!"#$%&'(#)& +,##-./ $(,.01( 2"&$.

,3
4.(5 6"'(7,-&.58 !#9 :.,; <5"=#,&"$3

>? @5$,.-0'$".5?
PlsLory ls mosL famously a Loplc for nleLzsche ln hls second !"#$%&'( *&+$#,#$-"-Cn
Lhe uses and ulsadvanLages of PlsLory for Llfe" [uM.ll]-where Lhe maln polnL ls negaLlve and
crlLlcal, sLresslng Lhe unrecognlzed dangers of hlsLory. MosL LreaLmenLs of 'nleLzsche on hlsLory'
focus here. 8uL Lhls ls an early vlew, from whlch nleLzsche Lravels a long ways. Pls laLer vlew of
hlsLory ls much more nuanced and complex, buL also (of course) much more dlfflculL Lo
deLermlne. lL ls never expressed wlLh Lhe focused and perslsLenL aLLenLlon of uM.ll, buL raLher
ln brlef and seemlngly mlscellaneous commenLs scaLLered LhroughouL. 1hls dlverslLy has
llcensed very dlfferenL readlngs of hls poslLlon.
Some lnLerpreLers suppose LhaL uM.ll's crlLlcal sLance ls sLlll Lhe glsL of nleLzsche's
maLure vlew Loo-and we'll see LhaL Lhere are lndeed echoes of lL Lhere. 8uL oLhers have
sLressed lnsLead Lhe varlous poslLlve ldeas of hlsLory he also expresses ln hls laLer works, some
of Lhem aL evldenL odds wlLh uM.ll.
1
l wlll Lry Lo glve an overall accounL of nleLzsche's laLer vlew
of hlsLory LhaL pulls LogeLher lLs mulLlple elemenLs. l wlll sLress, as Lhe maln new use nleLzsche
has for hlsLory, lLs role ln maklng posslble a new klnd of freedom.
llrsL a few background polnLs. nleLzsche uses Lwo Lerms LhaL are usually LranslaLed
'hlsLory': .&/01$01#& and 2$/#-3$&. 1hese Lerms Lend Lo be used Lo reflecL elLher (or boLh) of Lwo
dlsLlncLlons. llrsL Lhere's Lhe dlsLlncLlon beLween a pasL process [.&/01$01#&] and an
lnLerpreLaLlon or recounLlng of LhaL process [2$/#-3$&]. 1hen Lhere's Lhe dlsLlncLlon beLween a
more lnformal or folklorlc recounLlng [.&/01$01#& agaln] and a sclenLlflc or dlsclpllnary sLudy of
Lhe process [2$/#-3$&].
2
nleLzsche has polnLs Lo make abouL all of Lhese klnds of hlsLory, and he
someLlmes marks whlch he means by hls cholce of .&/01$01#& or 2$/#-3$&. ln parLlcular he Lends
Lo use 2$/#-3$& for a more ob[ecLlve or 4$//&"/01,5#'$01 (sclenLlflc ln a broad sense) sLudy of Lhe
pasL, hls poslLlve and negaLlve assessmenLs are malnly abouL Lhls. AlLhough he's far from
conslsLenL ln Lhls pracLlce, lL's sLlll worLh noLlng whlch Lerm ls used ln whlch passages.
3


1
Cf. 8rob[er 2004 and 2008.
2
And, on Lhe basls of Lhls second dlsLlncLlon, 2$/#-3$& can be exLended Lo refer Lo LhaL pasL process as
descrlbed by such a sclenLlflc accounL.
3
l wlll LranslaLe boLh .&/01$01#& and 2$/#-3$& as 'hlsLory', buL mark Lhe flrsL wlLh a [.] followlng.
"
8oLh of Lhese dlsLlncLlons are collapsed lnLo our slngle word 'hlsLory', whlch can refer
elLher Lo Lhe process or Lo Lhe accounL of lL, and Lo accounLs wlLh all degrees of ob[ecLlvlLy. l wlll
generally Lry Lo llmlL my own use of Lhe Lerm Lo refer Lo accounLs or lnLerpreLaLlons of pasL
process, raLher Lhan Lo LhaL process lLself. 8uL we may anLlclpaLe LhaL Lhere ls noL, ln
nleLzsche's scheme, a sharp boundary beLween Lhese. 1hls ls because lL's ln Lhe naLure of Lhe
'processes' aL lssue LhaL Lhey Lhemselves lnvolve lnLerpreLaLlons of Lhelr pasL. A 'hlsLory' ls, ln
Lhe core sense, noL abouL e.g. cellular developmenL or plaLe LecLonlcs, buL abouL a human
socleLy LhaL orlenLs lLself by lLs vlew of lLs own pasL. So a hlsLory ls abouL someLhlng LhaL ls lLself
Lelllng (and ls parLly consLlLuLed by lLs Lelllng) a sLory abouL lLself. 1he process lnvolves a hlsLory
abouL lLself. 8uL alLhough Lhese senses of 'hlsLory' are lnLerlnvolved, we should Lry Lo keep Lhe
dlsLlncLlons clear as we go.

A? <B?"")& ',"$"C0# .D ("&$.,3?
LeL's sLarL by looklng aL nleLzsche's early doubLs agalnsL hlsLory, expressed malnly ln
uM.ll (wrlLLen ln laLe 1873).
4
(Also very relevanL are Lhe 6,01',// noLes from 1872-3.
3
1he
doubLs are also relaLed Lo Lhe crlLlque of SocraLes ln Lhe sLlll-earller 7$3#1 -5 83,9&+(.) As he puLs
Lhe polnL of uM.ll much laLer ln :00& 2-%-: 'ln Lhls essay Lhe hlsLorlcal sense" LhaL Lhls cenLury
ls so proud of ls recognlzed for Lhe flrsL Llme as a dlsease, as a Lyplcal slgn of decay'
[LP.lll.uM.1]. And as he warns ln Lhe essay's forward: 'Lhere ls a degree of pursulng and
esLeemlng hlsLory by whlch llfe becomes sLunLed and degeneraLe'. l Lhlnk Lhere are Lwo
feaLures of hlsLory LhaL sLand ouL as problemaLlc for nleLzsche: lLs focus on Lhe pasL,
6
and lLs
efforL aL a deLached and ob[ecLlve LruLh. 8oLh feaLures make hlsLory poLenLlally damaglng Lo
Lhose who 'have Loo much' of lL.
lL's Lhe unhealLhlness of rememberlng Lhe pasL LhaL's Lo Lhe forefronL aL Lhe sLarL of
uM.ll.1. Anlmals 'llve unhlsLorlcally', by llvlng only ln Lhe presenL, whereas we 'cannoL learn Lo
forgeL buL cllng relenLlessly Lo Lhe pasL'. So here 'hlsLorlcal' applles Lo any (lnLenLlonal) relaLlon
Lo Lhe pasL, lncludlng Lo Lhe organlsm's own: Lo be hlsLorlcal ls [usL Lo be reLrospecLlve. 1hls
broad use of Lhe Lerm ls clear ln nleLzsche's sLaLemenL of Lhe problem: 'Lhere ls a degree of
sleeplessness, of rumlnaLlon, of Lhe hlsLorlcal sense, whlch ls harmful and ulLlmaLely faLal Lo Lhe

4
See !ensen 2008 on Lhe essay's conLexL ln Lhen-currenL debaLes abouL phllology and hlsLory.
3
1hese appear ln kSA.7. Many are LranslaLed (by u. 8reazeale) ln ;1$'-/-<1( ,"+ 83=#1 [&1].
6
See my 'nleLzsche's roblem of Lhe asL' [8lchardson 2008].
#
llvlng Lhlng, wheLher a man or a people or a culLure'. Pence we need Lo deLermlne 'Lhe
boundary aL whlch Lhe pasL has Lo be forgoLLen'.
As uM.ll.1 conLlnues nleLzsche shlfLs focus from Lhe reLrospecLlve aLLlLude (memory) ln
general Lo an ob[ecLlve or sclenLlflc sLance Lowards Lhe pasL. lncreaslngly Lhls ls hls referenL wlLh
'hlsLory', and he dwells on how Lhls knowledge and sclence ls ln Lenslon wlLh 'llfe'. 'A hlsLorlcal
phenomenon, known clearly and compleLely and resolved lnLo a phenomenon of knowledge, ls,
for hlm who has percelved lL, dead'. 'PlsLory become pure, soverelgn sclence would be for
manklnd a klnd of concluslon of llfe and a seLLllng of accounLs wlLh lL.' Pere hlsLory sLands ln for
a broader LargeL: any ob[ecLlve self-undersLandlng, noL [usL of one's pasL. And here Loo
nleLzsche sLresses Lhe need Lo lmpose some boundary or llmlL on Lhls capaclLy.


uM.ll.2-3 Lurn Lo Lhe poslLlve uses of hlsLory, whlch are famously sorLed lnLo Lhe
monumenLal, anLlquarlan, and crlLlcal. 8uL already ln uM.ll.4 nleLzsche reLurns Lo Lhe
dlsadvanLages, sLemmlng now from 'Lhe demand LhaL hlsLory should be a sclence. now Lhe
demands of llfe alone no longer relgn and exerclse consLralnL on knowledge of Lhe pasL: now all
Lhe fronLlers have been Lorn down and all LhaL has ever been rushes upon manklnd.' 1he
problem ls LhaL we are unable Lo 'dlgesL' Lhese 'sLones of knowledge', Lhls knowledge ls an
'lnner conLenL' LhaL ls noL lnLegraLed lnLo our llves so as Lo be expressed ln 'ouLer form'. We
can'L 'lncorporaLe' Lhls hlsLorlcal undersLandlng lnLo a successful way of llfe.
ln uM.ll.3 nleLzsche announces LhaL 'hlsLory seems Lo me Lo be hosLlle and dangerous
Lo llfe ln flve respecLs', he elaboraLes Lhese ln Lhls and Lhe followlng four secLlons. 1) PlsLory
'weakens Lhe personallLy' by openlng up LhaL confllcL beLween lnner and ouLer. 2) PlsLorlcal
ob[ecLlvlLy glves Lhe (false?) sense LhaL we are more [usL Lhan prevlous ages. 3) 8y undermlnlng
rellglon eLc. hlsLory 'dlsrupLs Lhe lnsLlncLs' and prevenLs an lndlvldual or people from maLurlng.
4) PlsLory lmplanLs Lhe harmful bellef LhaL one ls a laLe-comer or eplgone. 3) PlsLory leads Lhe
age Lo a dangerous self-lrony and cynlclsm.
1wo polnLs ln Lhls crlLlque of hlsLory seem Lo me of parLlcular lmporLance. llrsL ls Lhe
ldea LhaL an ob[ecLlve self-undersLandlng exposes llluslons wlLhouL whlch one cannoL llve. 1he
polnL ls developed especlally ln uM.ll.7: a Lhlng 'ceases Lo llve when lL ls dlssecLed compleLely,
and llves a palnful and morbld llfe when one beglns Lo pracLlse hlsLorlcal dlssecLlon upon lL'. lor
llvlng Lhlngs requlre 'an aLmosphere around Lhem, a mysLerlous mlsLy vapor', Lo maLure Lhey
need an 'enveloplng llluslon'.
$
Second ls Lhe lesson, LhaL Lo proLecL llfe from such undermlnlng some llmlL or boundary
needs Lo be lmposed on our sclenLlflc self-undersLandlng. 1he noLlon of such a 'resLralnL' or
'llmlL' ls exLremely common ln nleLzsche's wrlLlngs aL Lhls Llme.
7
uM.ll.10 says LhaL 'Lhe
anLldoLe Lo Lhe hlsLorlcal ls called - Lhe unhlsLorlcal and Lhe suprahlsLorlcal', of whlch Lhe
former ls 'Lhe arL and power of forgeLLlng and of encloslng oneself wlLhln a bounded horlzon'.
8uL lL ls noL clear whaL form he envlslons Lhls boundary Laklng. Are Lhere Lo be llmlLs on whaL
Loplcs can be lnvesLlgaLed, or on 'how far' sLudles of Lhem can be pursued? ls lL a maLLer of
cerLaln classes of bellefs or values belng off-llmlLs Lo scruLlny? And would such resLrlcLlons be
overLly sLaLed, and dellberaLely followed, or would Lhey operaLe ln some more lmpllclL way, e.g.
by a felL sense or lnsLlncL when Lo sLeer away? Such quesLlons abouL llmlLaLlons on hlsLory wlll
come back lnLo play ln hls maLure wrlLlng.

E? F,75&"$".5 $(,.01( GH.&"$"="&/)?
8uL nleLzsche soon shlfLs dlrecLlon: ln a move llnked Lo hls break from Wagner, he
enLers whaL ls ofLen called hls 'poslLlvlsL' perlod, represenLed especlally by 2=%," >''?#--?
1=%," [PP.l] (and Lhe Lwo furLher works laLer lncorporaLed lnLo Lhls, *$@&+ A<$"$-"/ ,"+
*,@$%/ [PP.ll] and 81& B,"+&3&3 ,"+ 2$/ C1,+-4 [PP.lll]). Pe dlagnoses hls earller hosLlllLy Lo
sclence and LruLh as due Lo Wagner's LempLlng hlm away from hlmself (see LP.lll.PP). '[l]rom
Lhen on l pursued noLhlng more Lhan physlology, medlclne, and naLural sclence, -l only
reLurned Lo genulne hlsLorlcal sLudles when Lhe Lask compelled me Lo' [LP.lll.PP.3]. Pe flnds hls
ldenLlLy ln Lhls alleglance Lo LruLh, and only gradually relnLroduces Lhe conLrasLlng arLlsLlc volces,
as subordlnaLe Lo LhaL alleglance. When he evenLually readopLs Lhe crlLlque of ob[ecLlvlLy from
uM.ll, lL ls wlLhln Lhe scope of LhaL commlLmenL.
8

1hls changed vlew of sclence ls expressed from Lhe sLarL of PP, and wlLh respecL Lo Lhe
sclence of hlsLory. PP.l.1 lnLroduces, ln conLrasL wlLh 'meLaphyslcal phllosophy': 'PlsLorlcal
phllosophy . . . whlch can no longer be separaLed from naLural sclence, Lhe youngesL of all
phllosophlcal meLhods'. 1he nexL secLlon conLlnues Lhe polnL: 'Lack of hlsLorlcal sense ls Lhe
famlly falllng of all phllosophers': Lhey 'sLarL ouL from man as he ls now and Lhlnk Lhey can
reach Lhelr goal Lhrough an analysls of hlm', 'whaL ls needed from now on ls hlsLorlcal

7
1he 6,01',// noLes collecLed ln &1 ofLen warn agalnsL Lhe 'unresLrlcLed knowledge-drlve', and sLress
Lhe necesslLy Lo 'conLrol' or 'llmlL' lL.
8
ConLrasL Lhe accounL of nleLzsche's developmenL re hlsLory ln Schurlnga 2012.
%
phllosophlzlng', whlch pays aLLenLlon Lo how man has 'become', especlally durlng our long
prehlsLory.
revlous phllosophy has 'always avolded lnvesLlgaLlon of Lhe orlgln and hlsLory of Lhe
moral sensaLlons' [PP.l.36], buL now lL ls Lhe 'hammer-blow of hlsLorlcal knowledge' LhaL can
sharpen Lhe axe Lo cuL Lhe rooL of our 'meLaphyslcal need'. So nleLzsche now expresses a klnd
of opLlmlsLlc raLlonallsm: 'men are capable of consclously resolvlng Lo evolve Lhemselves Lo a
new culLure, whereas formerly Lhey dld so unconsclously and forLulLously' [PP.l.24].
nleLzsche laLer ln PP.l elaboraLes on Lhe 'hlsLorlcal sense' needed for Lhls work. Pls
background ldea ls LhaL earller phases ln human developmenL are layered lnLo each of us, and
LhaL we lndeed pass Lhrough Lhese earller sLages ln our lndlvldual maLurlng [PP.l.272]. 1he
hlsLorlcal sense ls an ablllLy Lo become consclous of Lhese phases. 'lL ls a slgn of superlor culLure
consclously Lo reLaln cerLaln phases of developmenL whlch lesser men llve Lhrough almosL
wlLhouL Lhlnklng and Lhen wlpe from Lhe LableL of Lhelr soul, and Lo drafL a falLhful plcLure of lL'
[PP.l.274]. PlsLorlcal sLudles 'challenge us, when faced wlLh a plece of hlsLory, of Lhe llfe of a
naLlon or of a man, Lo con[ure up a qulLe dlsLlncL horlzon of ldeas, a dlsLlncL sLrengLh of
sensaLlons'. 'lL ls ln Lhls ablllLy rapldly Lo reconsLrucL such sysLems of ldeas and sensaLlons on
any glven occaslon . . . LhaL Lhe hlsLorlcal sense conslsLs' [sLlll PP.l.274]. So we geL our sense of
earller eras by brlnglng Lo consclousness Lhelr dlsLlncLlve ouLlook, sLlll resldenL ln us.
8y Lhe Llme of D,(E3&,F [u] hlsLory ls Laklng a more dlsLlncLly crlLlcal and undermlnlng
slanL, and ls dlrecLed especlally upon morallLy. As he says ln hls 1886 preface, 'l commenced Lo
undermlne our falLh ln morallLy' [u.p.2]. 1he book's very flrsL secLlon LreaLs hlsLory: 'uoes noL
almosL every preclse hlsLory [.] of an orlglnaLlon lmpress our feellngs as paradoxlcal and
wanLonly offenslve? uoes Lhe good hlsLorlan noL, aL boLLom, consLanLly conLradlcL?' And u.93,
enLlLled 'PlsLorlcal refuLaLlon as Lhe deflnlLlve refuLaLlon', says LhaL 'Loday one lndlcaLes how Lhe
bellef LhaL Lhere ls a Cod could arlse and how Lhls bellef acqulred lLs welghL and lmporLance: a
counLer-proof LhaL Lhere ls no Cod Lhereby becomes superfluous'. So nleLzsche recognlzes, as
he had ln uM.ll, hlsLory's sLrongly undermlnlng force, buL he now vlews Lhls wlLh sLrong favor.

I? 2"&$.,3)& 5#9 0&#J D,##-./?
As nleLzsche proceeds Lhrough 81& .,( C0$&"0& [CS] and lnLo hls maLure works, he
lncreaslngly challenges Lhls domlnanL poslLlve vlew of hlsLory (and sclence and LruLh) by ralslng
agaln Lhe worrles ln uM.ll, doubLs LhaL were largely sllenL ln Lhe poslLlvlsL lnLerlude. So Lhe
&
doubLs agalnsL hlsLory's Lurn Lowards Lhe pasL, and agalnsL Lhe self-knowledge lL lnvolves, make
a reappearance wlLhln hls laLer vlew.
9
1hey do so, however, as subordlnaLed Lo whaL remalns a
more poslLlve overall sLance. nleLzsche wanLs Lo do full [usLlce Lo Lhe dangerous and corroslve
characLer of hlsLory, buL he sees a way Lo use preclsely Lhls characLer Lo help shape a new ldeal,
a new way for a person Lo be.
1hls shlfL ls encapsulaLed ln CS.337. lL opens: 'When l look wlLh Lhe eyes of a dlsLanL
age aL Lhls one, l can flnd noLhlng abouL presenL humanlLy more noLeworLhy Lhan lLs pecullar
vlrLue and slckness, called Lhe hlsLorlcal sense".' 1he secLlon descrlbes Lhe same llfe-
undermlnlng effecL uM.ll had aLLrlbuLed Lo hlsLory: 'lL seems Lo us [presenL-day humans] almosL
as lf lL lnvolves noL a new feellng, buL Lhe decrease of all old feellngs: - Lhe hlsLorlcal sense ls
sLlll someLhlng so poor and cold, and many are affecLed as by a frosL and are made weaker and
colder by lL.' 8uL now Lhls reacLlon ls seL ln a hlsLorlcal conLexL LhaL anLlclpaLes a way Lhls
hlsLorlcal wlsdom-whlch lnvolves 'feellng Lhe hlsLory [.] of humanlLy alLogeLher as one's own
hlsLory [.]'-can be lncorporaLed lnLo a hlgher llfe: 'Lo bear Lhls enormous sum of grlef of all
klnds, Lo be able Lo bear lL and sLlll Lo be Lhe hero who aL Lhe sLarL of Lhe second day of baLLle
greeLs Lhe dawn and hls happlness, as a man wlLh a horlzon of mlllennla before hlm and afLer
hlm . . . '. 1hls could resulL, Lhe passage concludes, ln a dlvlne happlness LhaL could evenLually
be called 'humanlLy'.
1hls shlfL (from uM.ll Lo Lhe laLe vlew) lsn'L [usL a maLLer of emphasls: lL's noL LhaL Lhe
maln vlews were presenL before, and LhaL nleLzsche slmply re-welghLs Lhe poslLlve over Lhe
negaLlve polnLs. lnsLead, as he pursues hls hlsLorlcal lnqulrles, and pursues Lhem lnLo Lhe rooLs
of morallLy ln parLlcular, he dlscovers (or lnvenLs) someLhlng such lnslghL can do-a way lL can
advance us noL [usL eplsLemlcally or lnLellecLually, buL ln our very llfe and values. nleLzsche sees
Lhls as cruclally an advance ln freedom. PlsLory, by exposlng Lhe sources of our values, makes
posslble a klnd of freedom persons could never have before.
We can gauge whaL's new by looklng qulckly back aL uM.ll. As menLloned nleLzsche
Lhere flnds Lhree poslLlve roles for hlsLory: monumenLal, anLlquarlan, and crlLlcal. Cf Lhese Lhe
Lhlrd comes closesL Lo hls maLure ldea. 1he maln polnL ls puL so: 'Pe [Lhe human] musL have,
and from Llme Lo Llme use Lhe power [G3,5#] Lo break up and dlssolve a pasL, Lo be able Lo llve lf

9
L.g. LP.lll.8CL.2: our age ls proud of 'Lhe hlsLorlcal sense" LhaL subordlnaLes lLself Lo allen LasLes,
prosLraLlng lLself before <&#$#/ 5,$#/'. 1l.l.24: 'When you look for beglnnlngs, you become a crab.
PlsLorlans look backwards, and Lhey end up bellevlng backwards Loo.'

'
he ls Lo llve, man musL possess and from Llme Lo Llme employ Lhe sLrengLh Lo break up and
dlssolve a parL of Lhe pasL' [uM.ll.3]. Sub[ecLed Lo such scruLlny, 'every pasL ls worLhy of belng
condemned - slnce . . . ln all [human Lhlngs] human power and weakness have always been
mlghLy'. Pere ls hls fuller accounL how Lhls works:
slnce we are Lhe resulLs of earller generaLlons, we are also Lhe resulLs of Lhelr
aberraLlons, passlons and errors, lndeed crlmes, lL ls noL posslble wholly Lo free oneself
from Lhls chaln. lf we condemn Lhese aberraLlons and regard ourselves as free of Lhem,
Lhls does noL alLer Lhe facL LhaL we sLem from Lhem. 1he besL we can do ls Lo confronL
our lnherlLed, heredlLary naLure wlLh our knowledge, and, by a new sLrlcL dlsclpllne
flghLlng our lnborn herlLage, lnplanL ln ourselves a new hablL, a new lnsLlncL, a second
naLure, so LhaL our flrsL naLure wlLhers away.
Such change ls dangerous, he conLlnues, 'because second naLures are usually weaker Lhan flrsL'.
SLlll, we can be reassured by Lhe recognlLlon LhaL 'Lhls flrsL naLure was once a second naLure and
LhaL every vlcLorlous second naLure wlll become a flrsL' [sLlll uM.ll.3].
WhaL changes, from Lhls absLracL and neuLral plcLure how hlsLory can faclllLaLe soclal
change, ls LhaL nleLzsche's own hlsLorlcal sLudles dellver hlm cerLaln resulLs. (So Lhe hlsLory LhaL
he does, glves hlm a new ldea of whaL hlsLory can do.) 1hese sLudles begln ln 2=%," >''?#--?
1=%," and are conLlnued ln D,4" and 81& .,( C0$&"0&. 1hey focus ever more lnslsLenLly on
values, whlch he comes Lo see as Lhe cruclal causes ln human hlsLory. 1hese are (l suggesL) Lhe
slgns for goals, by whlch we sLeer and order our llves. nleLzsche focuses especlally on Lhe moral
values ascendanL Loday. Pe arrlves aL hlsLorlcal hypoLheses why we have Lhese values-and Lhls
glves hlm, he Lhlnks, large grounds for dlssaLlsfacLlon wlLh Lhose values, and a parLlcular
program for reformlng Lhem. Pls new ldeal ls hls vlslon of Lhe freedom we can have, by such
reform-a freedom LhaL he feels hlmself growlng lnLo.
nleLzsche ls famously crlLlcal of phllosophers' usual noLlon of freedom. 1hls ls Lhe ldea
of Lhe agenL as, ln lLs power of declslon, able Lo acL as an 'uncaused cause', noL deLermlned by
any facLors or condlLlons exLernal or prlor Lo lLs momenL of cholce. nleLzsche Lhlnks LhaL such
'freedom of Lhe wlll' ls lmposslble. 8uL he doesn'L glve up Lhe ldeal of freedom. lndeed lL has an
obvlous relevance wlLhln hls plcLure of socleLles and lndlvlduals as Lensed neLworks of
compeLlng wllls Lo power, each Lrylng Lo draw oLhers lnLo lLs pro[ecL Lo grow lLself. 1hls plcLure
glves each wlll an lnLeresL ln reslsLlng oLher wllls' efforLs Lo dlverL lL lnLo furLherlng Lhelr growLh
(
raLher Lhan lLs own. Lach wlll has a deep lnLeresL ln belng free from such dlverslonary conLrol.
So freedom wlll be almosL a sLrucLural goal for wllls Lo power.
values are so lmporLanL because Lhey are Lhe prlmary vehlcles for such conLrol. lL's by
our values-roughly, our vlrLue- and goal-Lerms and -lmages-LhaL we as agenLs conLrol our
deslres and drlves. Agency ls, aL boLLom for nleLzsche, Lhe ablllLy Lo gulde acLlon, agalnsL Lhe
wlll of our drlves, by maklng a reference Lo words: Lhe words for cerLaln rules and vlrLues.
values are preclsely Lhese words, slgns by whlch behavlor ls almed agalnsL Lhe graln of Lhe
drlves, on behalf of an 'agenL' consLlLuLed by Lhls very use of Lhem. 'lreedom' has sLandardly
been undersLood as Lhls conLrol, of deslres and appeLlLes vlewed as allen forces.
8uL-and Lhls ls nleLzsche's dlsLlncLlve counLer-LhoughL-lL's by Lhese same values LhaL
Lhe agenL lLself ls conLrolled by forces and lnLeresLs ouLslde lL: by Lhe forces LhaL made Lhese
values, and made Lhem ln Lhese forces' own lnLeresLs. 1he values we grow up lnLo are soclal
arLlfacLs, formed by hlsLorlcal processes and now seL lnLo us wlLh mlnlmal cholce of our own.
1hey have as Lhelr ulLlmaLe alm Lo serve Lhe lnLeresLs of some group-and noL of Lhe lndlvldual
agenL. 1hey do so ln a greaL varleLy of ways LhaL nleLzsche dlssecLs. l Lhlnk he asks ln parLlcular
Lwo maln quesLlons. llrsL, whlch group do glven values express Lhe lnLeresL of? And second, do
Lhese values express Lhe lnLeresLs of LhaL group by furLherlng LhaL group's commonallLy, or lLs
excepLlons?
nleLzsche's background assumpLlon here ls LhaL values, by Lhelr sLandlng as wldely
shared LradlLlons, have conslderable sLablllLy Lhrough generaLlons. CS.37: '?ou sLlll carry
around Lhe assessmenLs [C01H#I="9&"] of Lhlngs LhaL have Lhelr orlgln ln Lhe passlons and loves
of former cenLurles!' values Lend Lo perslsL because of Lhelr sLaLus as prevalllng 'norms': Lhey
compel alleglance preclsely as shared, and Lhls poses a heavy drag agalnsL Lhe currenL of oLher
change ln Lhe socleLy and lLs clrcumsLances. So values don'L change by a sLeady and consLanL
drlfL, buL ln excepLlonal eplsodes-especlally ln Llmes of soclal perll and sLress, when Lhere ls
sLrong need for (somewhaL) dlfferenL vlrLues. values-Lhose words for vlrLues and rules-
undergo perlodlc, eplsodlc refashlonlngs, and each layers a new meanlng on Lop of Lhe old ones.
1hese revlslons are generally carrled ouL, nleLzsche clalms, by parLlcular parLs or classes
wlLhln Lhe socleLy-and Lhls ls Lhe flrsL polnL. ulfferenL groups ascend ln Lhese Llmes of rlsk, and
each revlses Lhe handed-down values Lo favor and propagaLe lLs own way of llfe. 1hey realm Lhe
values-Lhe meanlngs of baslc vlrLue- and goal-Lerms-ln Lhe lnLeresLs of Lhelr own klnd of
)
person, faclng Lhe klnd of dangers and challenges Lhey do. 1he values Lralned lnLo each of us
Lhus express Lhe wllls and lnLeresLs of varlous groups long before us.
nleLzsche develops Lhls ldea ln Lhe lmporLanL sLaLemenL of hlsLorlcal meLhod ln
CM.ll.12, e.g.: 'all purposes, all uLlllLles, are only slgns LhaL a wlll Lo power has become lord over
someLhlng less powerful and has sLamped lLs own funcLlonal meanlng onLo lL, and ln Lhls
manner Lhe enLlre hlsLory [.] of a Lhlng", an organ, a pracLlce can be a conLlnuous slgn-chaln of
ever new lnLerpreLaLlons and arrangemenLs[.]' And CM.ll.13 lllusLraLes Lhls wlLh a long llsL of
meanlngs LhaL have been embedded ln our noLlon (and pracLlce and value) of punlshmenL-
embedded by Lhe lnLerpreLlve lmpulses of soclal groups ln dlfferenL ages. PlsLory wlll sLudy how
our values were bullL by such a layerlng of meanlngs and alms, expresslng dlfferenL wllls and
lnLeresLs.
nleLzsche makes a second lmporLanL dlsLlncLlon regardlng Lhe way a new value serves
Lhe lnLeresL of Lhe group. values can serve Lhe group elLher by, so Lo speak, compacLlng lL, or by
sharpenlng lL. 1haL ls, values Lend elLher Lo make members cohere more LlghLly ln a unlform
mass, or lnsLead sLrlve Lo excel ln whaLever deeds are mosL needed by Lhe group. nleLzsche
Lhlnks of socleLles as Lyplcally shlfLlng beLween Lhe condlLlons LhaL make values ln Lhese Lwo
ways. ln Llmes of LhreaL, when Lhe group's survlval ls aL sLake, lL makes vlrLues ouL of Lhe
exerclse of aggresslve drlves LhaL push lndlvlduals Lo excel and domlnaLe, Lhe group needs Lhese
LralLs as a blade agalnsL enemles, and LoleraLes Lhelr dlvlslve effecLs wlLhln lLs own soclal body.
ln Llmes of peace and ease, by conLrasL, Lhe group makes values Lo heal up Lhese dlvlslons and
blnd members lnLo a more solld and homogeneous mass, lL's Lhen LhaL 'herd' vlrLues, and a
more suppresslve conLrol of Lhe selflsh drlves are favored. 8CL.201 develops Lhls scenarlo. ln
perlods of LhreaL, '[c]erLaln sLrong and dangerous drlves, llke . . . vengefulness, crafLlness,
rapaclLy, and Lhe lusL Lo rule, whlch . . . had Lo be Lralned and culLlvaLed Lo make Lhem greaL
(because one consLanLly needed Lhem ln vlew of Lhe dangers Lo Lhe whole communlLy, agalnsL
Lhe enemles of Lhe communlLy)'. 8uL when Lhe exLernal LhreaL dlsslpaLes, 'fear of Lhe nelghbor'
comes uppermosL: 'sLep by sLep, Lhe herd lnsLlncL draws lLs concluslons. Pow much . . . ls
dangerous Lo Lhe communlLy, dangerous Lo equallLy . . . now consLlLuLes Lhe moral perspecLlve'.
values made ln elLher of Lhese ways, and by any of formerly domlnanL groups, musL be
consldered by Lhe lndlvldual as <3$%, 5,0$& forelgn Lo lL. ln all probablllLy Lhese values were
made elLher Lo herd us, or Lo serve Lhe lnLeresLs of a socleLal group of people dlfferenL ln klnd
from ourselves, and faclng dlfferenL challenges. So lL's freedom from Lhese allen lnLeresLs
*+
hldden ln our values LhaL we mosL need. We have always been ln Lhrall Lo such values. 1hey
lmpose a conLrol LhaL ls more Lruly a LhreaL Lo our freedom Lhan Lhe usual culprlLs, our passlons
and drlves. 1he laLLer, we should see, are noL really allen Lo us ln Lhe ways Lhese value-shaplng
groups are. Cur drlves are Lhe deepesL and mosL abldlng elemenLs ln us, and we musLn'L lose
alleglance Lo Lhem. ?eL our agency, sLeerlng by values, enforces agalnsL our own drlves Lhe
lnLeresLs of Lhose ouLslde groups and Lypes. lL's here LhaL hlsLory-Lhe rlghL klnd of hlsLory-
can come Lo Lhe rescue: lL can lay bare Lhese soclal forces LhaL made our values, and Lhe
lnLeresLs Lhey serve. lL can clarlfy whaL Lhese values are 'Lrylng Lo do wlLh us': Lhe klnds of
people Lhey are deslgned ln favor of, and are aLLempLlng Lo Lurn us lnLo. lf we can ldenLlfy Lhose
lnLeresLs, as Lhe meanlng of Lhese values, we can begln Lo geL free of Lhelr conLrol.
1hls hlsLorlcal lnslghL doesn'L merely reveal Lhls conLrol. 8y lLs back-sLepplng characLer
lL also beglns Lo allenaLe us from Lhese values, Lo 'chlll' Lhem ln Lhe way noLed before. lL makes
a sLarL on Lhe work of 'dlscorporaLlng' values LhaL were shaped Lo Lhe advanLage of people we
don'L wanL Lo be-Lhe very dlfflculL work of weedlng Lhese values ouL of us, so far as we can.
1haL lL surely ls noL posslble Lo annul all Lhe deLalled ways we are ln Lhe hablL of valulng by
Lhem, shows LhaL we wlll never be Lhoroughly free of Lhem. 8uL Lhe freedom we should wanL ls
someLhlng more modesL: Lo reduce Lhe consLralnL and conLrol by Lhese allen values.
1o play Lhls role ln Lhe new pro[ecL of freedom hlsLory has Lo change.
10
8uL we should
sLress LhaL hlsLory ls noL changed by belng unhlnged from LruLh. 1o play lLs role ln freelng us
from Lhe conLrol of allen lnLeresLs ln our values, hlsLory needs Lo 'geL lL rlghL' whaL Lhese
lnLeresLs are.
11
lL needs Lo ldenLlfy correcLly Lhe forces LhaL shaped Lhese values, so LhaL we can
recognlze Lhe klnd of person Lhey favor. (So nleLzsche has a qulLe parLlcular ldea how 'Lhe LruLh
wlll seL you free'.) 1hus CM.p.7 alms Lo sLudy 'Lhe morallLy LhaL was really [4$3F'$01] Lhere, LhaL
was really llved', lL alms Lo glve Lhe 'real hlsLory of morallLy'. nleLzsche decrles, by conLrasL, Lhe
falslflcaLlons of hlsLory lnvolved ln Lhe foundlng of !udalsm and ChrlsLlanlLy.
12


10
See 8rob[er [2008 32-4] on nleLzsche's crlLlque of Lhe prevalllng way of dolng hlsLory.
11
l can'L here address argumenLs LhaL reduce hlsLory's relaLlon Lo LruLh (ln nleLzsche's maLure accounL of
lL), elLher by suggesLlng LhaL lL dlspenses wlLh ob[ecLlvlLy, or LhaL lL ls acLlvely myLh-maklng. See e.g. Lhe
argumenL by !ensen [2013] LhaL nleLzsche shlfLs from an early 'represenLaLlonal reallsm' Lo a laLer
'represenLaLlonal anLlreallsm'.
12
A.26 : 'ln an unparalleled acL of scorn for LradlLlon and hlsLorlcal reallLy, [Lhe !ewlsh prlesLs] LranslaLed
Lhe hlsLory of Lhelr own people lnLo rellglon . . . . 1hls ls Lhe mosL dlsgraceful acL of hlsLorlcal [.]
falslflcaLlon LhaL has ever Laken place'. A.42 says LhaL aul laLer 'perpeLraLed Lhe same enormous crlme
agalnsL hlsLory . . . he lnvenLed for hlmself a hlsLory [.] of Lhe flrsL ChrlsLlanlLy'.
**
PlsLory flnds ouL Lhe LruLh abouL values by collaboraLlng wlLh psychology. 1hls relaLlon
ls anoLher maln feaLure of Lhe new hlsLory.
13
Pere nleLzsche's maln welghL falls on psychology:
as a sclenLlsL, he counLs hlmself above all a psychologlsL, and comes Lo hlsLory because
psychology needs lL. Pls flrsL lnLeresL ls ln values as Lhey operaLe ln Lhe lndlvldual psychology,
flrmlng up Lhe agenL (of consclous cholce) as overseer of Lhe drlves and passlons. Pe wanLs Lo
know how values mlghL be changed, Lo do Lhls beLLer-Lo serve Lhe lnLeresLs of Lhose drlves,
raLher Lhan of allen groups. lL's Lo flnd ouL Lhese allen purposes, LhaL psychology needs Lhe help
of hlsLory.
14
We can'L geL aL Lhe meanlng and alms of our own values by sLralghLforward
lnLrospecLlon, slnce lL's noL we who seLLle whaL Lhey mean. Cur self-awareness doesn'L reach
far enough.
PlsLory musL Lrace Lhe lndlvldual's values back Lo Lhelr formaLlon and modlflcaLlon by
successlve soclal groups. 8uL slnce Lhose groups are Lhemselves collecLlons of persons of
parLlcular klnds, Lhls hlsLory ln Lurn relles on psychology Lo undersLand why a person of a cerLaln
klnd wlll need [usL Lhese values. 1o explaln how a value has been shaped and spread Lhe
hlsLorlan wlll need Lo deLermlne lLs selecLlve appeal: whaL lnduced lndlvlduals, of a cerLaln klnd,
Lo creaLe or Lo adopL lL. nleLzsche seems Lo Lhlnk LhaL values are adopLed especlally because
Lhey allow members of a populaLlon Lo feel Lhemselves flourlshlng and sLronger. So Lhelr appeal
ls especlally Lo our affecLs.
13
lL's Lhese above all, nleLzsche Lhlnks, LhaL selecL.
1he hlsLorlan can only undersLand such selecLlve appeal by a cerLaln personal
acqualnLance wlLh Lhese affecLs: he/she musL be able Lo feel how a cerLaln value can ellclL a
cerLaln affecLlve response, and how Lhls mlghL be lrreslsLlble for a cerLaln klnd of person.
16
8uL
forLunaLely we do lndeed have such access 'from wlLhln': we bear Lhe varlous affecLs appealed
Lo by our socleLy's values, layered wlLhln us ln our psychlc-affecLlve sLrucLure. lndeed (as we've
seen) nleLzsche even suggesLs LhaL Lhe lndlvldual, ln growlng up, llves Lhrough Lhe successlve

13
nleLzsche ofLen llnks hlsLory and psychology, for example: CS.p.2, CS.343, CM.l.3.
14
lppln [2010 31] speaks of nleLzsche's 'lnslsLence on Lhe necesslLy of a hlsLorlcal dlmenslon Lo any logos
of any psyche'.
13
Cn Lhe lmporLanL role of affecLs see !anaway [2006 346]: 'Lhose pasL culLural arrangemenLs
Lhemselves are explalned by Lhelr funcLlon ln dlscharglng, preservlng, represslng, or Lransformlng pre-
exlsLlng affecLs for Lhose who parLlclpaLed ln Lhem'.
16
Already ln uM.ll.foreword: 'Lhe experlences whlch evoked Lhose LormenLlng feelngs were mosLly my
own and . . . l have drawn on Lhe experlences of oLhers only for purposes of comparlson'. Pere agaln see
!anaway [2006 343]: 'MlghL real hlsLory", as nleLzsche concelves lL, demand a personal, affecLlve
responslveness Lo Lhe lnvesLlgaLlon?'
*"
perlods of human hlsLory.
17
8uL of course Lhese affecLs aren'L usually recognlzed, Lhe hlsLorlan
needs Lhe speclal ablllLy Lo acLlvaLe and noLlce Lhem.
1ake, as example of Lhls new hlsLory, nleLzsche's famous dlagnosls ln CM.l of ChrlsLlan
values as a slave morallLy rooLed ln 3&//&"#$%&"#. uslng only Lhe roughesL ouLllne of hls
procedure, we can see how lL follows Lhe above meLhod. Pe sLarLs wlLh cerLaln values he Lhlnks
are (among hls conLemporarles) almosL unlversally accepLed and credlLed, and whlch he sums
up as 'Lhe morallLy of compasslon' [CM.p.6]. 8uL lf we wanL Lo know whaL Lhese values mean
we can'L [usL lnLrospecL whaL we (dellberaLely, consclously) 'mean Lo mean' by Lhem. We need
Lo undersLand Lhe audlence for whlch Lhese values were flrsL deslgned, and Lhelr appeal Lo lL:
Lhey appealed Lo Lhe 3&//&"#$%&"# of a class and Lype LhaL felL ln[ured by oLhers Lhey envled.
Powever we can only undersLand Lhls appeal lf we can flnd and experlence Lhls aLLlLude of
3&//&"#$%&"# ln ourselves, nleLzsche descrlbes Lhe slave's sLance wlLh a vlvldness calculaLed Lo
brlng us Lo enLer lnLo hls/her sLance. And from Lhls we can flnd 3&//&"#$%&"# aL work ln our own
llves, ln some of our own moral [udgmenLs. So Lhe hlsLorlcal excurslon back Lo Lhe 'slave revolL'
polnLs ouL where our lnLrospecLlon should look, Lo see whaL our values mean.

K? L("M.&.H(3 N#'./#& ("&$.,"'7M?
8uL hlsLory lsn'L [usL lmporLanL Lo phllosophy because of lLs lnslghLs abouL Lhe orlgln and
evoluLlon of our values. lL lsn'L [usL a daLa-source abouL prevalllng values, prlor Lo revalulng
Lhem. hllosophy also 'becomes hlsLorlcal' ln a more lnLrlnslc and revoluLlonary way: lL sees
LhaL noL [usL values buL all Lhe Lhlngs lLs Lerms deal wlLh are also hlsLorlcally evolvlng-due Lo
how Lhe words LhaL dellneaLe Lhose Lhlngs evolve. hllosophy musL exLend Lhls Lo all Lhe
lmporLanL noLlons LhaL lLs baslc quesLlons LreaL. lL wlll Lhereby acqulre Lhe 'hlsLorlcal sense' lL
has always lacked: 'whaL separaLes us from kanL, [usL as from laLo and Lelbnlz: we belleve ln
becomlng also ln Lhe splrlLual, we are hlsLorlcal Lhrough and Lhrough' [kSA.11.442].
hllosophy learns, ln effecL, noL Lo sLrlve for 'concepLs' ln Lhe old way: Lerms wlLh a
meanlng preclsely seL by deflnlLlon, plcklng ouL whaL Lhe referenL ls 'ln lLself' and qulLe aparL
from Lhe concepL. 'lor Lhousands of years, phllosophers have been uslng only mummlfled
concepLs . . . Lhese lords of concepL ldolaLry' [1l.lll.1]. 8y conLrasL Lhe new phllosophy wlll Lry Lo

17
PP.l.272 says LhaL Lhe culLural hlsLory of Lhe lasL 30,000 years ls recaplLulaLed ln each lndlvldual's
developmenL up Lo age 30.
*#
push ahead Lhe hlsLorlcal developmenL of lLs Lerms, whose pasL course and presenL arc lL needs
Lo know.
nleLzsche lllusLraLes Lhe needed change ln LhaL accounL of 'punlshmenL' ln CM.ll.12-13.
1hls draws Lhe lesson LhaL 'all concepLs ln whlch an enLlre process ls semloLlcally concenLraLed
elude deflnlLlon, only LhaL whlch has no hlsLory [.] ls deflnable' [13]. unlshmenL ls an
hlsLorlcally-developlng pracLlce collecLed ln Lhls word-as well as ln Lhe oLher words used ln
framlng Lhe pracLlce, such as 'deserve', 'responslble', '[usL'. 8aLher Lhan a deflnlLlon whaL
punlshmenL (really) ls, or whaL lL ls (really) for, phllosophy pursues an undersLandlng how Lhe
noLlon and pracLlce have evolved-and where LhaL developmenL can besL now go. WhaL can
and should be sald by Lhe Lerm, are lnLernal and subordlnaLe Lo LhaL hlsLory. kSA.11.613:
we belleve ln no eLernal concepLs, eLernal values, eLernal forms, eLernal souls, and
phllosophy, lnsofar as lL ls sclence and noL lawglvlng, means for us only Lhe wldesL
expanslon of Lhe concepL hlsLory". lrom eLymology and Lhe hlsLory [.] of language we
gaLher LhaL all concepLs become, LhaL many are sLlll becomlng[.]
1hls qulLe drasLlcally changes Lhe phllosopher's amblLlons wlLh respecL Lo hls/her words.
1he polnL applles Lo all Lhe maln noLlons aL lssue here, lncludlng ln parLlcular 'freedom'.
1he alm ls no longer Lo say whaL freedom 'really' ls, aparL from Lhe framlng polnL LhaL lL Loo ls an
evolvlng pracLlce llnked Lo a word. 1he pracLlce reflecLs lndlvlduals' efforLs Lo 'be free'-a self-
concepLlon and goal Lhey slgn Lo Lhemselves wlLh LhaL word. 8oLh Lhe pracLlce, and Lhe
concepLlon lLs pracLlcers have of whaL Lhey're dolng, change hlsLorlcally. nleLzsche doesn'L
clalm LhaL hls new ldeal of freedom-as from Lhe manlpulaLlon of forelgn forces ln one's
values-sLaLes lLs real essence, Lhe Lrue referenL of Lhe concepL. 8uL nor does he concede LhaL
Lhls noLlon of freedom ls '[usL hls perspecLlve', wlLh no more sLaLus Lhan any oLher. 8aLher he
offers hls new ldeal as an advance ln LhaL hlsLorlcal pracLlce, as whaL freedom 'can (for Lhe
beLLer) become'. ln sum: hlsLory noL only leads nleLzsche Lo hls crlLlcal vlew of morallLy, lL also
amends hls concepLlon of Lhe klnd of undersLandlng phllosophy should pursue.


*$
O"NM".1,7H(3

-Ansell earson, k., 2006. > J-%<,"$-" #- 6$&#I/01&. Cxford: 8lackwell ubllshlng.

-8rob[er, 1.P., 2004. 'nleLzsche's vlew of Lhe value of PlsLorlcal SLudles and MeLhods', ln
K-=3",' -5 #1& 2$/#-3( -5 L+&,/ 63:301-22.

-8rob[er, 1.P., 2008. '1he LaLe nleLzsche's lundamenLal CrlLlque of PlsLorlcal Scholarshlp', ln
(ed.) urles 2008.

-urles, M. (ed.), 2008. 6$&#I/01& -" 8$%& ,"+ 2$/#-3(. 8erlln: de CruyLer.

-PelL, P., Abel, C., and 8rusoLLl, M. (eds.), 2012. 6$&#I/01&/ B$//&"/01,5#/<1$'-/-<1$&M
2$"#&393N"+&O B$3F="9&" ="+ >F#=,'$#H#. 8erlln: de CruyLer.

-!anaway, C., 2006. 'naLurallsm and Cenealogy', ln (ed.) Ansell-earson 2006.

-!ensen, A.k., 2008. '.&/01$01#& or 2$/#-3$&? nleLzsche's Second unLlmely MedlLaLlon', ln (ed.)
urles 2008.

-!ensen, A.k., 2013. 'MeLa-PlsLorlcal 1ranslLlons from hllology Lo Cenealogy', ln K-=3",' -5
6$&#I/01& C#=+$&/ 44.2:196-212.

-lppln, 8.8., 2010. 6$&#I/01&O ;/(01-'-9(O ,"+ P$3/# ;1$'-/-<1(. Chlcago: unlverslLy of Chlcago
ress.

-8lchardson, !., 2008. 'nleLzsche's roblem of Lhe asL', ln (ed.) urles 2008.

-Schurlnga, C., 2012. 'nleLzsche on hlsLory as sclence', ln (eds.) PelL, Abel, and 8rusoLLl 2012.