 oa ee Effects of Rain 530 Chapter 11 Ineulation for Switching Surges 803 11.14 Standard Deviation 33 11.4 troduetion 508 14.45 Design Procedures 531 11.2. Principal Variables in Switching-Surge Flashover 803 appendix 11.1. Computation of Swing Angle ievestape 504 Distribution 595 Pot 503 SeornricInuence on Switching Suge Strength 805° Appendix 11.2. Testing Methods for Critical Flashover Meteora inuence on Surtehing-Suge Sength 608 Voltage (Vax) and Standard SiatetealFuctuatonsinSutchrginpue Strength 508 Deviation () sae 11.9 Flashover Mechanism 508 Appendix 11.2 Models or Calulation of Switching- ge Strength 529 11.4. Switching Impulse Flashover Testing Technique 506 ‘Surge Streng Principal Data Varables 509 References sae Srgricaton oe 509 Chapter 12 Lightning Performance of Transmi 11.5 _Switching-Surge Flashover Strength of Simple eae Airgaps 509 Aod-Plane and Vertical Rod-Rod Gaps 509 12.1 Introduction 545; “erzonal Roe Fod Gage 510 a ‘Sphere-Plane Gaps Sit teenie Mercer aaa 116 _ Switching-Surge Flashover Strength of Line Fa eee S46 insulation 512 12.4 Lightning Flash Parameters 546 Toner Window Gap 512 Kerauric Levels an stern Maps 546 Dusie Pave Tower Gap 512 Nurbor of lashes o Earth 347 asst Sings 512 Interoeption of Flashes bythe Line 547 Sonductr to fewer Leg 518 Ughining ashes o Shad Wes and Towers bao Benducor fo Groundes Objects at Midspan 516 Rashes to Tal Stuctes, 540 Aad Lieto Tone 518 Provably Dsbution of Stoke Amplitudes 549 ssomalos Fachovers 516 ‘Stoke Voveshape Parameters ifuondrg Rashorer 849 Compost Waveshapes 550 11.7 Sutehing-Surge Fashover Strength of Station Gerrosia Wavesnanes 50 Ingulation 516 . 12.5. Circult lements Involved in Computation of Hori ator St 516 Station Post insulators: os 516 Flashover Performance: 552 ducing Bundle Conductors to Equant Single 11.8 Phase-to-Phase Switching-Surge Strength 517 ‘Conchacton = raat eecs} Iirodcton 517 Fincng Eoctve Rai of Stas Wires and Phase Rosie of Praseto-Phase Swiching-mpuse Tests 519 onductors with Corona resent 554 Phase t-Phaosnuieton Sess 520 educon of hd Wie Surge mpedances to Design Pocadiveor Phase Phase Distances 522 Touvelert Sl Wre Surge mpesarces 554 Examples: 523, Computation of Tower Surge impedances ‘555 file"TRANSMISSION LINE REFERENCE BOOK 345 KV AND ABOVE Determination of Coupling Factors for Phase Conductors 556 Selection of Footing Resistance 556 Ettcts ofa Statistical Distbution of Footing Resistance Values 560 12,6 Response of a Transmission Tower to a Lightning Flash 560 Computation of Tower Top Voltage 860 Computation of Crassarm Votages 561 Computation of rsulatr Surge Voltages 562 Penetration ofInsuator Voltage into the Vol-Time Guve 563 Rellections from Acjacent Towers 564 Eflects of Power-Frequency Voltage 566 12.7 Shielding Failures of Transmission Lines 567 The Electiogeomeltic Theory 567 Axtairment of Ettectve Shielding 568 Shielding Fallre Rate Computation 569 12.8 Lightning Performance of UHV Lines 870 42.9 Equivalent R-L Circults of Transmission Towers 570 12.10 A Simplified Two-Point Method for ‘Computation of Lightning Performance of ‘Transmission Lines 573, Appendix 12.1 Reduction of Bundles to Equivalent Single Conductors 586 Appendix 12.2 Computation of the Effective Diameter fof a Conductor at High Voltage 586 Appendix 12.3 Surge Impedance of Shield Wires and Voltages Coupled to the Phase Conductors 587 Appendix 12.4 Derivation of the Fundamental Travelling Wave Equation for Tower Top Voltage 589 Appendix 12.5. Travelling Wave Equations for the Voltage at the Crossarm or at Any Point on the Tower 591 ‘Appendix 12,6 Power-Frequency Voltage Effects $92 Appendix 12.7 Tower Damping and the Equivalent P-L Circult 593 References 596 Chapter 13 Planning and Electrical Design of Transmission Lines 500 48:1. Introduction 599 18.2. Conceptual Planning 7 599 18.9. Preliminary Planning 601 44.4. Primary Decisions 602 13.5. Planning Summary 604 13.6 Additional Reading on Planning 605 18.7. Licenses and Approvals 605 42.8 General Circuit Performance and Application tems 605 Compensation 606 139 ‘Stability (Steady State) Line Loading a Routing “Transpostions Tranemission-Line Protection Power-Line Cari Environmental Measurements Line Parameters Line and Station Performance and Application Items Insulation for Switching Surges Insuiation for Lightning Inaultion for Contamination ‘Ground Evctrie Field Magnetic Indtion ‘Audible Nolse (AN) Fado intererence (A Television interterence (TV!) Corona Loss Ground Wire Design (60 H2) Transient Votage insulation (Station) Insulation for Contamination (Station) Corona Performance (Station) Corona Shields (Station) Ground Becric Field (Near Stations) 608 607 608 609 610 eit 612 613, ous 614 615 616 617 618 619 620, 621 621 622 623 624 624 625 625Foreword {In 1968, the Edison Electric Institute published the EHV Trans- mmission Line Reference Book, a design handbook for the electric utilities of the United States, This book was based on the results ‘of many years of research sponsored by General Electric and the utilicyindustry at what then was Project EHV in Pittsfield, Mas- sachusetts. Ths research evolved around the design and develop- ment of EHV transmission from 345 kV 10 735 kY, the latter boeing the expected, maximum ac transmission voltage in North ‘America for several years to come. Hovever, even before the book was published, it became ap- parent that 735 kV would not represent an upper transmission voltage limit in North America. The 765-KV lines of the Ameri can Electric Power Service Corporation were already on the drawing boards, and UHV transmission (above 1000 kV) was being considered for the early 1980s, Power pooling, difficulties in obtaining adequate rights-of-way, and difficulties in locating generation near large load centers were factors leading to this consideration, Recognizing the situation, the Edison Electric Institute and the Bonneville Power Administration funded, in 1967, renewed five-year research program at Project EHV dedicated toward advancing transmission into the 1000-1500-kV ae range. At the same time, the Project was renamed Project UHV in recognition of the work in the higher voltage range, and overall sponsorship was assumed by the Electric Research Cour In turn, General Electric staffed the Project, served as prime contractor for the work, and distributed the results to the Electric Research Coun cil menbers as directed by the Project Steering Committe. By 1971, it was readily apparent that the research in some of the UHV problem areas—-particularly environmental effects of coroni—could not be completed in the original five-year time scale. In fact, stronger environmental concerns were causing ma Jor alterations in many research priorities, For this reason, work. Was funded for two additional years—through 1973—by both the Edison Electric Institute and the Bonneville Power Adminis- tration. During this later period, additional financial support was also provided by the Tennessee Valley Authority and the ‘American Public Power Association ‘The goal of the seven-year effort was a new transmission de- sign book that would extend the older EHV Transmission Line Reference Book through UHV levels o 1500 kV. A strong need existed for one volume that would cover most of the electrical Considerations of transmission-line design through the entire rangeabove 345 KV, thus updating the older design book and ex- panding its usefulness. A particular need was evident for a com rehensive review of design criteria to limit the emission of aucible noise from UHV transmission lines to values that would not degrade the environment and to review the electrostatic-field effects in the vicinity of UHV lines. These needs were met with ‘the publication of the first edition of the Transmission Line Ref (ie erence Book—345 kV and Above in 1975 by the Elestric Power Research lastitute (EPRI) Since 1975, the research on EHV and UHV transmission has continued ata pace and significance that has warranted the pub- lication of a second edition. This new edition represents a sub- stantial expansion inthe technical content of each of the topics of the first edition. New electrical design items have also been in- ‘troduced. A partial list of these new topics includes series and shunt compensation; line oadability line configurations corona shield design for stations line parameter tables ozone production ‘modal transmission considerations electric fields (shielding) magnetic fields insulation stress analysis ‘weather data (source and use) lightning analysis procedures transmission planning elements summary chapter The preceding new items (and others) plus « bruder data base fr the continuing topics from the first edition and the sum rary chapter enable this edition tobe of greater use ta the begin- ting engineer as wel as wo the experienced lin designer. Even as the second edition af ths book is published, the re- search on UHV transmission continues, and it wll eontinue far beyond the first construction ofan operating UHV system. Fux ture results wll, no doubt, modify some ofthe data presented, for the future is built on the experiences ofthe past There are some problem areas within this book for which sufficient technical Knowledge to make a clear-cut decision is still no: available. These areas avait more research. Infact, its doubttul that any transmission line ever was, or ever willbe, designed with com= plete knowledge ofeach parameter or with complete knowledge of the consequences of choice of alternatives. Often, an instinct of what sight or what is wrong must be employed, and the exer cise ofthis instinct, or judgment, may mark a designer as a “good” engineer or a “bad” one. When these areas of uncer- tainty are encountered inthis book; the euthors have attempted to identify them as uncertain. Nevertheless, all decisions cannot be deferred until complete knowledge is available. Hence, proce- dures have boon suggested whenever it seems that th might as sist the reader inthe decision-making process ‘The one lesson tobe learned from the dats on the pages that follow is that no upper limit tac transmission vltagssis yet ap- parent, The problems often change as the voltages change, and the difficulties increase with voltage—a penalty one must pay“Taansmssion L1Ne REFERENCE BOOK 345 KY AND ABOVE for higher capacity. The only limit apparent is human ingena- ity-the capecity for creative solutions to problems an the will ingness to face new situations—and the realistic evaluation of needs. “As of the rinuseript-preparation stage for the second edition of this book, the United States is making slow but steady pros fess toward adopting the metric system. At present, the process isstill in the transition stage, making it difficult to adhere com- pletely to either the English or the metric system without confus- Tg many readers. The authors have used International System (G1) units whenever practical, but have included English units when custom of long usage makes it mandatory. Practically all ‘lectrcal relations are in MKS units, with voltages in volts, cur ents in amperes, most distances in meters, charges in coulombs, Ceotric. ard magnetic-ield intensities in volts/meter and ‘{mpere-turas/meter, respectively, induetance in henres, capaci: tance in farads, and weights in kilograms. The dielectric con- stant of free space is (1/36n) * 10°" farads/meter and the permeability of free space 4x ° 10-7 henries/meter. The futhors have taken the liberty of using multiples of these units where the arithmetic is simplified (such as KV/em, kV/meter, tiloamperes), and when used, the units are so specified.Chapter 1 PROJECT UHV: A TRANSMISSION RESEARCH FACILITY by J. R. Doyle and L. E. Zattanella 4.1 INTRODUCTION Project UHV (Ultrahigh Voltage), funded and guided by the Electric Power Research Institute, representsa multimillion dol- lar research investment in design knowledge for EHV (Extra- high Voltage) and UHV overhead transmission, Located in the Housatonic Valley, just south of Pittsfield, Massachusetts, the surrounding New England hills have sheltered it from high winds and severe vibration problems, but at the same time have provided ample fog, rain, snow, and wide-ranging temperatures for environmental studies. The presence of a nearby General Blectric high-voltage laboratory has also played a prominent part init location, and General Electric has supplied the staff, equipped the project, and carried out the research—all with funding supplied by the Electric Power Research Institute. The data in this Book have come primacily—but not exclusively from this facility Like so many high-voltage transmission research projects, Project UHV did not arise from any one master plan, but evolved step by step as time and funds permitted —a continuous process of change and innovation. Its predecessor was Project EHV, the research facility built and funded by General Blectric in 1958- 1964 to provide design data for EHV transmission through the 400-750-KV range then being needed. With support by the Edi- son Electric Institute and the Tennessee Valley Authority in 1965 and 1966, Project EHV made over 12 million electrical, ‘mechanical, and meteorological measurements of EHY line phe- ‘nomena, and wrote for the industry the EHV Transmission Line Reference Book, published by the Edison Electric Institute in 1968 (1). That book describes in detail both the project in its EHV years and the results ofthe research through 750 kV. By 1966 it was alrcady apparent that Project UHV did not have adequate voltage capabilities for required research in the yeats ahead. Hydro-Quebec had 735-kV transmission in con- Struction, and the 765-KV lines of the American Electric Power Service Corporation were on the drawing boards. Extrapolation of the trends in generator sizes and transmission voltages—and review of the nation’s population trends and growing energy re- uirements—provided strong evidence that UHV ac transmis- sion would be needed within North America in the future. ‘Therefore, in 1966 the future of UHV transmission in the United States began to receive active consideration, and in 1967 the construction of the equipment for Project UHV began. A five- Yyeur research program was envisioned covering a voltage range from 1000 to 1500 KV. Briefly the objectives were as follows: 1. Todetermine the tower geometry and insulation require- ‘ments for transmission voltages from 1000 to 1500 kV 2, To obtain experimental and analytical information to {improve the understanding of insulation strength of sus- pension insulators subjected to surface contamination, 3, Toassess the lightning performance of UHV lines. 4, To evaluate UHV-line corona losses by both full-scale and cage tests, 5. By full-scale and cage tests, to evaluate radio-noise and aaudible-noise characteristics of UHV transmission lines, tnd to explore means of reduction and control. 6. To determine and evaluate the environmental influence of UHV transmission lines. 7. To explore the present technological limits of ac trans mission and the direction of future research efforts Instrumentation and equipment from Project EHV already in place for this kind of research on EHV problems were modified And utilized for this new research. In January 1967 the project ‘was renamed Project UHV to better describe its expanded ac- tivities In the early stages ofthis program, three-phase research was not economically justifiable until single-phase work had defined the problems and assessed study priorities. Three-phase oper: ation generates three sets of phenomena intermixed at each in- stant of time, often making it difficult to unravel the quantitative aspects of each mechanism. Three-phase measure- ments are of greatest value as transmission technology matures and the modes of addition or superposition of influences become important, and as the program moves into those areas of study that single-phase cannot duplicate. Therefore, a single-phase test line was constructed forthe initial period of research from 1967 to 1971. Single-phase research was extended to 1973 when it became apparent that additional research was necessary tain vestigate subjects of most importance for UHV transmission, Additional funding for this work was supplied by Bonneville Power Administration and the American Public Power Associ- In 1974, the project was expanded to three-phase operation with the addition of two UHV transformers, surge arrester, coupling capacitors, and associated equipment, Two new suspen-“TRaNsMISION LINE REFERENCE BOOK 345 KV AND ABOVE sion towers and one new dead-end tower were added, and an ex- isting dead-end tower was modified to provide the necessary iarge clearances for three-phase operation. These towers allow phase spacings up to23 m, with ground clearance at mid-span up (024m. 4.2 DESCRIPTION OF PROJECT UHV FACILITIES agein the range of 346 KV 0866 KV phase-to-groung (600 KV to 1500 kV phase-to-phase). A 13.8-KV tertiary, with both ends iso: lated, allows energization with a 180° phase reversal for special tests, such as reduction of the field at ground potential by out-of- phase underbuit lines. The power available from the local utility Table 12.1 DESCRIPTION OF EQUIPMENT SHOWN IN FIGURE 1.2.1 tem oeserton diagram ofthe major crcl Project UHV is given in 1 eloped goat veh Figure 12.1 Figures 1.22 through 1.3.2 illustrate some of te GES, breaker, 115KV Irajor items of equipment. 3, breaker 15K ie gure Li three-phase 110-KV circuit fom the local @—_Manualy operates daconnert sth oh aME 2 te ofa wuremensofthspoect, § ——Bapalng aroma 178K roa 18 29% ove aera eemeting tensormer covering voltage range 110 kV instep an seating irnrme coven rage Bh & {vse acre, Tn wy ug OOK single phase and three-phase test circuit connections are shown, 7 LUHY single-phase autotranstormer, 1500/ V3 KV Saco : To ee ne stngaf three 2»MVA vursorm TA tr apephas aoransemer, 100/ V3 erst noenin Fagre 12.2 The teenie are ner iential, SAN sree Poteank ated en oun crleshania Figure 22. wormald in d,bas@—egutingtanrin, 23411060 2s a separately mounted Atmoseal® tank, while the center- and 8 2gkv- ea single-phase step-up transformer, 800 KVA 2 aarp lamaled in 1974 have the Atmo- |] Reds conten area sear eins tank Theres ao provision for inserting 12 patos ae reat tne ue for posible location under thetest_ UNV coe = B Sivie thane Tio tatformap havea nso tap change frcomess 4g Beggs one ery U5 RW or 198/V3ANe In combination with 17 Urine stung sraformer this makes available an output vlt- __ =o : ® T —en | wy ! te ! © T 7 . How eur Figure 1.24 Project UHV cicult lagram.13,8/23-KV system isnot sufficient to supply the capacitive cur- ent of the UH line; therefore a $00-KVA,,13.8-kV reactor was installed to compensate this capacitive current Factory test voltages applied to the high-voltage side of the transformers were as follows Full wave (200 1400 us) 2100 kV Full wave (1.5 X 45 us) 2600 kV Induced voltage (240 He for 60 min) TSOKV 900-KV SURGE ARRESTERS. Protection of the high-voltage side of the UHV transformers provided by 900-KV Alugard® surge arresters shown in Figure 1.2.3. Theseare specially built arresters |2.3 m high, with an up- per shield ring 3.7 m in diameter. The east-phase arrester, in- stalled in 1968, consists of three porcelain columns four units high and then @ double column five units high. One column is used for the gap and valve elements, and one for grading capaci- tors. The third column, which is empty, is used for mechanical strength, The center- and west-phase arrester, installed in 1974, consist of triple column two units high, a double column two units igh, anda single columa four units high. Design improve- ments and stranger porcelain have reduced the total number of units required on the newer arresters Design characteristics of the arresters, as proven by tests, were as follows: Max. 1.5 X 50-us sparkover 2175 kV IR @SkA 2175 kV Max. switching surge sparkover 2020kV Max. front of wave sparkaver 2500 kV (1200 KV /us) Figure 1.2.2. ‘Throe-phase UHV transformer bank Prouect UHV: A TRANSMISSION RESEARCH FACILITY PRECISION CAPACITOR ‘An SFo- insulated precision capacitor was installed on the east phase in 1968. This capacitor allows highly accurate voltage measurements and also highly accurate phase-angle measure. ments for use in conjunction with radio-link current signals for the measurement of losses. This capacitor is normally connected only tothe east phase, but itcan be connected tothe other phases by means of temporary jumpers for calibration of the voltage measurement systems, The normal voltage measurement on all phases is made using the capacitance taps on the high-voltage bushings of the transformers. SINGLE-PHASE CASCADE OPERATION One of the three UHV transformers was insulated from ‘ground in 1977 (Figure 1.2.4). Insulation is provided by @ ‘mounting stand made up of 40 columns of eap-and-pin insulators ‘auyed by porcelain-skirted fiberglass insulators. The effective Clearance to ground is $ m. Each stack of eap-and-pin insulators is supported on a universal joint to ensure only axial loading, and ‘each universal joint is mounted on spring washers to ensure equal loading of the columns. This elevated transformer is used in cascade with another unit to supply single-phase voltages up to 1700 kV phase-to- round (2940 kV phase-to-phase). The output voltage is con- trolled by the regulating transformer and also by adjustment of a Figure 123. 4) 900-KV surge arrests 1) High-precision, SFgsnsulated gas capacitor Dee eee“TRANSMISSION LINE REFERENCE BOOK 345 KV AND ABOVE the reactor and capacitors (Figure 1.2.5). The circuit constants fare such that even though this system operates asa resonant cir- cuit, it has a very low Q, and the operating point is far down on the resonance curve, resulting in good voltage regulation. Figure 1.2.4. West-phase UHV transformer on insulating piatform. Figure 1.2.5, ‘ver capactor bank and reactor under this enclosure West-phase UHV transformer, with metal enclosure 4 SWITCHING SURGE OPERATION Using two ofthe three UHV transformers (including the unit with the tank insulated from ground), the capability of generat- ing switching surges with crest values up to 3000 kV, with front times up to 3000 ys, i available, The circuit for accomplishing, these switching surges is shown in Figure 1.2.6. A 200-uF bank of capacitors rated 30 KV is connected through triggered gaps to teach of the transformer tertiary windings. The capacitor bank ‘on the first transformer of the cascade is charged by direct con- nection toa 30-kV de charging supply; the capacitor bank on the elevated transformer is charged by means ofa large switch that isolates the cascaded tank during the surge. The retura circuit for this charging current is through the winding of the first transformer back to ground. ‘THREE-PHASE UHV TEST LINE [A plan-profile ofthe UHV test line i shown in Figure 1.2.7 ‘The ineis supported on two portal-type suspension towers with a main span of 340 m., The conductors are dead-ended in a pair of, steel cables that are supported by an end structure and terminat- ced inan anchor system set behind the towers at ground level (see Figure 1.2.8). Sag, and therefore ground clearance, are adjust- able over a range of approximately 12 m, with the line energized. Under high ice and wind loads, the conductors are slacked as shown to prevent overloads on the towers. “The outline of suspension towers 2 and 3 is shown in Figure 1.29, and of dead-end tower 4 in Figure 1.2.10. The suspension towers are guyed structures resting on a ball-and-socket joint. “Two 4-3/4 em (1-7/3 in) bridge pins join the leg tothe truss. The towers are constructed of A-36 galvanized steel; each leg weighs 13,600 ke (15 8), and the truss weight is 60,000 kg (66 1). Each leg foundation is supported by four 7-m (23-ft) deep-pressure- injected, uneased footings with a desiga load capability of 63,000, kg (701) each, ‘The design capabilities of the UHV test line are as follows: ‘Total length 523 m (17161) ‘Main suspension span 340 m (1116 ft) Phase spacing 9-24 m (30-80 ft) ‘Tower-to-ground clearance 46 m (150 ft) Height above ground ‘depending on conductor size 21-30 m (70-100 ft) une conpucTor —! tom polgen TRIGATRON ‘SUPPLY GAP wecranten, & SET cuts * ae | ‘POWER ee ay TEASING v1 BEER Tee TO INSTRUMENTS: Figure 1.2.6. Creut for applying switching sures,Prosect UHV: A TRANSMISSION RESEARCH FACILITY ‘Working tension: 22,700 kg (50,000 Ib/ phase) ‘Maximum tension: 45,400 kg (100,000 Ib phase) e_- - peat o ar “overs, winches, and dead-ends for the following bundles | 4- with either 1.27 em (0.5 in) of ice and 190 N/m? (4 Ib-f/ft") 7 wind, oF no ice and 430 N/m? (9 Ib-f/ft") wind: | 7 \6X 330m (1.302in) ee 1X 46em (18 in) 8X 10cm (4 in) expanded id 1 The facilities include tension-stringing equipment (Figure Ti with capebity of stinging upto O-r-dameter con conga ne Autos at 900g tno at sped of 8 LL 8 CKET +235 SEN TORE TOWERS 283 Sa _— Figure 1.2.9. Outline, towers 2 and 3 soo | SHEL mS ate 1 a Uo 7 ZN AN i I PN oo = ae Jour esac) —ol 1 aL0exs TO 1000 PASE SPACING SUPPORT 2 oo 7 ‘et caates a ae woos 950 L— anne ‘SALE-FEET O+0 3400 PROFILE «416.7416 BAL soo ‘9 200.490 690 890 1900 6 eg Tow MORIZONTAL SCALE -FEE TOWER #4 PLAN Figure 1.2.10, Outline, tower 4 x 338" 48 a Figure 1.2.7. Plan-prole, towers 1-4 500018 we o> ees PErIIT} Fea Figue 128, Plar-prolil, towers 1-2. Figure 1.2.14 Tensioning machine wih 10-1 bull wheels‘TRaNsMssiOn Lins REFERENCE BOOK 345 KV AND ABOVE INSULATOR STRINGS The three-phase Project UY test line is being used to dem onstrate some alleraative suspension insulator string designs that stisy the electrical and mechanical canstraint imposed by transmission voltage levels up to 1500/ V3 kY. All the suspen- sion strings are V-type since the long vertical strings necessary on UHV systems would allow unacceptably large wind swing displacementsin this instalation For the initial insulator configuration, the total length of ‘each leg athe V-strings was chosen to be 8.6 m (28 ft). In clean and dry conditions, this ength insulator string would have 60 Hecritical flashover voltage (CFO) of 2700/ V3 RV, whereas in regions with very light to light contamination conditions, the strings would be sufficient fora 1200-KV system if ant-fog-type insulators were used, according to artificial contamination tests performed previously at Project UHY. ‘The switching surge CFO of the conductor-tower air gap ‘would depend on the length of such a gap. Usually, the insulators are suspended from the test towers with fong hangers. However, itis possible to duplicate practical tower structures by means of suitable mock-ups for both center- and outer-phase simulation. Mechanica. considerations of the NESC Reavy loading con- ditions with 1.27 em (0.5 in) ice and 68 km/h (40-mi/) horizon: tal wind on the 16 X 3.3 om ([.3-in) conductor bundle showed thatthe maxinurn working tension in each leg of the V-steings would be 22,760 ke (50,000 Ib). Sueh high mechanical strength could be achieved by using single strings or by paralleling two or more substrings flower strength so thatthe multiple strings had the necessary total strength. Te insulator strings atthe dead-end towers are quadruple, with each substring containing 45 standard-type porcelain units with a mechan cl strength of 22,700 ke (50,000 Ib) and a string length of 7.7 m (25 ft). Two types of toroidal shields are being used atthe termination af the conductor bundles on the insulator strings. One, sown in Figure 1.2.12, consists of a composite of fivecitculr rings 10 cm (4in) in diameter, with an overal diam eter of 3 m (LO). The other typeof dead-end shield, shown in Figure 1.213, isa composite of 17 circular rings 3.3 om (1.3 in) in diameter, with an outer toroid diameter of 3m (10 f) ‘CORONA TESTING CAGE The need has long existed for means to measure characteris- tics of bundle sonductors without resorting to the expedient of, Figure 1.2.12 Oeac-end corona shields, made of 10-em pipes, building.a transmission line to make the test. Testing a bundle on full-scale overhead line may be the most realistic method, out itis also expensive end time consuming. Aside from the difficul- ties and expense ofa full-scale stringing operation, overhead line fests must cope with uncontrolled rainfall, ill-defined clecieic field conditions, and a slow and tedious system of measurements, Toavoid these problems and to permit a rapid exploration of var jous bundle conditions, Project UHV uses a corona testing cage asa standard research tool, This cage was built atthe project and is shown in Figure 1.2.14 Figure 1.2.18, Dead-end corona shields made o! 17 pipes, 3.9 em in ciamoter. Figure 1.2.14. UHV conductor test cage {The cage has a 7.9-m (26-ft) cross section and an active length of 15.2:m (50 ft), The cage is constructed of an outer structural frame, which in turn supports on insulators the inter- nal cage made up of a steel framework covered with wire mesh. ‘This inner framework is isolated into three separate S-m lengths, each of which may be grounded through suitable impedances 10 allow measurements of radio and television interference voltages ‘and also corona loss. Audible noise is measured by microphones. mounted on the cageside walls at the elevation of the conductors. The conductors inthe test cage may be supported by various ‘end fittings, but are generally supported by large slotted plates, (Figure 1.2.15) that not only allow radial adjustment to change bundle diameters but also can be used to obtain asymmetric con- figurations of the bundle subconductors with varying subcon- ductor spacings. The test cage is equipped with a rain spray system that pro- vides testing in artificial rain. Also, the open construction of the cage permits testing under natural rain and snow conditions INSULATOR CONTAMINATION RESEARCH ‘The adoption of UH transmission in the United States is predicated on circuit-breaker development Keeping pace with voltage growth, with resulting sizable decreases in the ratio of crest switching-surge voltage to crest power-frequency voltage as ‘transmission climbs above 800 KV. In other words, i is expected that switching surges will be hardly greater in amplitude for, say, 1200-KV systems than for existing 800-KY systems. If this is the case, then 1200-KV air gap clearances need be only moderately Jarger than those existing on the lower voltage systems, because these gaps are set by switching-surge withstand requirements However, as power frequency voltages continue to increase, s0 does the steady-state voltage stress across each insulator string, unless the strings are lengthened. The length of the strings and the best insulator unit shape within the string are determined by the contamination performance of the insulator. The 60-Hz flashover performance of these strings under conditions of con- tamination and fog must be determined before any UHV line can be built with confidence, For contamination testing at Project UHV, two laboratory buildings arc utilized. Figure 1.2.16 shows the largest build- Jng—the UHV fog chamber. This cylindrical structure, 24.4 m high by 24 4 m in diameter, consists of one large room capable of testing insulators up to 12 m long. Fog within the room is made by evaporating water from large, electrically heated tanks. The test voltage, supplied by the UHV transformer (Figure 1.2.2), ‘as intially fed through 2 large plastic window in one side ofthe building. Although this window was acceptable, it limited volt- age to about 750 kV and had severe maintenance problems. 1 has since been augmented by a porcelain wall-bushing installed in an opposite wall. This bushing allows the full transformer voltage of 866 kV to be brought into the test chamber, without the maintenance problems associated with the plastic window. ‘The window has been kept intact and is available for special tests, such as phase-to-phase or 60 Hz combined with switching surges. To limit Nashover current to approximately 30 A, a resistor is inserted in series with the low side of the transformer (Figure 1.2.17). This resistor, made of 1830 m of nichrome wire laced beck and forth inthe air for cooling, is designed to hold the fault current for one second for manual tripping of breakers. Two identical resistors are actually available, and both can be used for special tests, such as phase-to-phase flashover testing in air, or phase-to-phase testing of contaminated insulators, Prosect UHV: A TRANSMISSION RESEARCH FACILITY Figure 12.17, formers curing fault ests Currentlimiting esators for protection of UHV tans