Drainage Manual

A Water Technical Resources Publication

A guide to integrating plant, soil, and water relationships for drainage of irrigated lands.

FIRST PRINTING 1978 SECOND PRINTING 1984 THIRD PRINTING 1991 REVISED REPRINT 1993

SI METRIC

U.S. DEPARTMENT
BUREAU

OF THE INTERIOR

OF RECLAMATION

Mission: As the Nations principal conservation agency, the Department of the Interior has responsibility for most of our nationally-owned public lands and natural and cultural resources. This includes fostering wise use of our land and water resources, protecting our fish and wildlife, preserving the environmental and cultural values of our national parks and historical places, and providing for the enjoyment of life through outdoor recreation. The Department assesses our energy and mineral resources and works to assure that their development is in the best interests of all our people. The Department also promotes the goals of the Take Pride in America campaign by encouraging stewardship and citizen responsibility for the public lands and promoting citizen participation in their care. The Department also has a major responsibility for American Indian reservation communities and for people who live in Island Territories under U.S. Administration.

PREFACE

It has been said of world irrigation, It is a modem science-the scienceof survival.A prime ingredientof this scienceis the development andmaintenance of a root zone having a balanceof moisture, air, and salts favorable for plant growth. Drainage is one of the essentialactivities neededto provide such a balance. Where man haspracticed irrigation agriculture successfully,he has enlarged his territory, supportedincreasingpopulations,lived in better health, and made greatstridesculturally. Where drainagehasbeenoverlookedor neglected,mans developmentand his civilization have failed. Lack of adequatedrainage has probablybeenthe greatestsinglecauseof failure on irrigation projectsthroughout the world. History has shown repeatedly that excesswater and salt must be removedfrom soilsfor irrigation to bepermanentlysuccessful.If irrigation is the science of survival of man, it can be addedthat drainageprovidesfor the survival of irrigation. The fundamental measureof the importance of drainageis the benefit providedby irrigation itself. Dminageof irrigated landsby the Bureauof Reclamationbeganshortly after passage of the ReclamationAct in 1902.However, not until the late 1940sand early 1950sdid engineersin the Bureauof Reclamationbeginpioneeringefforts to developthe technologyof drainageof irrigated landsinto amodem engineering science. This manual contains the engineeringtools and concepts that have proven useful in planning,constructing,andmaintainingdrainage systemsfor successful long term irrigation projects. The manual is not a textbook. Mathematical and experimental development of the engineering tools has generally not been included. Indeed,not even all the innovativeways to use the tools are included. The manualprovidesdrainageengineers a ready referenceand guidefor making accurateestimatesof drainagerequirements.Design and constructioncriteria, if followed with reason,will result in reliable drainagesystemsfor irrigated areas. All the methodsand techniques coveredin the manualhaveproven to be very satisfactory through observedfield conditionson irrigated landsthroughout the world. Somemethodshavea more elegantdevelopmentandbasisin sciencethan others,but all havebeendesigned to solve practical problemsin the field. Themanualcontainstechniques developed over the last 25 yearsby personnel in the Bureau of Reclamation. Messrs. R. J. Winger, Jr., L. D. Dumm, J. N. Christopher,W. F. Ryan andG. P. Brunskill havebeenprimary contributors of the new concepts.
III

iv

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Mathematicaland computer treatmentfor the conceptswere chiefly rendered by R. E. Glover, W. T. Moody, andR. W. Ribbens;A. J. Cunningham,Jr., made significant contributions to the second edition revisions. E. J. Carlson and E. R. Zeigler provided valuableresearch. Field evaluation and application has been the main responsibility of field offices and crews. Without their dedicatedefforts, many of the conceptswould haveremainedlittle more than theoreticalguesswork.Our specialthanksto those directing theseevaluations: D. A. Barker, K. G. Bateman, M. D. J. Batista, W. C. Bell, Keith Campbell, C. L. Christensen,D. A. DeBruyn, R. J. Efferts, R. R. Frogge, J. E. Fuller, H. T. Hardman, P. J. Kennedy, W. A. Lidster, R. 0. Lunde, C. R. Maki, A. E. Mathison, John Monteith III, P. M. Myers, G. E. Neff, H. R. Nelson, C. A. Neumann, N. E. Noyes, P. J. Pehrson, J. A. Pugsley,G. D. Sanders,J. M. Schaack,H. A. Schweers,W. 0. Watson, R. H. Weimer, andJohn Williford. Therelationships of drainage to landclassificationandproject economics were developedthrough the efforts of J. T. Maletic, W. B. Peters,Edmund Barbour, and their staffs. Major contributions to the overall presentationsin the manual weremadeby C. R. Maierhofer,W. H. Yarger,R. J. Winger, Jr., J. N. Christopher, and R. D. Mohr. We gratefully acknowledgecontributions to the development of drainage concepts usedin this manualmadeby personnel of the Soil ConservationService, AgricultumJ ResearchService, and the many collegesand universities. Occasionalreferencesto proprietarymaterialsor productsin this publicationmust not be construedin any way as an endorsement,as Reclamation cannot endorse proprietaryproductsor processes of manufacturersor the servicesof commercial firms for advertising,publicity, sales,or other purposes. For this SecondEdition of the DrainageManual, the metric unit system has beenaddedto the U.S. customaryunit systemto comply with U.S. Government requirementsand for the benefit of those who prefer working with the metric system. Personnelof the Drainage/Seepage Section, Ground Water Branch, Denver Office of the Bureauof Reclamationwere responsible for making these additionsthroughoutthe manualaswell asfor checkingandupdatingall chapters in the manual.

CONTENTS
Preface................................... iii

CHAPTER
Section

I.

INTRODUCTION
Page

l-l. l-2. l-3. l-4. 1-5. l-6. l-7.

General ............................ scope ............................. History ............................ Importance .......................... Benefitsof drainage ..................... Drainageand environment .................. Drainagenomenclature ................... (a) Surfacedrainage. .................... (b) Subsurfacedrainage................... (c) Openand pipe drains .................. (d) Deferreddrainage .................... (e) Functionof drains .................... (f) Inverted, relief, or pumpedwells ............

1 2 4 4 4 7 8 8 8 8 8 9 11

CHAPTER
2-l. 2-2. 2-3.

II.

BASIC

DATA
13 13 1.5 15 17 17 18 18 20 22 22 25 26 28 28 29 36 37

24.

2-5.

Introduction ......................... Topography ......................... Geology ........................... (a) General ......................... (b) Barrier .......................... (c) Aquifers ......................... Soil characteristics ...................... (a) Hydraulic conductivity ................. @) Texture ......................... (c) Color. .......................... (d) Structme ......................... (e) Specific yield ...................... (f) Capillary fringe ..................... Salinity and alkalinity .................... (a) General ......................... (b) Leachingrequirementand salt balance ......... (c) Construction in sodic soils ............... (d) Classification of salineand sodic soils .........
V

vi
Section

DRAINAGE MANUAL
Page

2-6. Surfacerunoff . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (a) Precipitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (b) Stormflow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . (c) Estimating total runoff from soil andcover conditions . (d) Estimating irrigation and deeppercolationschedules . (e) Farmwaste . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2-7. Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . CHAPTER A. III. FIELD AND LABORATORY PROCEDURES

37 37 38 42 46 53 58

IN-PLACE HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY TESTS BELOW A WATER TABLE . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . 3-1. 3-2. Objective ........................... Auger-holetest for hydraulicconductivity ......... (a) Introduction ....................... (b) Equipment ........................ (c) Procedure ........................ (d) Calculations ....................... (e) Limitations ....................... (f) Step testsin layeredsoils ................ Piezometertest for hydraulic conductivity ......... (a) Introduction ....................... (b) Equipment ........................ (c) Procedure ........................ (d) Calculations ....................... (e) Limitations ....................... Pomonawell point method ................. Singlewell drawdown test for hydraulic conductivity ... TESTS

61 61 61 61 61 67 70 72 73 75 75 75 75 76 78 78 81 83 83 83 83 83 85 90 95 95 95

3-3.

34. 3-5. B.

IN-PLACE HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY ABOVE A WATER TABLE ................. 36. 3-7.

3-8.

Objective ........................... Shallow well pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity ... (a) Introduction ........................ (b) Equipment, ....................... (c) Procedure ........................ (d) Calculations ....................... ....................... (e) Liitations Ringpermeametertest .................... (a) Introduction ....................... (b) Equipment. .......................

(c) Procedure, , , , , , , , , , , . , , , , , , , , , , , ,

CONTENTS
Section

vii
Page

(d) Calculations ....................... (e) Liiitations ....................... 3-9. Test pit method ........................ (a) Introduction ....................... (b) Procedure ........................ (c) CalcuIations ....................... 3-10. Test for determininginfiltration rate .............

100 100 103 103 103 103 104 107 107 108 108 108 108 109 110 111 111 112 112 114 117 118

C.

LABORATORY TESTS FOR HYDRAULIC CONDUCTIVITY.

3-l 1. Hydraulic conductivity from undisturbedsoil samples . . . 3-12. Hydraulic conductivity from disturbedsoil samples . . . .

D.

OBSERVATION
3-13. 3-14. 3-15. 3-16. 3-17. 3-l 8. 3-19. 3-20. 3-21. 3-22. 3-23.

HOLES AND PIEZOMETERS

. ...

Introduction ......................... Location of observationholes ................ Installation of observationholes ............... Casingfor observationholes ................. Piezometers ......................... Installation of piezometers.................. Recordsof observationholes ................ Numbering systemfor observationholes .......... Measuringdevicesfor depth to water ............ Pluggedobservationholes .................. Bibliography .........................

CHAPTER
4-l. 4-2. 4-3. 4-4. 4-5.

IV.

DRAINAGE

INVESTIGATIONS
121 121 122 122 123 123 123 126 126 127 127 127 127 127 128

4-6. 4-7. 4-8.

Scopeof the investigations ................. Factorsin an investigation .................. Review of existing data ................... Field reconnaissance ..................... Subsurface investigations .................. (a) Log of drainageholes .................. (b) Projectionof in-placehydraulic conductivity data to similar soil horizons ................... Identifying the barrier zone ................. Geologic influence ...................... Water sourcestudies ..................... (a) General ......................... (b) Precipitation ....................... (c) Irrigation. ........................ (d) Seepage ......................... (e) Hydrostaticpressure ..................

VII

...
Section

DRAINAGE MANUAL
Page

4-9.

4-10. 4-l 1. 4-12. 4-13. 4-14. 4-15. 4-16. 4-17. 4-l 8. 4-19.

Ground-water studies .................... (a) General ......................... (b) Ground-water table contour maps ........... (c) Depth-to-groundwater maps .............. (d) Depth-to-barrier maps .................. (e) Water table profiles ................... (f) Piezometricprofiles ................... (g) Hydrographs ....................... Ground-water accretionsto drains .............. Outlet conditions ....................... (a) Physicalconstraints ................... (b) Quality requirements .................. Drainlocation ........................ Drain numbering .................... Existing structures ...................... Economic considerations of drainageproblems ....... Drainagefor sprinkler irrigation ............... Testsfor estimatingdeeppercolationfrom sprinkler systems ............................ Numerical models ...................... Bibliography .........................

128 128 128 130 130 130 130 130 132 132 132 135 135 136 136 137 140 141 144 144

CHAPTER A.

V.

DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION . ...... .. ...... .. ...

147 147 147 148 148 153 153 153 153 154 154 154 154 158 161 161 166 167 169

SPACING OF DRAINS
5-1. 5-2. 5-3. 54.

Introduction ......................... Transientflow method of drain spacing ........... Backgroundof the method .................. Data required ......................... (a) y,.andH. ........................ (l$yandZ .......................... (c) Hydraulic conductivity, K ................ (d) Specific yield, S ..................... (e) Time,t .......................... (f) Plow depth,D ...................... (g) Drain spacing,L ..................... 5-5. Convergence ......................... 5-6. Deeppercolationand buildup ................ 5-7. Using the data ........................ 5-8. Drain abovethe barrier layer ................ 5-9. Drain on the barrier layer .................. 5-10. Other usesfor transientflow curves ............. 5-l 1. Drain spacingusing steady-state formulas .........

CONTENTS
Section

ix
Page

5-12. Determining dischargefrom spaceddrains ......... 5-13. Design dischargefor collector drains ............

171 173 175 175 175 180 188 188 188 190 193 193 194 194 194 194 194 199 199 200 200 200 203 203 203 203 204 205 205 212 212 214 214 217 218 218 223 224

B.

INTERCEPTOR

DRAINS.

..................

5-14. Introduction ......................... 5-15. Location of first drain below an unlined canalor lateral . . 5-16. Location of first drain on irrigated sloping land .......

C.

OPENDRAINS
5-17. 5-18. 5-19. 5-20. 5-21. 5-22. 5-23. 5-24. 5-25. 5-26. 5-27.

.........................

Introduction ......................... Open channelflow ...................... Drain velocities ....................... Depth of drain ........................ Drain section ......................... Drain banks. ......................... Tributary drain intersections ................. Surfaceinlets ......................... Transition sections ...................... Design capacities....................... Structures. .......................... (a) Inlets. .......................... (b) Drops and chutes .................... (c) crossings ........................ 5-28. Natural channels ....................... 5-29. Stageconstruction ......................

D.

PIPE DRAINS
5-30. 5-31. 5-32. 5-33. 5-34. 5-35. 5-36. 5-37.

..........................

Introduction ......................... Pipefordrains ........................ Pipe specifications ...................... Collectors. .......................... Depth of pipe drains ..................... Grade and alignment ..................... Envelopematerial ...................... Determining hydraulic conductivity of envelopematerial . (a) Equipment ........................ (b) Procedure ........................ (c) Calculations ....................... 5-38. Gap width, length of pipe sections,and hydraulic conductivity of envelope................... 5-39. Stability of apipe drain bed ................. 5-40. Laying pipe drains ......................

x
Section

DRAINAGE MANUAL
Page

5-4 1. 542. 543. 544. 545. 5-46.

Inspectingand testing pipe drains .............. Backfilling pipe drain trench. ................ Manholes ........................... Surfaceinlets ......................... Outlet structures ....................... Strengthof drainpipe ..................... (a) General ......................... (b) Rigid pipe ........................ (c) Plasticpipe ....................... 5-47. Sizeof pipe .......................... 548. Capacity of pipe drains .................... 5-49. Design of a drainagesump andpumping plant .......

225 225 226 227 227 229 229 229 234 237 238 238 245 245 246 246 246 247 247 247 251 251 253 254 255 257 258 258 258 262

E.

SPECIAL DRAIN TYPES

5-50. 5-5 1. 5-52. 5-53.

..................

Introduction ......................... Relief wells .......................... Pumpedwells ........................ Inverted or rechargewells and infiltration galleries .....

F.

INVESTIGATION
5-54. 5-55. 5-56. 5-57. 5-58. 5-59. 5-60. 5-61. 5-62. 5-63.

AND LAYOUT FOR DRAINS

....

Introduction ......................... Investigation procedure ................... Moisture holding capacityin the root zone ......... Annual irrigation schedule.................. Irrigation deliveriesand deeppercolationfrom irrigation. . Other water sourcescausinghigh water table conditions . . (a) Deep percolationfrom adjacentareas ......... (b) Deep percolationfrom farm ditches .......... Determinationof barrier zone ................ Depth of drains ........................ Drain spacingdeterminationsand drain locations ...... Bibliography .........................

CHAPTER
6-l. 6-2.

VI.

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

265 265 265 266 266 267 268

6-3. 6-4.

Introduction ......................... Buried pipe drainagesystems ................ (a) Pipedrain outlets .................... (b) Manholesor sandtraps ................. (c) Generalmaintenance of pipe drains .......... Open drainagesystem .................... Wastewaterdisposalponds .................

CONTENTS
Section

xi
Page

6-5. 6-4. 6-7.

Drainageobservationwells . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Policy and basicrequirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . .

269 269 269

CHAPTER
7-l. 7-2. 7-3. 7-4. 7-5.

VII.

SPECIAL

DRAINAGE

PROBLEMS
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271 294 294 294 300 303

Return flow analysisusing the transientflow concept Two-layer aquifers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Moodys nonlinearsolutions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Agricultural DrainagePlanningProgram(ADPP) . . Bibliography . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

APPENDIX.

InternationalSystem(SI Metric)/US Customary ConversionTables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

FIGURES
Figure Pllge

l-l l-2 l-3 2-l 2-2 2-3 2-4 2-5 2-6 2-7 2-g 2-9 2-10 2-l 1 2-12 2-13 2-14 3-l 3-2 3-3 3-4 3-5 3-6 3-7 3-S

Farm conditionsbefore, during, and after drain construction ........................ Effects of shallow water table depthson plant roots .... Types of drams ........................ Conventionalsymbolsfor drainagemaps .......... Soil triangle of the basicsoil textural classes ........ Types of soil structure .................... Curve showing generalrelationshipbetweenspecific yield and hydraulic conductivity ................ Salt tolerancefor field, vegetable,and forage crops .... Curves for estimatingleachingreqdrement and minimum infiltration rate ................. Rainfall intensity map .................... Nomographfor estimatingtime of flood concentration ... Chart for determiningthe one-fifth andfour-fifths powers of numbers ......................... Curve numbersfor determiningsurfacerunoff ....... Direct runoffbasedoncurvenumberand rainfall. ..... Curves for estimating infiltration basedon precipitation . . Typical canaland lateral capacitycurve for units lessthan 400 hectares(1,000 acres) ................. Typical canaland lateral capacitycurve for units greater than4OOhectares (1,OOOacres).............. Typesof handsoil augers .................. Equipmentsetupfor the auger-holeor piezometertest ... Equipmentfor auger-holetest ................ Data and computationsheeton auger-holetest for hydraulic conductivity ................... Valuesof C when barrier is below bottom of hole during auger-holetest ....................... Valuesof C when barrier is at bottom of hole during auger-holetest ....................... Dam and computationsheeton steptest for hydraulic conductivity ........................ Data and computationsheeton piezometertest for hydraulic conductivity ...................

3 6 10 16 21 22 27 31 32 40 41 43 44 45 47 56 57 63 65 66 69 71 72 74 77

xii

CONTENTS
Figure

XIII Page

.. .

3-9 3-10 3-l 1 3-12 3-13 3-14 3-15a 3-15b 3-16 3-17a 3-17b 3-l 8a 3-18b 3-19 3-20a 3-20b 3-21 3-22 3-23 3-24 3-25

Chart for determiningA-function on piezometertest for hydraulic conductivity when there is upward pressurein the test zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Samplecalculationfor piezometertest with upward pressurein the test zone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Determination of hydraulic conductivity by pumping from a uniform or confined stratum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Equipmentsetupfor a shallow well pump-m test . . . . . . Typical constant-levelfloat valve usedin hydraulic conductivity tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Typical filter tank andfilter material . . . . . . . . . . . . Nomographfor estimatingthe minimum and maximum volume of water to be dischargedduring a pump-in hydraulic conductivity test (metric units) . . . . . . . . . Nomogmphfor estimatingthe minimum andmaximum volume of water to be discharged during a pump-in hydraulic conductivity test (U.S. customaryunits) . . . . Data and computationsheeton shallow well pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nomographfor determininghydraulic conductivity from shallow well pump-in test data for condition I (metric units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nomogmph for determininghydraulic conductivity from shallow well pump-in test data for condition I (U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Nomogmphfor determininghydraulic conductivity from shallow well pump-in test data for condition II (metric units) . . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . , , . . . Nomographfor determininghydraulic conductivity from shallow well pump-in test data for condition II (U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , Equipmentsetupfor the ring permeameterhydraulic conductivity test . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Data and computationsheeton ring permeametertest for hydraulic conductivity (metric units) . . . . . . . . . . . Data and computationsheeton ring permeametertest for hydraulic conductivity (U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . . Data and computationsheeton test pit method for hydraulic conductivity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Dam sheetfor determininginfiltration rate . . . . . . . . . Coordinatesystemfor numberingobservationholes . . . . USGS township-rangewellnumbering system . . . . . . . Devicesfor measuringdepthto water in wells . . . . . . .

79 80 82 84 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 97 101 102 105 107 113 115 116

XIV

DRAINAGE MANUAL
Figure Page

4-l 4-2 4-3 4-4 4-5 4-6 4-7 4-8 4-9 5-l 5-2 5-3 54 5-5a 5-5b 5da 5-6b 5-7 5-8 5-9 5-10

Typical ground-waterprofiles ................ Samplelogofadrainagehole ................ Typical ground-watertable contours ............ Typical depth-to-groundwater map ............. Typical hydrogmphsof water table elevations ....... Additional plotted data on an actualproject hydrograph . . Crop production response to a fluctuating water table ... Typical sprinkler irrigation pattern .............. Typical pivot sprinkler irrigation pattern .......... Comparisonbetweencomputedand measured drain spacings .......................... Comparisonbetweencomputedand measuredwater table heightsabovedrains .................... Ground-waterhydrographs ................. Curves showing relationshipof parametersneededfor drain spacingcalculationsusing the transient-flow theory ... Curves for determiningHooghoudtsconvergence correction (metric units) .................. Curves for determiningHooghoudtsconvergence correction (U.S. customaryunits) ............. Expandedcurves for determiningHooghoudts convergence correction (metric units) ........... Expandedcurves for determiningHooghoudts convergence correction (U.S. customaryunits) ...... Curve for estimatinginfiltrated rainfall ........... Water table fluctuation chart for exampleproblem ..... Measurements neededfor estimatinglocation of first drain belowanunlinedcanalorlateral ............. Water table profiles on sloping barriersfor 0.05 I iKsz IO.25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

124 125 129 131 133 134 139 142 143 149 150 151 152 156 156 157 157 160 166 176 180 181

5-l 1 Water table profiles on slopingbarriers for 0.25 I &5-12 I 1.25 . . . . . . . . . . . , . . . . . . .

Water table profile on slopingbarrier for -=0.76.. ...................... I& Water table profile under steadystateconditionswith and without drains ....................... Typical plan andprofile of an opendrain .......... Typical dram and collecting ditch sections ......... Typical culverts and drain inlets ............... Joint designfor rigid pipe drains ............... 182 185 #89 195 197 201

5-13 5-14 5-15 5-16 5-17

CONTENTS
Figure

xv
Page

5-18 Typical tubing andjoint sectionsfor corrugatedplastic pipe drains . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-19 Rate of installationof drainsby dram depthfor three different typesof trenchingmachines . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20a Cost relationshipsby drain depth for drams installedwith a high-speedtrencher(metric units) . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-20b Cost relationshipsby drain depth for drams installedwith a high-speed trencher (U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . . . 5-21 Cost relationshipsby drain depth for three different trenchers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-22 Cost effects by dram depthas a result of reducingexcavation and pipe costsby one-half for a conventionaltrencher . . 5-23a Excavationamountsfor varioustrench widths and depths and lOO-millimetergravel envelopevolume for various pipe sizes(metric units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-23b Excavationamountsfor varioustrench widths and depths and4-inch gravel envelopevolume for various pipe sizes(U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-24 Plow enteringa spaceddrain from a gravel envelopefor concreteor clay pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-25 Plow enteringa spaceddrain from a gravel envelopefor plastic pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-26 Typical manholedesignfor a closeddrain . . . . . . . . . 5-27 Loadson concreteor clay pipe per linear meter (foot) for various backfill materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-28 Chart and nomogmphfor estimatingbackfill load on rigid pipe in trenches . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-29 Loadcoefticients for computing weight of backfill . . . . . 5-30 Backfill loadson pipe in a 450-millimeter (18-inch) wide trench . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 la Plow in drainsof various diameterbasedon slope (metric units). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-3 1b Plow in drainsof various diameterbasedon slope (U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-32 Plan and profile of a typical closeddram . . . . . . . . . . 5-33 Hydraulic propertiesof drainpipe . . . . . . , . . . . . . . 5-34 Typical arrangementof an automaticdrainagerelift pumping plant . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-35 Layout;surface topography,and irrigation facilities of the samplefarm . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-36 Water table conditions of the samplefarm . . . . . . . . . 5-37 Samplefarm gridsystem and locationof test sites . . . . . 5-38 Typical soil profiles of samplefann subareas. . . . . . . .

202 207 209 209 210 211 215 216 217 220 228 230 231 235 236 239 240 241 242 245 248 249 250 250

xvi
Figure

DRAINAGE

MANUAL
Page

5-39 In-placehydraulic conductivity datafor samplefarm . . . 5-40 North-south profile on E-line of samplefarm . . . . . . . 5-41 Subareas of the samplefarm having similar drainage conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542 Location of pipe drainson the samplefarm . . . . . , . . 7-l Irrigation schedulefor the example5-year crop rotation program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2 Water table fluctuation for eachcrop in the example 5-year crop rotation program . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-3 Fluctuationsin dischargerate producedfrom a crop of alfalfa . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-4 Dischargeratesfor eachcrop in the example5-year crop rotation program , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-5 Area dischargecurve . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-6 Water movementin two-layer aquifers . . . . . . . . . . 7-7 Dimensionlesscurvesof maximum water-tableheight, y, versustime, t, for parallel drainsat various distances abovean impermeablebarrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-8 Dimensionlesscurvesof rate of discharge,q, versus time, t, for parallel drains at various distances abovean impermeablebarrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-9 Dimensionlesscurvesof volume of water removed, V, versustime, t, for parallel drainsat variousdistances abovean impermeablebarrier . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

252 256 259 261 273 280 281 282 283 295 296 297 298

TABLES
Table Page

2-l

2-2 2-3
2Aa 2-4b 2-5a 2-5b 5-l 5-2a 5-2b 5-3a 5-3b 5-4a 5Ab

5-5
5-6a 5-6b

5-7 5-8

Conversionfactors for varioushydraulic conductivity unit.s . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Particle size classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Weighteddrainagebasinfactors for determining C . . . . Irrigation and deeppercolationschedulefor alfalfa (metric units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Irrigation and deeppercolationschedulefor alfalfa (U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . Irrigation and deeppercolationschedulefor alfalfa including rainfall (metric units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . Irrigation and deeppercolationschedulefor alfalfa including rainfall (U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . . . . Approximate deeppercolationfrom surfaceirrigation (percentof net input) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Computationof water table fluctuation in meterswith drain abovethe barrier layer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Computationof water table fluctuation in feet with drain abovethe barrier layer. . , . . . . . . . . . . . . Computationof water table fluctuation in meterswith drain abovethe barrier layer usingD as correctedby Hooghoudt . . . . . . . . . . ., . . . . . . . . . . . . Computation of water table fluctuation in feet with drain abovethe barrier layer using D' as correctedby Hooghoudt . . . . . . . . . . ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . Computation of water table fluctuation in meters with drain on the barrier layer . . . ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . Computation of water table fluctuation in feet with drain on the barrier layer . . . . . . . ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . Area dischargefactors . . . . . . ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . Cross-sectionalareaand hydraulic radius for small V-shapedditches(metric units) ,. . . . . . . . . . . . . Cross-sectional areaand hydraulic radius for small V-shapedditches(U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . . . . Cost relationshipsfor drains installedwith high-speed equipment . . . . . . . . . . . ,, . . . . . . . . . . . . Gradationrelationshipbetweenbasematerial and diametersof gradedenvelopematerial . . . . . . . . .
xvii

. . . . . . . . . . .

19 20 39 51 52 54 55 159 163 163 165 165 166 167 174 191 192

. . . . . . . .

208
214

XVIII

DRAINAGE MANUAL
Table Page

5-9a Allowable crushingstrengthin kilograms per linear meter for rigid pipe drains in a gravel envelope(metric units) 5-9b Allowable crushingstrengthin poundsper linear foot for rigid pipe drainsin a gravel envelope(U.S. customary units)............................ 5-10 Samplepipe-sizingcomputation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5-l 1 Computationsshowing selectionof barrier layer . . . . . 7-la Drain spacingcomputationswith convergence correction includedfor the example5-yearcrop rotation program (metric units). . . . . , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . correction 7-lb Drain spacingcomputationswith convergence includedfor the example5-year crop rotation program (U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2a Dischargecomputationsfor the example5-year crop rotation program (metric units) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7-2b Dischargecomputationsfor the example5-year crop rotation program (U.S. customaryunits) . . . . . . . . 7-3 Monthly distribution of dischargefrom 1510hectares (3,730 acres) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74 Rechargeby crop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

232 233 238 260 276 278 285 289 293 293

. . . . . . . .

INDEX
Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315

((Chapter

INTRODUCTION

l-l. General.-A prime requirementfor successfullyirrigated agriculture is the developmentand maintenanceof a soil zone in which the moisture-oxygensaltbalanceis favorablefor plant growth. Plantsrequireboth moistureandoxygen to live. When a salinewater table rises and remainsin the root zone longer than about 48 hours, resulting in an abnormally high saline moisture condition, agricultural production is usually seriouslyaffected. The presenceof oxygen in the intersticesof the soil1 in the root zone is as necessaryas water for both seed germination and plant growth The oxygen content of soil is governedby the rate of diffusion of oxygen through the soil pores. Also, the oxygen content is markedly affected by the moisture content of a soil. Soilswith initially low moisturecontentnormally haverelatively openpore structuresbetweensoil particles,allowing oxygen to freely permeatethrough the interstices.As the moisture contentincreases, water displaces the air in the pores, thusforcing the air upward andinto the atmosphere. Once the oxygen is expelled, the oxygen content recovery rate is extremely slow in a soil that is in transition from a moist or wet state to a drier state. This slow recovery is causedby the inherently slow rate of diffusion of gasesthrough suchsoils andthe phenomenon of capillary stresseswhich develop in soils when the water content does not completely fill the voids. The proper balancebetweensoil moisture and oxygen is maintainedto a considerable extent by adequatedrainage. A simplebut comprehensive definition of adequate drainageis the removal of excess water and saltfrom the soil at arate which will permit normalplant growth Adequatedrainagealsomay be defined as the amount of drainagenecessary for successfulmaintenance and perpetuationof agriculture. This definition doesnot, however, necessarilyimply completeandperfect drainage.Suchis generallynot feasible becausethe cost of preventing occasionaldamageto crops may not be justified solelyby the amountof the damage.The aspectof economicjustification must then be reconciled.The prime objective of a drainageproject should be to
1 Thetennmilin thistechnicalmanualis loosely usedto denotethatpartoftheEarth~mantleabovebedrock ad includes the materials defined by the. soil scientist as soil, subsoil, and substrata.

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

designand construct a drainagesystemwhich hasoptimum integrationof soils, crops, irrigation, and drainage. Drainage can be either natural or artificial. Most lands have some natural surfaceand subsurfacedrainage.When natural drainageis inadequate to handle the water reaching the land by either natural or artificial means,manmadeor so-called artificial drainageis required. Artificial drainagethus tills the gap between that provided by nature and the establishedneed. Artificial drainage usually supplements existingnaturalsystems.For example,natural watercourses can be deepenedor, where no suitable ones exist, new watercoursescan be constructed. Almost every physical aspectand condition of lands, as well as mans potentialagriculturaluseof them, will affect theultimate drainage requirement. In humid areaswhere salt movement into the root zone is not a problem, shallow, closely spaceddrainsprovide a rapid lowering of the water table in the spring, permitting earlier preparation of seedbeds and earlier planting. In arid irrigated areas,the water table is usually lowest in the spring and starts rising as a resultof the snowmelt,springrains, andearly irrigations. This rising water table canbe saline,and if allowed to permeateinto the root zone,will affect both seed germinationandplant growth. Drains in arid areasmust be designed deepenough and spacedclosely enoughto provide sufficient headmidway betweendrainsto move the ground water to the drains without allowing the ground water to rise into the root zoneat any time during the growing season.Capillary rise of salty groundwater into the root zoneduring the growing seasonusually doesnot occur under good irrigation practices. Regulated irrigations and the resulting deep percolation am frequent enoughto keep the root zone soils leachedof salt and also provide sufficient moisture content to preventappreciable upward capillary movement. Figure l-l shows the land use and conditions of a farm areabefore, during, andafter drain construction.The top photographon figure l-l showsthe effects of seepage and salinity on an irrigated area prior to any drainageconstruction. The dark areason this photographare waterloggedsoils and the patchy growth areasare a result of salinity. The middle photographwas taken of the samearea soonafter drain construction.The herringbonepattern of the drainlinesis clearly visible. The bottom photograph was taken of the same area 2 years after the drainagesystem was completed.The land has beencompletely reclaimed with little evidenceof the former problems. l-2. Scope.-This technicalmanual:
l

l l l

Reviews the methodsand techniquesused in solving various phasesof drainageproblems; Suggests pertinent datarequired, Tells where and how to obtain the data; and Details how to record, present,analyze,and apply thesedata.

CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION

Before drain construction. 10-27-66. P222-D- 77008.

During drain construction. 3-19-69. P222-D- 77009.

After drain construction. 10-1- 71. P222-D- 77010. Figure 1-1.-Farm conditions before, during, and after drain construction.

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Problemsof forecastingdrainagerequirementsare discussed and suggestions on drainagedesigncriteria andconstructionstandards arepresented. This manual is not intendedfor useasa theoreticaltextbook on drainagebut, rather, is directed toward field applicationof engineeringknowledge on the subject. The manual does not provide a step-by-step approach which will solve every drainage problem becausegood judgment, as well as proper procedure,must be usedin the solution of drainageproblems.An attempt is made to developguidelinesfor usein exercisingsuchjudgment. l-3. History.-Drains were constructedand drainageengineeringwas practiced long before mans recordedhistory, as evidencedby archeologicalfinds. Some ancient systems were simple, some were elaborate,but very few were entirely successful,andpractically nonehavesurvivedto the presenttune. Mans drainageproblemshavebeenattributed partly to his neglectof drainagesystems andpartly to his lack of understanding of all the physicaland technicalproblems involved. Mans basicknowledgeand understanding of soil physicsandhydraulics are now being applied to drainageproblems, and drainageengineeringis rapidly emergingfrom the build it here and seehow it works stage.Drainage engineering is not, however,an exactscienceandprobablyneverwill be,because it remainslargely a matter of experience,common sense,andjudgment. 14. Importance.-The importanceof drainageto the irrigation economyof a project, State, or Nation too often has been underestimated.The history of irrigation, aspracticed in the United Statesand the world, universallypoints out the inescapable conclusionthat successful irrigation requiresadequate drainage. Only on irrigated landswith the ram combinationof adequate natural surfaceand subsurfacedrainagewill excesssurfacewater and deeppercolation from irrigation drain natumlly from the land rapidly enoughto prevent the rise of ground water to critical levels. Where natural dminage is inadequateand artificial drainage cannot be economically provided, the land cannot be permanently irrigated.Landshaving original water tables5 to 30 meters(20 to 100feet) below the ground surface, and seeminglyfavorable natural drainageconditions, have eventually developedexcessivelyhigh water tables,leadingto waterlogging or salinizationorboth. Mans knowledge and desires are paradoxical. Few deny that drainage is essential,yet many wishfully hopeto get along without it. Canaland distribution systems are essential also, but here the similarity ends. Without these latter feahues,irrigatedagriculturecannotexist, but irrigated agriculture+of a sort and for a time-can exist without drainage.Symptomsof high ground water and salt may not develop for some time after the beginning of irrigation, and soil deteriorationmay take placebefore the needfor drainageis recognized. 1-S. Benefits of Draiiage .-Judgments of the benefits of mans acts are always highly subjective. Consequently,some items listed in this section as benefits of drainage areheldin disdain by those hiving different valueconcepts,

In this manual, the subjectof benefits will be appro~hedfrom the viewpoint of embliihing and maimthing permanent agriculture Conditionsdirealy

CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION

promoting the health and welfare of crops and of the people growing those crops will be consideredbeneficial Some of the benefits obviously could be construed as detrimental to other aspectsof our ecology-a thought which drainagespecialistsshouldconstantlykeep in mind. Soil is a porous medium consisting of liquid, gaseous,and solid materials which provide the cropswith essentialwater, oxygen,andnutrients. Unlessboth the supply of water and oxygen can be maintained,the nutrient intake by crops is reduced.Drainageis essentialto maintain the supplyof oxygen. Other factors associatedwith drainageand plant growth are soil temperature,trafficability, resistanceto diseaseand root growth, and chemical and biological conditions favorableto crop growth. Drainageplays an important part in all of the above factors. Saturatedsoils directly impede the intake of water and nutrients and curtail root growth Poor drainagediscourages the growth of aerobicbacteriawhich are neededto provide nitrogen for crops.In saturatedsoil, lack of oxygenpreventsformation of usable forms of nitrogen and sulfur. In addition,toxic organicand inorganiccompounds developin saturatedsoils. Subsurface drainagepromotesconditionsthat maintain soil structure,trafficability, and workability. Theseconditions exist particularly in fine-textured soils containing swelling clays. Efficient farm operationsrequire well-drained soils throughout the season. Poorly drainedsoils adverselyaffect preparing,planting, cultivating, irrigating, and harvestingoperations. Saturatedsoils require as much as three times more heat to raise the soil tempemture 1 C, and they areusually 4 to 8 C (7 to 14 F) cooler than similar well-drainedsoils.Drainagepromotesearly warming of soilsin the springwhich, in turn, promotesbiological and chemicalactivity in the soilsthat is important to seedgerminationand plant growth. Well-drained soils canbe plantedfrom 2 to 3 weeksearlierthan similar saturated soils, which is important in areaswith short growing seasons and where early harvestsbring higher prices. Most plant root systemswill not penetratedeeplyinto a water table. In anarea with a high water table, the mot system will be shallow andmore susceptibleto disease. Cold, wet soils seemto encourage the activities of many disease organisms that attack weak seedlings.In a drainedsoil, the plant roots can penetrate more deeply,thus enlargingthe supply of plant food which producesa healthier, more vigorous growth. Figure l-2 shows the effects of shallow water tableson plant roots. Proper control of salinity and alkalinity can be accomplishedonly in welldrainedsoils.Leachingwater must beableto passthroughthe soil profile to move excess saltsout of the root zone.This movementcannotoccurunlessfree drainage exists. Conversely, a high water table creates a condition wherein capillarity moves saltsinto the mot zoneand depositsthem there.

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

,.f . }
..
" ,

'4

~.

Figure 1-2.-Effects of shallow water table depths on plant roots. These 1-year-old alfalfa plants were grown in different areas over depths to water table of: (left to right) 0.6 meter (2 feet). 0.3 meter (1 foot). and 0.1 meter (4 inches). The most vigorous growth generally occun whm the water table i" at least 1 meter below the ground surface. P801-D- 77011.

Some of the less tangible benefits resulting from good drainage are: .The reduction or elimination of mosquito and other insect breeding

grounds; .Control of botulism; .Improvement of farmlands by elimination of boggy and weed-breeding areas; .Impro,rement of public and private roads by elimination of soft spots which results in lower road maintenance costs; and .A finn, dry land surface to support harvesting machinery .

CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION

In summary,the benefitsof adequatedrainageare:

l l l l l l l l

A longer growing season; Increasedsoil tilth; Early and more vigorousplant growth, Larger yields; A wider selectionof crops; Decreased cost of production: Vector and weed control; and Dry, fm land surfaces.

1-6. Drainage and Environment.-Multipurpose projects require analysis of benefits andcosts from a wide rangeof factors other than agriculture.Unfortunately, many gains and lossesto certain aspectsof the environment have not been quantified in any generally acceptedterms. DolIars and cents dominate economicanalyses because actual costsof systemconstructioncanbe estimated with theseterms. However, the net value of eliminating or altering an aspectof the environmentandreplacingit withanother is currently basedon the individual values of the people involved. Some irrigators tend to look at wildlife habitat on their land as a troublesomeweed patch, while the wildlife specialist sees cleanfarms asbarrenwastelandwhen evaluated as part of the ecology.More and more, drainageengineers must considerall valuesin planning,constructing,and operatingprojects. They must shamthe responsibilitywith all other disciplines, including soils, geology, ecology, cultural resources,and economics,for identifying the effects of their work on the environment. Somebenefitsthat cannotbequantifiedin termsof moneycanoften berealized for little or no cost. For example,fisherieshavenaturally established themselves in most large drainage systems.With little mom than an awarenessof what constitutesa favorablefish habitat, the systems possiblycouldhavebeenplanned to develop even better fisheries for little additional cost. All drains require maintenance, however, and the possibility of cleaningthem with certain chemicals, suchas sulfur dioxide or coppersulfate, shouldbe a prime considerationin planninga drainagesystemfor multiuse. Establishingwildlife habitats may create insect control problems. Bacteria, viruses,and other pathogens may breedin the habitat,and diseases producedby them may find their way to neighboringcommunities through carriers such as mosquitoesor domesticandwild animalsusingthe habitat.The benefitsandcosts associatedwith maintaining or eliminating such breeding grounds must be weighedalongwith all otherbenefitsandcosts.Consideration of wildlife habitats must include contactswith local healthofficers. Water quality has always been a concern of drainageengineers.State and national water quality criteria for surface waters are being upgradedand more preciselydefined.Thesecriteria identify total salt load as a concern,and regulations limit allowable quantities of potentially toxic trace elements. These

DRAINAGE MANUAL

regulationsrequirethat the drain systemdesignerknow the quality and constituent compositionof the drainagesystemeffluent. The applicablequality standards must be met and the required dischargepermits obtained before disposal of drainwaterto surfacewaters can takeplace.In someareas,treatmentof drainage waters before final disposalmay be required. A wide variety of considerations could be enumerated, but little in the way of practical guidelinescould be offered. The drainageengineersimply must maintain constantawareness of water and land resourceusesother than agricultuml. Plans must integrate as many positive effects as are practical with the basic objective, and yet the planner must anticipate and remain aware of negative effects upon the environmentwhich must be considered in the overall objective. l-7. Drainage Nomenclature.-Drainage nomenclatureis complexand has beendevelopedfrom conditions suchas the sourceof water to be moved, when and where the drains are to be built, and their function. Dmins may be either surface or subsurface, open or pipe, constructed concurrently with project developmentor deferred. They sometimesconsist of wells (recharge,relief, or pumped)and may fall within variousfunctional classifications: (a) Surface Drainage.-Surface drainageis the removal of water from the surfaceof the land. Situationswhich may producethe needfor surfacedrainage includeexcess precipitation, water appliedin irrigation, lossesfrom conveyance channelsand storagefacilities, or water which hasseeped from ground water at a higher elevation.Control of surfacewater is normally accomplished by providing channelsto facilitate removal. (b) Subsurface Drainage.-Subsurface drainageis the removal or control of groundwater and the removal or control of salts,using water as the vehicle. Situations which may produce the need for subsurface drainage include percolation from precipitation or irrigation: leakage from canals, drains, or surface water bodies at higher elevations; or leakage from artesian aquifers. Generally, any drain or well which is designedto control or lower the ground water is consideredsubsurface drainage. (c) Open and Pipe Drains.-Open drainsare channelswith an exposed water surface. Pipe drains are buried pipe regardless of material, size, or shape. Generally, all of the nomenclaturefor other types of drains may be applied to either openor pipe drains.Drain sizeandpurpose,physicalcondition of the soils, topography,requireddrain spacing,and annualoperationandmaintenance costs largely dictate whether drainsare to be open or pipe. (d) Deferred Drainage.-Deferred drainageis that which is provided after project works have beenconstructedand the irrigation hasbegun. The deferral of construction of such drains usually is necessarybecauseof the difficulty of locating and designingthem accurately before the lands are irrigated and the drainageproblem becomesevident. The term deferred drainageis more often applied to subsurfacedrainagebecausethe need for surface dmins which are constructedasa part of the initial project works is generallymore evident.Bureau of Reclamationpolicy requiresthe inclusion of deferreddrainagein the project

CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION

plan and cost estimate.Only an estimatecan be madeas to when theseexpenditureswill be requited.Experiencewith pastprojectsshowsthat about 50 percent of thesedramsam installedduring the fust 15yearsof project operation.Dminage installationsareessentially completeafter 30 yearsunlessmajor changes in water useoccur. (e) Function ofDrains.-The nomenclatureused for technical aspectsof drainageand as usedhereinis basedon the function of the drain. The five types of drainsare designated: relief, interceptor, collector, suboutlet,and outlet, see figure 1-3.Relief andinterceptordrainshavethe principal function of controlling ground-waterlevels.They form theupstreamportion of the landdrainagesystem, andthe distinction betweenthem is basedon the slopeof the ground-waterbody they control. Both relief andinterceptordramsmay be constructedas eitheropen or pipe drains.They are designed asopendminswhen they arerequiredto receive irrigation surfacewaste andexcessprecipitation from adjacentfields. (1) Relief drains are used to effect a lowering of ground water over relatively large flat areaswhere percolation from precipitation or irrigation servesas the water source,and where gradientsof both the water table and subsurfacestrata do not permit sufficient lateral movement of the ground water. (2) Interceptor drains areusedto cut off or intercept groundwater which is moving downslopefrom somesource. (3) Collector drains receive water from subsurfacerelief or interceptor drainsandfrom farm surfacedrainscarryingirrigation surfacewasteandstorm runoff. Because collector drains control ground water as well as receiveflow from tributary subsurfacedrams,they must be designedwith a normal water surfaceat or below the depthwhich will provide effective subsurface drainage in adjacentor tributary areas.They may be either openor pipe dramsdepending on the volume of water to be handled,the availablegradient,and whether their tributariesare open or pipe drains. (4) Suboutletdrainshave the principal function of conveyingwater from cdlector drains to the outlet drain. In general,they are locatedin topographic lows suchasdraws andcreeksbut canalsobe constructeddrains.Thesedrains receive inflows from a number of collector drains and canal and lateral wasteways.Suboutletdramsresemble collector drainsin function, exceptthey usually arenot requited to serveas subsurface dmins in the control of ground water to prescribedelevations. They may be locatedentirely within the project areaor they can be the outlet for landsnot includedin the project. On figure 1-3, the suboutletdrainsare shownas the principal creeksof the project ama. (5) Outlet drams convey collected water away from the drained area or project. The outlet drain is usually a natural channelin the topographiclow for the areato be drained,but where a natural channeldoesnot exist, one can be constructed.Figure 1-3 shows the outlet drain as a river traversing the centralportion of the project atea.

10

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

EXPLANATION
m --oc B--H ecu--c c-I-k OUTLET SUBOUTLET OPEN OPEN PIPE PIPE (RIVER) (CREEK) DRAIN ORAIN ORAIN OR INTERCEPTOR DRAIN

SUBSURFACE SURFACE COLLECTOR RELIEF

Figure I-3.-Types

of drains. 103-D-1617.

CHAPTER I-INTRODUCTION

11

v) Inverted, Relief, or Pumped Wells.-These specialinstallationsmay be usedto disposeof surfacewater, to control ground-water levels,or to relieve hydraulic pressures where local physical conditionscan be adaptedfor their use. An explanationof their use and limitations is discussedin chapter V, partE.

((Chapter

II

BASIC DATA

2-l. Introductiou-Selection of the optimum drainageplan and the design andconstructionof adequate and successfuldrainagefacilities dependupon the reliability and adequacyof the basic drainagedata. The data requirementsfor a particular drainageproblem vary with the type of problem and the degreeof importanceof the investigationsor report beingprepared.Thebasicdatamust be sufficiently representative to permit selectionof a gooddrainage plan from which a functionally sound dminage system can be designedand constructed.Cost estimates must bemadewhich arereasonably accuratefor the purposes intended. Inadequate or unreliabledataintroduce seriousrisks in determiningthe drainage requirementsand cost estimates. The basic data must provide a knowledge of: (1) capacity of the soils to transmit water; (2) amount, source,movement, and chemical characteristicsof the water!that must be transmitted; and (3) availablehydraulic gradients,both natural a&l those inducedby man. Sufficient data must be gatheredto estimate the effects of the drainageplan on both the social andeconomicenvironment. 2-2. Topography.-Topography, which is of prime importancein drainage, influencesthe generalplan that must be madeand, for most areas,the location of the outlet, suboutlet,and collector drains.Even before reachingthe planningand designing stagesof drainage, the importance of topographic features can be recognized.Topographycan mean the difference between the need for little or no artificial drainagefacilities and extensivedrainagefacilities. Where surface slopesare sufficient, excessprecipitation, irrigation water, and canalwaste will flow rapidly from the area.Suchrapidremovalof excesssurfacewater diminishes percolation to the ground-water table. Favorabletopographymay provide adequatesurfacedrainageand reducethe needfor artificial subsurfacedrainage. Topographicmaps are essentialin any detaileddrainageinvestigation.These mapsshow landslopes,lengthof slope,locationanddirection of naturaldrainage, potential outlets, and other specialconditionswhich affect drainage.In addition, the maps often reveal clues to the type of drainageneededand, to a degree,its practicability. The scaleof the mapsto be useddepends upon the size of the area being studiedand the purposesof the investigation.For a reconnaissance study/, a scaleof 1 inch equals4,000 feet (1:48,000) is usually adequate, but maps with
13

14

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

other scalesmay be used.For smaherareasor for a more detailedstudy, a scale of 1 inch equals2,000 feet (1:24,000) would be advantageous. Detailed studies of specialproblem areasand the location and designof the constructeddrainage system require a scale of 1 inch equals400 feet (1:4,800). Topographic maps shouldhavecontour intervalsconsistentwith the scaleused,the sizeof the area surveyed,and the purposeof the map. For preliminary study of large areaswith considerable topographicrelief, aZmeter or 5foot contourinterval is satisfactory provided the natural drainagepattern is adequatelyshown. A l-meter or 2-foot interval is usually sufficient for the actual drainagelayout, but for large, nearly level areas, a 0.3-meter (l-foot) interval is required. In addition to relief and natural features, topographicmaps should show the location of springs, seeps, wells, andcultural featuressuchasroads,railmads,culverts,pipeandutility lines, structures,and land subdivisionlines. In many instances,topographicmaps have beenpreparedfor a proposedor existing irrigated or cultivated area,either specifically for the purposeof laying out the irrigation system or for other related purposes.The Soil Conservation Service, Bureau of Reclamation, and other Federal and State agenciesare the most probablesourcesfor suchmaps. The U.S. GeologicalSurvey and the U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey are usually the best sourcesof generaltopographic maps. More detailedinformation about publishedgeologicmaps for individual Statesis given in the series of geologic map indexesavailable from the U.S. Geological Survey. Even though the availablemaps may be inadequate for the study being made, they may contain usable information which may reduce significantly the additionalsurveyingrequired.If adequate topographicmapsare not available,a field surveywill have to be made. Aerial photographsare useful in drainagestudies. They supplementtopographic maps in presentingan overall picture of natural and artificial drainage ways andparticularly of outlet conditions.Additionally, they will often revealthe existenceand location of drainageproblems, such as seepyareasand saline or alkalinedeposits,andmay provide cluesto the sourceof excesswater. The U.S. Departmentof Agriculture agencies, such as the Soil ConservationServiceand Forest Service,and local county agricultural agencies may have information on the existenceof aerialphotographsof anarea.In addition, the Stateengineerand the Statewaterboard,or their equivalents, may haveknowledgeof the availability of mapsor photographs. Most aerial photographsare of the general-purpose panchromatictype. For small areas,greater use can be made of thesephotographswhen a 2-film filter combination is used. Comparative interpretation of infrared and panchromatic photography,using proper film-filter combinations,yields information on high ground-waterareasandalso indicates,by contrastingtonedareasor patterns,the presence of solublesaltsin the root zone.For a more completediscussionon the useof aerialphotographs,see Manual of Photogrammetty (American Societyof Photogrammetry, 1980).

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

15

Drainagemapsaredevelopedfrom information takenfrom topographicmaps, aerial photographs,land classificationmaps, county road maps, and ownership maps.Addedto the existing featuresare drainagedesignfeaturessuchas type of proposed or existing drainage systems, observation well locations, depth to barrier, depth to ground-water table, and water table contours. Conventional symbolsfor drainagemaps are shown on figure 2-1. 2-3. Geology.-(u) General.-An understanding of geologicalprocesses is helpful in appraising and analyzing the occurrence and solution of drainage problems.In someareas,the in-placesoil material hasbeendeposited as a result of volcanic eruption. Fine ash material is spreadover the land surface in the vicinity of the volcanoto depthsthat sometimes reachmany feet. The soil in these areasis fine grained and has adequatehydraulic conductivity near the surface, but becomeslesspermeablewith depth.Near the volcanoscone, the tine ashis usually underlainby volcanic cinderswhich have very good drainageand stable constructionproperties. In other areas,the soil depositionresultsfrom glacial action. The texturesof thesesoils,which arecalledglacialtill, vary from clay andfme-grainedrock flour to coarsegravelsand cobbles.The shapeof the grains and the gradation of the formation area result of the natureandlocationof the parentmaterialfrom which they were derivedand the glacial phenomena associated with transportationand deposition.Undisturbedglacial till is usually denseand hasa very low hydraulic conductivity rate, while till that has beendisturbedor reworked is more friable and usua.llyhas sufficient hydraulic conductivity to be economically drained. Formations of glacial lakes, and deposition of eskers, moraines, kames, and similar forms are examplesof glacial action. Residual soils formed from disintegrationof the underlying parent material are found in many areas.The characteristicsof thesesoils are influencedby the type of parentmaterial, weatheringprocesses, and the reworking action by wind and water. The parent rock material may have beenof igneous,sedimentary,or metamorphicorigin. Probably the most widespreadsoil material in irrigated lands is alluvial in character.Thesewater-deposited materialsrangein texture from clays to gravels and in all possiblecombinationsthereof. They consist of outwash from mountains, streams,river and lake deposits,and similar formations which result from variousgeologicprocesses. As rivers aggmdeanddegrade over the years,asthey meander and entrench themselves,and as mountain streams flow out on the plains, the shapeof the land surface is changed.The presenttopography is the result of these processesover thousandsof years. Most alluvial profiles have adequate hydraulic conductivity for economicallyfeasibledrainagesystems. Lacustrine depositsconsist of materials that have settledout of quiet waters of lakes and are usually recognizableby their flat surfacessurroundedby high ground. Soils can vary from clays to coarse sandsin these deposits, and the continuity andstructureusuallyvary throughoutthe lakebed.Most lacustrinesoils canbe economicallydrained.

16

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

SYMBOLS

FOR

DRAINAGE

MAPS

CANAL

OR LATERAL CANAL

PROPOSED MANHOLE

LIMIT WATER

OF GROUNDINVESTIGATION

-4cIc3wc -*I-.Hc-4cuc4-e -,--cc-e --o-,--c-r w--c, -+,-+* ...+.-...FmWYD 0

8

PIPE PIPE

RELIEF

OR INTERCEPTOR DRAIN

DRAIN

COLLECTOR

PROPOSED PROPOSED OPEN

PIPE RELIEF PIPE

OR INTERCEPTOR DRAIN

DRAIN

COLLECTOR DRAIN SUBSURFACE

SUBSURFACE OPEN

PROPOSED OPEN

DRAIN

SURFACE DRAIN
OPEN DRAIN (CREEK1 SURFACE DRAIN

+---. < .4225 /)

OTHER CONTOURS (Solid contouir con be used when surface contour does not ow?or on some drownq.)

PROPOSED NATURAL SUBOUTLET OUTLET

I RIVER)

CDYILEILO 0
63 CASED UNCASEO TEST PIT HOLE HOLE

PoIoITD 0
A

COY,LElLO 0
A IRRIGATION DRAINAGE WELL WELL

n
All

q ID El1
em ON ldentiflcotlon LINE PUMPING PLANT and test pits should hove number

wells,

holes,

SYMBOLS AND CORRESPONDING COLORS GROUND WATER OR GARRIER DEPTH

FOR

El
RED

FIRST INTERVAL GELOW GROUND SURFACE

SECOND INTERVAL BELOW GROUND SURFACE

/ I
c_---I --__---_ I I

THIRD INTERVAL BELOW GROUND SURFACE

GREEN

FOURTH INTERVAL BELOW GROUND SURFACE

ND COLOR
i

DEPTHS LAST

GREATER INTERVAL

THAN USED

\--e-----------J

The depths for each interval should be shown on all mops.

Figure Z-L-Conventional

symbols for drainage maps. 40-D-5063.

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

17

Another material which is found in many areasis the eolianor wind-deposited soil. Thesesoil depositsare fme graineddue to the limited ability of the wind to carry large grains.Two principal classes of soils formed in this mannerare loess and sanddunes,the depositsof which have beenfound to considerabledepths. These soils have adequatedrainagecharacteristicsfor economically feasible drainagesystems. Because soilsam the resultsof complicatedgeologicprocesses, therearemany more geologic soil types than mentioned above. Wide varieties of geologic situationshave important bearingson drainageinvestigationsand determination of drainageneeds.Therefore, in the interestof accuracy,time, and the designof aneffective drainagesystem,anevaluationof the geologicsituationby a qualified geologistis desirable. Positivelandform recognitioncan assistthe engineerin determiningthe types of field investigationsneededto solve a drainageproblem. Recognition of the landform also plays an important part in evaluating the drainability of lands intended for irrigation development.As an example, the permeability characteristics found at the toe of an alluvial fan may vary greatly from thosefound in its middle or upper reaches.Likewise, an ancient river channelterrace would exhibit different geohydrauliccharacteristicsfrom a recent flood plain area. (b) Barrier.-The barrier is a stratum or layer that restricts the movementof water. Geology is often a key in determining the barrier-also known as the barrier stratum, barrier layer, or barrier zone. These terms are often used in drainageengineeringand are related to the relative hydraulic characteristicsof variousstrata. Since strata in irrigated areas are found in a generally horizontal attitude relative to the ground surface,the barrier zone is usually consideredas a barrier to the vertical movementof water. This is not exclusivelythe condition,however, because in areasof unconformity or folding of geologicstrata, a vertical barrier may alsorestrict the horizontal movement of water. When water percolatingdownward under the force of gravity reachesthe top of a barrier zone, a saturatedcondition develops,resulting in differential pressums. Most of the water moves laterally above the barrier zone. Therefore, in ground-waterhydraulics, the barrier zone limits the depth of material available for the movement of groundwater. This depth-of-flow zone,togetherwith the materials hydraulic conductivity, greatly influences drainagerequirementsfor a given area. A typical drainage investigationrequires a great deal of effort to identify the barrier zone and its depthbelow the ground surface.This depth-to-barrier damis used to determine the depth-of-flow zoneavailableto a drainagesystem. (c) Aquifers.-Geologic identification of artesianaquifersmay be important when evaluating drainagerequirementsand drainagesystem performance. An artesianaquifer that is under sufficient pressureto causethe piezometric water surfaceto rise to or near the land surfacewill contributeto the drainageproblem. Whenthis happens, the artesianwater, aswell asdeeppercolationfrom irrigation

18

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

and precipitation, must be handled by drainage. This increasesthe drainage requirementsto a quantity suchthat drainageusually is uneconomical. 2-4. Soil CbaracteristicscOf primary concernwhen evaluatingsubsurface drainage requirements is determiningthecapabilityof the soil (previouslydefined to includesoil, subsoil, substrata,and in somesituationsthe underlying consolidatedformation) to transmit water both laterally and vertically. The capabilityof the soil to transmit water is a function of the hydraulic conductivity, effective depth of the saturatedzone, and the hydraulic gradient. All of the soil characteristics of density, porosity, panicle size, grain distribution, texture, structure, chemicalproperties, and water-holding capacity affect the movement of water through soil, as doesthe chemical composition of the water itself. However, of all the characteristicsthat affect this movement, the one which integrates the combinedeffects for a particular water anda particular soil-and the one which is basic in the solution of drainageproblems-is the hydraulic conductivity or coefficient of permeabilityas it is known by most engineers.Studiesto establish a relationship between hydmulic conductivity and one or more of the readily determinedsoil propertieshaveproven to be difficult. In areaswhere soils were derivedfrom the samesource,deposited in the samemanner,affectedby the same climatic conditions, and, in general,havesimilar chemicaland physical characteristics, a relationshipbetweenhydraulic conductivity and thesepropertiescan be determined.By using this relationship,the numberof hydraulic conductivity tests can be reducedby assigningcorrelatedhydraulic conductivities to similar
SOilS.

(a) Hydraulic Conduclivity,The facility with which water moves in a soil is a measurableproperty of the soil called hydraulic conductivity. An understandingof anda meansof determiningthis property is essential to understanding and correcting most subsurfacedrainageproblems. Hydraulic conductivity has beendefinedin variousways. As usedherein,it refers to movementof a particular water in a particular soil underspecifiedconditions.It is expressed asthe constant
K in Darcys Law: K = T , where v is velocity of flow and i is the hydraulic

gradient. (1) Dimensions.-Physical dimensionsfor hydraulic conductivity depend on those used to express the velocity. For laboratory-type testing cubic centimetersper squarecentimeterper secondis commonlyused:however, this results in extremely small numbers.For field applicationscubic meters per squaremeter per day resultsin more reasonable sizenumbers.Theseunits are commonly shortenedto centimetersper secondand meters per day and are referred to as rates. In the U.S. customary system,cubic feet per squarefoot per day (feet per day) and cubic inchesper squareinch per hour (inchesper hour) are commonly used. Cubic feet per squarefoot per year is also used. Table2-l presents conversionfactors for varioushydraulic conductivity units.

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

19

(2) Weighted average hydraulic conductivity.-This refinement on hydraulic conductivity is often usedin the determinationof subsurfacedrainage requirements,and is simply the weighted averagehydraulic conductivity of all soils between the maximum allowable water table height and the barrier. The value is obtainedby averagingthe results from in-place hydraulic conduetivity tests at different locationsin the areato be drained.

Table 2-l .-Conversion

factors.

EXAMPLES: (1) The $d2 raulic conductivity of a soil has been determined to be 15.2 gal/ft/d. To convert to m /m /d-Find value of 1 in Col. @and move horizontally to value form3/m2/d in Cal. 8. Multiply 15.2 by value in Cot. 8 (0.0407) = 0.619 m3/mz/d. (2) The hydraulic conductivity of a soil has been determined to be0.00393 cm3/cm2/s. To convert toft3/ft2/d-Findvalue of 1 in Col. @andmovehorizontally tovalueforft3/ft2/d in Col. 0. Multiply 0.00393 by value in Col. @ (2,834.6) = 11.14 ft3/ft2/d.

The weighted hydraulic conductivity for lateral movement through soils may be obtainedby the following method:
D,K,+D,K,+ . . . . . . . +D,K,,

TotalD where: thicknessof fust, second,. . . . . . ., and nth. soil strata, hydraulic conductivity of first, second,. . . . . . ., andnth. soil strata, and = total thicknessof soil profile tested.

The weighted hydraulic conductivity for the vertical componentmay be obtainedusing: TotalD
D1 D2 jfy+z+.. . . . . .+Kn 4

20

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Soils are usually heterogeneous and anisotropic(having unequalphysical properties along different axes). This results in nonuniform field conditions for obtaininghydraulic conductivitiesover an areaof appreciable size. Highdegreeprecisionin hydraulic conductivity valuesis therefore not obtainable; however, every effort should be made to get the best accuracy possible. Procedures for the various methodson obtaininghydraulic conductivitiesare discussed in chapterIII. (b) Texture.The term texture relatesto the proportion of the varioussixes of particlesin a soil sample.Texture is important in subsurface drainagebecause it is a soil characteristicwhich has a generalrelationshipwith hydraulic conductivity and water retention. In general, the coarse-texturedsoils have higher hydraulicconductivities and lower water retention than fine-textured soils. Texture is readily measurable by performing a gradationanalysisto separate the size groups.The particle sizeclassificationshown in table 2-2 was developedby the U.S. Departmentof Agriculture. This table is usedby the Bureauof Reclamation in land classification and drainagework becauseit relates to the agricultural properties of the soil and allows better correlation with hydraulic conductivity than do the Casagrande or Unified Soil Classificationsystems. Table 2-2.-Particle
Mated Stones
Cobbles Come gmvel Fine gravel Very coarse sand Coarse sand Medium sand Fine sand Very fine sand Silt Clay

size classification.
Diameter
Greater than 250 millimeters (mm) 250 to 80 mm 80 to 12.5 mm 12.5 mm 2.0 to 1.0 mm 1.0 to 0.5 mm 0.5 to 0.25 mm 0.25 to 0.10 mm 0.10 to 0.05 mm 0.05 to 0.002 mm Less than 0.002 mm

Textural classes am arbitrary groupingsbasedon the relativeproportion of the various-size particlesin the soil mass.The soil texture triangle,figure 2-2, is used to convert quantitativedatafrom detailedgradationanalyses of the separates less than 2 millimeters in diameter to textural classnames of soils. Textural class namesof materiallarger than 2 millimeters in diameteram asshownin table2-2.

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

21

PERCENT

SAND

TURAL
TEXTURE SAND LOAMY SAND SANDY LOAM LOAM SILT LOAM SANDY CLAY LOAM CLAY LOAM SILTY CLAY LOAM SANDY CLAY SILT SILTY CLAY CLAY

CLASSES
SILT O 0 to 0 to 26 to so to 0 to IS ta 40 to 0 to 6oto 40 to 0 to X 20 50 50 100 26 53 73 20 loo 60 40 CLAY m 0 to 0 to 7 to 0 to 20 to 27to 27 to 3s to 0 to 40 to 40to X 15 20 27 27 35 40 40 5s 12 60 MO

(5)
(LS) ?LY '(SIL) 'KY (SiCLI

SAND X 85 70 to 90 43 to 65 23 to 52 0 to 50 4s to 90 20 to 4s 0 to 20 45 to 65 0 to 20 0 to20 0 to*

BASIC TEXTURAL yi.t.r.

/ 0.05 0.10 0.25 0.50 I.00 fh36Q Fina imrtrr to to to to to 0. IO 0.25 0.50 I, 00 2.00 sand: sand U.S. Stondord SiQvQ numbars 300 I40 60 35 16 ZS%'Or : 25s or : So!4 or 50% So% or to 140 to 60 to 35 to 16 to IO

CLASS

MODIFYING

TERMS

m!!L fine Sand r inQ sand MQdiUm sand COO~SQ sand VQry COOrSQ sand VQr

(VFSI (FS) (Sl icss1 (VCsS)

20 to SO 50 to 90

VQr$::~lly

(!6r&

Veryfincsmd:

morQ mora more Of VFS. more

VCSS ond IQSS than 50% of ony othQr 9rOdQ of sand. VCsS. CsS. ond 5. and IQSS than 50% of F or VFS. FS and IQSS than 21% of VCsS. CSS. and S and less than VFS.

Figure 22.Soil

triangle of the basic soiltextural classes. 103-D-1618.

22

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

(c) Color.Xolor is an important soil characteristicthat permits quick and easyidentification andcomparisonof soils.Initself, color hasno direct influence on the hydraulic conductivity, but when combined with texture and structure, color helpsidentify similar soils.Resultsof hydraulic conductivity testscanthen be projectedfor thesesimilar soils. Soil color canbest be describedby comparisonwith the Munsell color chips for hue, value, and chroma. The hue indicatesthe colors relation to red, yellow, green, blue, and purple; the value indicatesthe shadefrom white to black; and the chroma indicatesits departurefrom a neutral of the samelightness. Nearly every soil profilehas manyhorizonsdiffering in color. A singlehorizon may be of one color, mottled, or marked with spots or streaks of other colors. Certain combinationsof mottled colors are indicative of poor hydraulic conductivity. However, some mottled patterns occur that am not associatedwith poor drainage,especiallyin parentmaterials that are not completelyweathered. A complete discussionon the origin of different soil colors can be found in Agriculture Handbook No. 18, Soil SurveyManual (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1962). (d) Structure.Coil structureis a characteristicthat is very useful in evaluating and correlating the hydraulic conductivities of soils with similar textures. Structure refers to the aggregation of primary soil particles into compound particleswhich are separated from adjoiningaggregates by surfacesof weakness, seefigure 2-3. The size,shape,andarrangement of the aggregates andthe shape

PRISMATIC

COLUMNAR

AE%Y

SU;W&WllAR

CRUMB

GRANULAR TYPES OF SOIL

PLATY STRUCTURE

Figure 2-3.-Types

of soil structure. 103-D-1619.

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

23

andsize of the pore spaces give the soil its structure.The shapeand arrangement of the aggregates aredesignated asthe typeof soil structure; sizeof the aggregates is termed class of soil structure; and the degreeof distinctness(weak, moderate, or strong) is termed grade of soil structure. The principal types of soil structure with which the drainageengineerwill be working and the classesand gradesof eachtype are describedbelow. (1) Ha@.--In this type of structure, the aggregates am arrangedin horizontalsheets. The hydraulic conductivity rate varieswith the classof structure andis usuallyat its highestfor mediumplaty material. The classes of this type of structure are:
Structure class Plate thickness, millimeters

Very thin platy Thin platy Medium platy Thick platy Very thick platy

Lessthan 1.0 1.0 to 2.0

2.0 to 5.0

5.0 to 10.0 Greaterthan 10

Platy material is usually very durableand considered to be of strong grade. (2) Prismatic or columnar.-These structure types are usually found in the upperhorizonsof a soil profile. In thesetypes,the aggregates form prisms that have longer vertical than horizontal axes. The prism shapecan be approximately square, pentagonal, or hexagonal. The aggregates may break horizontally along secondary cleavage planesinto blocky or very thick plates, but eventhesebroken sectionswill haverelatively well definedvertical faces. In prismatic structure, the aggregates form flat-toppedprisms, while in columnar structure they form round-topped,biscuit-type prisms. Thesetypes of structureare associated with solonetzsoils. They appearto have a good angular to subangularblocky structure when dry, but swell togetherwhen wet, which results in a very low hydraulic conductivity in both the vertical and horizontal directions. The classes of thesestructure types are:
Structure class Macroprism width, millimeters

Very fine prismatic or columnar Fine prismatic or columnar Medium prismatic or columnar Coarseprismatic or columnar Very coarse prismatic or columnar

Less than 10.0 10.0to 20.0

20.0 to 50.0

50.0 to 100.0 Greater than 100.0

Prismaticandcolumnarstructuresam considered to bestrong gradesof soil structure.

24

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

(3) Angular blocky.-When the term, blocky, is used alone as a type of shwhuq it means angular blocky if the aggregatesare in dense blocks bounded by planes intersecting at relatively sharp angles. A soil with this struchue usually has good hydraulic conductivity in both horizontal and vertical directions, and the rate is influencedby both the classand grade.For example,very coarse,angular blocky clay-loam soils with strong structural grade(which usually meansvery distinct cleavage planesbetweenpedsl) can havein-placehydraulic conductivitiesashigh as 30 metersper day (about 50 inchesper hour). At the other extreme, very fine, angularblocky clay-loam soils with a weak structural gradecan have in-placehydraulic conductivities lessthan 0.3 meter per day (about0.5 inch per hour). The classes am: Structure class Block dimension on any side, millimeters

Very fme, angularblocky Fine, angularblocky Medium, angularblocky Coarse,angularblocky Very coarse,angularblocky

Less than 5.0 5.0 to 10.0 10.0 to 20.0 20.0 to 50.0 Greater than 50.0

The gradeis weak if the disturbedsoil material breaks into a mixture of a few completepeds,many broken peds,andmuch unaggregated material. The gradeis moderateif the disturbedsoil materialbreaksdown into many distinct completepeds,somebrokenpeds,andlittle unaggregated material. The grade is strong if the disturbedsoil material consistsmostly of completepeds,few broken peds,and little or no unaggregated material. (4) Subangular blocky.-In this type of structure, the aggregatesare in denseblocks having mixed rounded and plane faces with vertices mostly rounded. As far as hydraulic conductivity is concerned,there appearsto be little difference between the angular and subangularblocky structure. The classes am describedas subangular blocky but have the samedescriptionand sizesas the blocky structure.The gradeshave the samedesignationas blocky structures. (5) Granular.-The granulartypeof structureis formed of uniformly sized relatively nonporousaggregates, spheroidal or polyhedralin shape, andhaving plane or cured surfaceswhich have slight or no conformity with the facesof the surroundingaggregates. Soilswith this type of structureusuallyhavegood hydraulic conductivitiesboth vertically and horizontally. The hydraulic conductivity rate dependsupon the classand grade; the medium granular class hasthe higher in-place hydraulic conductivity. The classesare:

1 Aped can be defined as an individual natural soil aggregate, and should not be confused with a fragment, which is caused by ntpture acms nabml surfaces of weakness.

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

25

Structure class Very fme granular Fine granular Medium granular Coarsegranular Very coarsegranular

Aggregatethickness on any side,millimeters Lessthan 1.0 1.0 to 2.0 2.0 to 5.0 5.0 to 10.0 Greaterthan 10.0

The gradecan vary from weak to strong, but is usually more on the strong sidewith eachped appearingas a single-grainedstructure. (6) Crumb.-This type of structure is the sameas granularexcept aggregates appearvery porous. It has good hydraulic conductivity rates in both vertical andhorizontal directions,with the ratesdependent on classandgrade. Classes are the sameas for granularexceptthere areno coarseor very coarse crumb structures.A crumb-type structurecan be of weak, medium, or strong grade. (7) Massive.-Structure type is massivewhenthe soil is coherentandthere is no observableaggregationor definite orderly arrangementof natural lines of weakness.A soil with massive structure has neither class nor grade and negligiblehydraulic conductivity. (8) Single gruin.-Single-grain structure is a noncoherentsoil with no observable aggregation, suchas sand.Usually, soil with single-gminstructure has good vertical and horizontal hydraulic conductivity. A single-gmin soil hasneither structural classnor grade. (9) Structureless.-This is not a recognizedsoil structure but in drainage engineering servesto identify in-placesandymaterials.A very fine sandyloam identified as being structureless meansthere is no observablestructure but it hasnoneof theunsatisfactorydrainagecharacteristics associated withmassive structu~. A structu&ess sandysoil can,andusuallydoes,havegoodhydraulic conductivity rates. (e) Specific Yie2d;Specific yield may be defined as the volume of water released from a known volume of saturatedsoil under the force of gravity andthe inherent soil tensions.It is expressedas a percentageof the total volume of saturatedsoil: Specific yield, S = vohune of water dramed x 1oo total volume of saturatedsoil

The optimum percentof specific yield in the l- to 3-meter (4- to lo-foot) zone shouldbe about 6 to 10percent.A soil in this percentrangewouldhave sufficient aeration,hydraulic conductivity, and water-holdingprdpertiesfor optimum crop growth. When the specific yield is lessthan 3 percent,drainagebecomes difficult and expensive.For specific yields greater than 16 to 18 percent, aeration and hydraulic conductivity are good, but the soil moisture-holdingcapacity is low.

26

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Specific yield values can be determinedusing undisturbedsoil samplesof known volume or by field tests. To obtain reliable data, undisturbedsamples shouldbe carefully packedin an airtight containeras soonas they are taken to prevent them from drying out and cracking. They shouldalsobe suspended in a shockproofbox when being transportedfrom the samplingsite to the laboratory to preventthem from cracking or beingdisturbedby vibration or suddenimpact. Tensiontablesand pressurecookers capableof holding constanttensionsfrom 0 to 160 centimetersof water are required in the laboratory. Tensiontables are easierto usefor soilscontaininglittle or no swelling clays.For soils that are high in swelling clays,the pressure cookermust be usedto preventexcessive cracking. In field tests, mercury manometersam required at eachtexture changefrom 0 to 3 meters (0 to 10 feet) to determinewhen the tensionhas stabilizedso that fti moisture samples canbetakento comparewith the initial saturated moisture content.Resultsfrom yearsof field testing a variety of westernsoilsindicatethat inherentsoil tensionstend to stabilize within the rangeof 30 to 150centimeters of water in a free-draining soil. The stabilized tension will vary with texture, organicmatter, and depth. Both labomtory and field determinationsof specific yield are expensiveand time consuming.Also, a large number of tests must be conductedto obtain the averagespecific yield for the areato be drained.Conductingonly oneor two tests per areato be drained could result in erroneousdata being usedin determining the drainagerequirements.Many field offices are not equippedto conduct these testsand, because all drainagerequirements am baseduponhydraulic conductivity, a correlation study was made between specific yield and undisturbed or in-placehydraulic conductivity. As a result of this study, a curve showing specific yield versus hydraulic conductivity wasprepared,figure 24. The curveis based on approximately2,000 laboratory tests on undisturbed samplesof all types of soils. Data used in the developmentof this curve also include approximately 100 in-place hydraulic conductivity tests versuslaboratory specific yield dataon undisturbedcoresthat were taken from the same test holes and zones as the laboratory tests. Both specific yield and hydraulic conductivity determinationswere made on each undisturbed sample, and the results are within 10 percent of best obtainable values.A value for specific yield within 10 percentis consideredwell within the limits of accuracyfor all the other factors which must be evaluatedin drainage work. Therefore,when the hydraulic conductivity is known, the useof figure 2-4 to obtain valuesfor specific yield is recommended. The specificyield value usedin drainagecalculationsshouldrelate only to the volume of soil that is unwateredby the drain. The hydraulic conductivity value for enteringthe curve on figure 24 shouldbe the a?eragevaluefor the saturated profile abovethe drains. v) Capillary Fringe.-The soil zonejust abovethe water table is not at field capacity as assumedin the dram-spacingcomputations.This zone, sometimes defmed as the capillary fringe, varies in thicknessaccording to the soil texture

Hydraulic Conductivity - Inches per Hour (inlhr)

0.2 0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 2 3 4 5 678 lo 20 30 40 60 so loo

10 a 7 6

I I I1111
0.3 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

I I III
2 3 4

I lllll
5 678 10

I I III
20 30 40

I lllll
60 aofoo

I IJ
200 300

Hydraulic Conductivity - Centimeters per Hour kmlhrl

Figure 2-4.-Curve showing general relationship between specific yield and hydraulic conductivity. 103-D-693.

28

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

and varies in moisture content from nearly saturated to field capacity. The thicknessof this zoneis usually small and shouldnot be confusedwith the total height to which capillary water will rise in a dry soil. From a practical standpoint, the capillary fringe canbe ignored when determining the unsaturatedroot zone depth.With a well-designedsubsurface drainagesystem,the capillary fringe will extendinto and remain in the root zoneonly a short time toward the end of the irrigation season, and production shouldnot be measurablyaffected. The questionmay ariseasto what effect the capillary fringe hason the buildup anddrawdown of the water tableascalculatedin the drain-spacing computations. Field studies show that water tables fluctuate between drains as predicted by transient flow drain-spacingcomputations.The capillary fringe fluctuates with and parallel to the water table, except with a lag in time, and hasno measurable effect on the dischargefrom the dram Experimentsusinga small tank filled with sandhaveshownthat the capillary fringe affects or influencesthe discharge when the depth of saturatedflow is of the sameorder of magnitudeas the thicknessof the capillary fringe. However, field studiesfor shallowdrains,spacedfrom 10to 40 meters (30 to 120 feet) and placedon a barrier, indicate the capillary fringe contributesno measurable water to the discharge.Thesestudiesfurther indicate that when the water table midway between drains drops to approximately 0.15meter (0.5 foot) abovethe pipe drain invert, the discharge dropsto zeroeven though the capillary fringe canbe at least0.15 meter (0.5 foot) abovethe water table.Basedon the abovefindings, the capillary fringe is not usedin determining the drainagerequirementsor in the designof the system. Also, there is no easy, reliable method for measuringthis parameterin the field. 2-5. Salinity and Alkalinity.--(a) Gene&-Many factors contributeto the development of saline soil conditions. However, most soils become saline through consumptiveuseof capillary ground water andirrigation water containing salts. Salt concentrationsin soil vary widely both vertically and horizontally depending on suchconditionsasvariationsin texture,plant growth, andhydraulic conductivity. This variation showsup strikingly as patchy growths of vegetation in salinesoils. The extent of salinizationis governedby the rate of evapotranspiration of salinewater and the counteractionof leachingwater from precipitation and irrigation. Although salts affect plant growth in many ways, the three most important effects are: (1) Salts causea reduction in the rate and amount of water that can be witMmwn from the soil by plant roots because of increased osmotic pressure. Plant growth is retarded almost linearly with increasesin osmotic pressure (Hayward andWadleigh, 1949). (2) Common salts such as sodium,bicarbonate,and chloride are toxic to some plants when present in higher than normal concentrations.The toxic effect is usually critical during the germinationperiod in the 50- or 80-millimeter surfacesoil zone.

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

29

(3) Certain salts, sodium being the best known, when present in high concentrations,canaffect the physicalcondition of the soil. Soils with excess sodiumtend to puddle,have poor structure,and developpoor infiltration and hydraulic conductivity rates. Before thesesoils can be farmed successfully; the salt must be changedchemically by replacingthe excessivesodium with calcium andinstalling a drainagesystemto facilitate leachingout the replaced sodiumsalts. Soil struchne dependson the attraction between clay particles in the soil. Calcium, magnesium,and aluminum cationsate strongly attracted to clay particles. Soils containing thesecations generallyform stable soil structures.These cations must be present in waters used to reclaim soils containing sodium and potassiumcations (alkalinesoils). Low saltconcentrations dominatedby sodiumcationscause dispersionof clay particlesin soils. If sodium is leachedwithout replacingit with calcium, magnesium, or aluminum, the soil remainsdispersed after leaching.This destroyssoil structmeand affects the hydraulic conductivity. In somecases,the clay particles will move downward and form imperviouslayers in the soil profile. (b) LeachingRequirementand Salt Balance.-For soils in arid regions and when there is a presenceof salt in the irrigation water, leachingis required to maintain a favorable salt balancein the root zone. This requiresthat an equal or greateramount of salt must be leachedfrom the soil by the drainagewater than is introducedi to the soil by irrigation water. It further requiresthat the drainage systemdesign xl nsider the removal of the leachingwater from the substrata.In most cases,the deeppercolation inherent with standardirrigation practiceswill maintaina favorablesaltbalanceandanacceptable concentration in the soil-water solutionin the root zone.Water resourceagencystudiesof recentlocal irrigation practicesshouldbe considered in determiningexpecteddeeppercolation.Should investigationsshow that the leachingrequirement is in excessof the leaching obtainedwith deep percolation associated with normal irrigation practices, the drainagesystemrequirementsandcosts shouldbe increasedaccordingly. The continuing leachingrequirementis not the sameas the initial leaching requirement.The permanentdeepdrainagesystemfor irrigated landscannotbe economicallydesigned, from a drain-spacing standpoint,to take careof the initial leachingrequirement.Usually, multilevel drainscouldbe usedwith the shallower drains installed between the permanent deeperdrains. The shallow drains are installed using minimum size pipe and at minimum cost becausethey will no longer function after the initial leaching has been accomplished.In practical application, the drains am usually designedto satisfy the long-term leaching requirement and the soils will reach acceptablesalinity levels after only a few irrigation seasons. The leaching requirement may be defined as the percentageof infiltrated irrigation water and precipitation that must passthrough the root zoneto control

30

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

salts at a specifiedlevel. For planning purposes,the leachingrequirementmay be determinedfrom the equation: ECi, x 100 LR = EC& or -bx =Di, 100
(2)

(1)

where: LR = leachingrequirementin percent, ECi, = electrical conductivity of irrigation water including effective precipitation in millimhos per centimeter (mmho/cm), E&w = electrical conductivity of drainagewater in mmho/cm, DdW = depthof drainagewater in meters,and Di, = depthof irrigation water inmeters includingeffective precipitation. The value for EC& is determinedfrom the relative salt toleranceof the least salt-tolerantcrop to be grown in the area.Figum 2-5 showsthe salt tolerancefor field, vegetable,and forage crops.Except for somespecialtycrops, a 25-percent yield reduction for the leastsalt-tolerantprincipal crop can be used. To illustrate the processfor estimatingthe leachingrequirement,assumethat the principal crops for an areaarealfalfa (EC x 107= 5 , sugarbeets(EC x 103= 13), and potatoes (EC x 103= 4). The valuesin parentheses indicate electrical conductivities in mmho/cm at 25 C associatedwith 25-percentreductions in yields.The readershouldnote that soil water is diluted to near saturationextract concentrationjust before entering the dram. The salt content of the irrigation water may be expressedin milligrams per liter (mg/L), which can be converted with reasonable accuracyto mmho/cm by dividing the parts per million by 640. Examplecalculation: Given: Total salts in irrigation water = 1000mg/L. Least salt-tolerant crop is potatoes,with an electrical conductivity of the saturated extract not to exceed4 mmholcm at 25 C. Then: EC. x l& = (1*ooo@O) x 100= 39 percent 1w m=EC,, 4 Figure 2-6 can be used to quickly estimate the leaching requirement and minimum infiltration rate neededto obtain proper leachingunder normal irrigation practices.

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

31

SOIL-WATER (p/m) SATURATED EXTRACT (p/m) EC% IO 0 2 4 FIELD CROPS BARLEY SUGAR BEETS COTTON SAFFLOWER WHEAT SORGUM SOYBEAN SESBANIUM PADDY RICE CORN BROADBEAN FLAX BEANS VEGETABLE CROPS BEETS SPINACH TOMATO BROCCOLI POTATO CORN SWEET POTATO LETTUCE BELL PEPPER ONION CARROT BEANS CABBAGE 0 ? 4 FORAGE CROPS BERMUDA GRASS TALL WHEATGRASS CRESTED WHEATGRASS TALL FESCUE BARLEY HAY PERENNIAL RYE HARDING GRASS BIRDSFOOT TREFOIL BEARDLESS WILD RYE ALFALFA ORCHARD GRASS MEADOW FOXTAIL CLOVER-ALSIKE & RED a. EC*= : Electrical conductivity in millimhos
Figure 2-5.Salt 6 6 IO 12 14 16 I6 20 22

m g2

Indicates

no

yield

-Jm

reduction Indicates IO percent yield reduction Indicates 25 percent Indicates 50 percent yield reduction

I?

lfi

per centimeter

at 25OC

tolerance for field, vegetable, and forage crops. 103-D- 1626.

-0 01 ;F1 :: P
02 3 2 OEP i: oc J -. ua SI 0'1 S'O

(moq

lad

saq3ut)

(I/b-)

hJ32tM

a3llddt

JO

NOllWkllN33N03

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

33

The total infiltration (INF) from an irrigation applicationis the sum of the total readily availablemoisture (TRAIvI) and the deeppercolation (DP). TRAM is explainedin greaterdetail in settion 2-6(d). INV=TRAM+DP Sincethe deeppercolationis theproduct of the leachingrequirement(LR) and the infiltration, then: INF=TRAIvI+LRxINF and

IN-F=m,

LR expressed as a decimal fraction.

In the previous example, if the TRAM in the root zone is 80 millimeters, the infiltration would be: 80 wF=1-o.39 = 131 millimeters

and the deeppercolationfor salt balancewould be: DP=INF-TRAM= 131-80=51 millimeters

A numberof refinementscanbe considered whencalculatingleachingrequirements, but the majority of thesecan generally be left out without significantly affecting theresults.The most significantexclusionsfrom the precedingexample are leaching efficiency of soil types and removal of salt in harvestedplants. Sample calculations considering leaching efficiencies are not included here becauseof the lack of information available on this refinement. For more information on this subject,seeBouwer, 1969. Significant saltreductionin the soil by removal of all mature cropsandresidue from the la& is feasibleonly for crops with a largeamount of foliage. Sugarcane is usedin the following exampleto determinethe volume of saltremovedby this method. Examplecalculation: Sugarcane can toleratethe salinity associated with electricalconduc tivities of about 1 mmho/cm. Assuming an averageconductivity of 0.24 mmho/cm for the irrigation and rainwater enteringthe soil, the leachingrequirementis:

L&&2! 1o
.

x 100= 24 percentusing equation(1).

34

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

For a consumptiveuseof 80 millimeters betweenirrigations, the total infiltration will be: INF=&= 10.5 millimeters (rounded).

Therefore,deeppercolationper irrigation = 105 - 80 = 25 millimeters. The 24 percent leaching requirement is higher than necessary,however, becauseit doesnot accountfor salts removed with crop removal. To adjust the leaching requirement for these salts, the following factors must be known or assumed: (1) Total yield of sugarcane (gmenweight) = 165metric tons per hectare. (2) Net yield of sugarcane (greenweight) = 60 percentof the total yield = 99 metric tons per hectare. (3) Waste (greenweight) = 165 - 99 = 66 metric tons per hectare. (4) Dry weight of caneis about 40 percentof the greenweight: therefore, there am 40 metric tons per hectareof millable caneand 26 metric tons per hectareof waste. (5) Mineral content (total salts). Analysesof caneresidueshow: Millable cane= 2.2 to 4 percentof dry weight. Leavesandunusablestalk = 8.1 to 12.1percent. (6) Silicate(SiOJ content of ash. Millable cane= 40 percentof ash. Leavesand unusablestalks= 58 percentof ash. Using the above values: Total mineral content of millable cane= (0.022)(40) = 0.880 metric ton per hectare. Total mineral contentlessSi02, = (0.022)(1- 0.40)(40) = 0.528metric ton per hectare. Total mineral content of waste = (0.081)(26) = 2.106 metric tons per hectare. Total mineral contentof wastelessSiOz,= (0.08l)( 1 - 0.58)(26) = 0.885metric ton per hectare. Total salt removedat harvest= 0.528 + 0.885 = 1.41metric tons. Caneis harvestedthree times every 4 years, so the annualsalt removal is: Salt removed = (3/4)( 1.41) = 1.06metric tonsper hectareper year.

CHAPTER

II-BASIC

DATA

35

To adjust the leachingrequirements,the following approachcan be used: Known or calculated: E&W = 1 mmho/cm = 640 mg/L.

GW
EC& G+

0.0006399 mez3 ton drain water. 0.39 mmholcm = 250 mgL.

= Amount of salt in

= =

= Amount of salt in 0.023 mmho/cm = 15 mg/L = Measure of salt concentrationin rainwater. = Amount of salt in 0.0000147 meEs ton 0.02 fg ( 1 rainwater.

EC, CW

DC,

8839 & 6096&

(2.9 acre feet per acre) = Consumptiveuse (2.0 acre feet per acre)= Depth of effective

of irrigation water.
QW =

precipitation.
Tc =

1.0984115heTL%z,(

o49 s)

For salt balance: salt out = salt in

&,,Ddw + T, = C$, Sh.32 + C,,,.D,

Then,

= (0.0002501)(8839) + (0.0000147)(6096) - 1.0984115 dw (0.0006399- 0.0002501)

=3083.2&=

0.308 m (1.01 acre-ft per acre)

36

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Using equation(2):

Dti+D, 3083 (100) LR=(8839+3083)+165

IX=

DdW

x 100

=17*1percent'

The leachingrequirementwas reducedfrom 24 to 17percentby taking into accountthe saltsremovedby crop removal. Maintenance of a favorable salt balance is a continuous requirement for sustained agricultural production.However, some soils have such high concentrations of salts prior to irrigation that an initial leaching is required before agriculturalproductioncanbegin.To bepractical,the drainagefacilities provided shouldnot provide morecapacitythanthe landwill requirefor normal saltbalance under irrigation after the initial leaching.This limitationmeans that during initial leaching,the water table will rise higher than the normal designlevel between
d.ElillS.

High exchangeable sodiumcancausesoil particlesto deflocculate.Normally, the hydraulic conductivity of soil materials decreases with an increasein exchangeable sodium and dminagerequirementsincreaseaccordingly. There are exceptions to this generalstatement, but the drainage requirementshouldbebased on the in-placehydraulic conductivity without regard to the chemicalconditions in the soil that causethis hydraulic conductivity, providing the in-place testing procedures and computationsare correct.The substrata hydraulic conductivity of adequatelydrained land is not expected to decreasebut can improve if the irrigation water and soil in the root zoneare satisfactoryfor irrigated agriculture. (c) Construction in So&c Soils.Codic soils am generally unstable and, therefore, difficult to work with using ordinary drain construction methods. Unstable material may prevent an open drain from being excavatedto grade becausethe sides continually cave in. Staged construction may be used to overcomethis conditioneventhough considerable time may be requiredto bring the drain to grade. It is particularly difficult to maintain line and gradein sodic soils for pipe drains, and close inspection is required to assurean acceptable installation.One possiblesolutionis to place stabilizinggravel in the trenchuntil it will support the pipe. In somecases,a specializedtrenchingmachinemay be required. The above condition is not exclusively a sodium problem, since it sometimesoccurs in a saturatedfine sandor silt, but it is intensifiedif excessive sodiumis present. Another problem is that excavation of sodic soils usually causesthem to puddle which further decreases the hydraulic conductivity. There are instances when the water standsover a pipe drain as a result of this condition.Every effort should be made to avoid this problem if possible or to reduce the effects of puddling if the problem is unavoidable.Again, the use of specializedtrenching machinesand placementof the gravel envelopein direct contact with excavated surfaceswill minimize this problem.

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

37

For bestdrainage,sodicsoils shouldbe unwatered,usuallyby well points, and the drains installedin the dry state.However, many times the sodium condition occursin localizedareasrather than coveringthe entire field. In this event,it may be possibleto locate the drain at the edgeof the sodicarearather than crossing it. The location of the drain will dependon topography,the location of the sodic areawithin the field, hydraulic conductivity of soilsadjacentto the area,protection required in the field, and other related factors; The drain may be located upslopeto interceptgroundwater beforeit reaches the sodicareaanddeepenough to provide somedrainagefor the areaitself. If it is necessary to crossa sodicama, the soil shouldbedisturbedaslittle aspossible,andthe trenchshouldbe backfilled to normal ground surface with a permeablegravel to minimize the puddling effects. (d) Classification of Saline and Sodic Soils.-The following tabulationgives the chemical limits generally acceptablefor classification of saline and sodic soils.Theselimits are of interestto the drainageengineersincethey may indicate potential construction problems. Problemsin drainageassociatedwith salinity and alkalinity usually differ widely with the type of clay mineral content. The actual excavation conditions must be correlated with chemical and physical properties of the soil to provide a basis for conclusionsregarding proper approachesto drainageand drain construction. Exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) Cl5 >15 >15

soil Saline

EC x 103

p&I <8.5 k8.5 8.5 to 10

Saline-sodic Nonsaline-sodic

>4 >4 <4

2-6. Surface Runoff.-Surface flow must be considered in dminageanalysis because this water must be carried away from agricultural lands.Sinceall water moves toward the topographic low points, both surface and subsurfacewaters normahy flow in the samedisposalchannel.Designconsiderations must include the total capacityof both sources. Surface flow originates from precipitation and from irrigation waste, and estimates of these flows are usually available to the drainage engineer from project hydrologists or irrigation district records. When such estimatesare not available,the following simplified methodscanbeusedto obtaindesigne timates B for theseflows. (a) Precipitation.-Precipitation recordsseldomhaveto becollectedor compiled primarily for drainageinvestigations.Usually, they will be availablefrom the project hydrologist or from local rain gaugestations,but if not, precipitation data can be obtainedfrom recordsof the National Weather Service.

38

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

(b) Sturmj7mv.4hmflow dependson topography,soils, vegetativecover, land use, and the climatic characteristicsof the area. Surfacedrains shouldbe designed to handleflows from 5- to 15year storm frequencies.Where relatively expensivestmcturesare involved or where damageto the structuresmay dictate the needfor a more conservativedesign,the 25year storm frequency shouldbe used. As the consequences of inadequatechannelcapacity usually am not too severe,refinement of capacityestimatesis not warranted. Many formulas and analytical methods are available for estimating storm runoff. The most practical way of estimating surface drainagerequirementsfor storm runoff is by studying existing channelsand culverts. Flood capacity or degreeof protectionusedfor farm andcounty roadsandirrigation lateralsis about the sameasfor surfacedrains.If existing facilities are not adequate for a 5-year storm, they will show signsof flooding. While there are too few existing culverts or drainage channelsto permit comparison,sometype of analyticalmethodmust be used.The McMath formula (Urquhart, 1959) gives results which are consideredfairly reliable for planning purposes: McMath formula: Q = CB VA V where: (3)

Q=
C= i = s = A =

flood dischargein cubic feet per second, coefficient representingthe basincharacteristics, rate of rainfall in inchesper hour for the tune of concentrationand frequency, slopeof main channelin units per 1,000units betweenthe farthest contributing point and the point of concentration,and areaof basinin acres.

Valuesof C will range from 0.20 for low runoff conditions to 0.75 for high runoff conditions, dependingprincipally on vegetation, soils, and topography. The C value increasesas the vegetativecover becomesless dense,as the soil becomesheavier, and as the slopeof the ground increases. Of thesethree basic factors, vegetationand soil have the greatereffect on C. A singlecharacteristic, such as a rock surface,may determinethe value of C. Usually, no one characteristic will predominate,andall threefactors must be considered beforeselecting a value for C. Arbitrarily weighing their relative importance,with vegetationat 40 percent, soils 40 percent, and topographyat 20 percent, will allow selection of appropriatefactors for each,which canthen beaddedtogetherto obtaina value for C. Table2-3 showsdrainagebasinfactors for determining C.

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

39

Table 2-3,Weighted
Runoff conditions
LOW

drainage basin factors for determining C.

Soils (sandy) (light) (medium) (heavy) (heavy to rock) Topography (flat) (gently sloping) (sloping to hilly) (hilly to steep) (steep)

Moderate Average High Extreme

0.08 .12 .16 .22 .30

Vegetation (well grassed) (good coverage) (good to fair) (fairto sparse) (sparse to bare)

0.08 .12 .16 .22 .30

0.04 .06 .08 .ll .15

Example:For a flat areawith heavy soils and good vegetativecover, C = 0.04 + 0.22 + 0.12 = 0.38. The intensity anddurationof storm rainfall vary widely in the WesternUnited States.Significant quantitiesof data am availableand elaboratemethods have beendeveloped for very refined runoff studies.However, estimatingstorm runoff for a fann surfacedrainagestudy doesnot require suchrefined procedures.The National Weather Servicehas preparedrainfall intensity-frequencydata which can be used to advantage(U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1961).Figure 2-7, which was taken from this reference, shows a 5-year, l-hour rainfall intensity map. Variations due to topographic influencesin mountainousregions are reflected only in a general sense on this map. For a more detailed consideration of topography in the 17 Western States,seereference(U.S. Dept. of Commerce, 1973). For small areas,where the storm is assumed to cover the whole contributing area,maximum runoff occurswhen flow from the farthestpart of the areareaches the lower end. This is called the time of concentrationfor the particular area,and the rainfall intensity correspondingto this period of time is used for runoff estimates.The time of concentrationfor a particular areadepends principally on the length and slope of its main channel. Time of flood concentrationcan be estimatedwith sufficient accuracyusing the nomogmphshown on figure 2-S. The procedurefor estimatingflood mnoff from a small areais as follows: (1) Find the valueof C for physicalconditionsof the ama from table 2-3. (2) Estimate the time of concentrationfrom figure 2-g. (3) Selecta value for 5-year, l-hour rainfall from figure 2-8 for the area under study. (4) Convert 5-year, l-hour rainfall value to 5year, any-hour depthby one of the following equations: For time of concentrationof 1 hour or greater,
y=b+E
X

For time of concentrationlessthan 1 hour.

y = 0.80 b

Figure 2-I.-Rainfall

intensity map. 103-D-1621.

ELEVATION OF FARTHEST POlNTOF WATERSHED ABOVE POINTOF CONCENTRATION

METERS

LENGTH OF CHANNEL FROMFARTHEST POINT TO POINTOF CONCENTRATION

METERS 8 II
s

P
z
=
8 s?a G g 0 g 9

KILOMETERS 22
Iu q IllI, UI s

s 1111

is

I1lll,
Q

1 I IllI

II111
UIQ

I Id

I1111
ul

I Ill1
s

11
E

1111

Ill/

MILES HOURS Iu 0
I I

FEET
I I II

I ru

I ul

lllll G MINUTES

lllll g

III11 8 g 8

TIMEOF FLOOD CONCENTRATION

Figure 2-K-Nomograph for estimating time of flood concentration. 103-D-692.

42

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Y =
b =

Syear, any-hourrainfall depthin millimeters, 5-year, l-hour rainfall depthin millimeters, and requiredrainfall duration (time of concentration)in hours. X must be greaterthan 1 hour.

(5) Convert the y valuefound in (4) aboveto the requiredfrequency: Factor by which to multiply y 1.2 1.3 1.4
X

Frequency,years 10 15 25

(6) The rate of rainfall, i, is: i = Y

(7) Solvefor the estimatedflood runoff, Q, using equation(3). Figure 2-9 gives the one-fifth and four-fifths powers of numbers neededin this equation. The McMath methoddiscussed in the foregoingparagraphs gives satisfactory resultswhen estimatingstorm runoff in the planningstagesof a drainageproject. (c) Estimating Total RunoffjFom Soil and Cover Conditions.-The following method has beenadaptedfrom proceduresdevelopedby the Soil Conservation Service (SCS) and is adequatefor reconnaissance and feasibility studies.For design,themore detailedprocedures in the SCSNationalEngineeringHandbook, Section4,1972,shouldbereferredto. Theirprocedures arebasedonobservations of runoff from watersheds up to approximately800 hectares(2,000acres)in size. This manualpresentsa highly simplified approachfor estimatingrunoff and shouldbe usedwith judgment. The primary needfor field datain this method is to obtain a measureof infiltration rates. Basicinfiltration rateslargely determine the runoff from a storm and the curve numberson figure 2-10. Infiltration rates and curve numbers are affected by conditions on the watershed-primarily by landuse andmoisture contentin the first foot of soil (antecedent moisture) at the time of a storm. Figure 2-10 accountsfor theseimportant factors. Figure 2-10 can be usedknowing only the soil texturesin the top foot of soil or the SCShydrologic soil group. However, the engineermust exercisecareful judgment to estimatehydrologic conditionson the watershedandenter the figure accordingly. After the curve number has been determined,figure 2-l 1 can be usedto fmd the direct runoff. The methodof using figures 2-10 and2-l 1 is best explainedby the following example: KllOWll: (1) Ama of watershedis 400 hectares(approximately 1,000acres).

CHAPTER II-BASIC 43

DATA

,,,,,

II
il\l I I +\I I I\I

II

BL LI I I

6dLI Y)

-%N-

INFlLTRATlON MILLIMETERS
SILTY CLAY slL;~A$mme?A SANDYCLAY LMM SILT LcaM

RATE PER HOUR

SANtn L!xH I LOAMY SANJ LOAM I SAND

LlGHT CLAY

SILT

HYDROLOGIC

SOIL

GROUP

HYDROLOGIC

SOIL

GROUP

HYDROU)GIC

SOIL

GROUP

__

HYDROLOGIC

SOIL

GROUP

t
60
L . . \ \

1
/

c c

L 2.5
I I

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

45 CURVE

50

55

60

65

70

75

60

65

90

95

100

NUMBER CN

Figure 24O.-Curve

numbers for determining surface runoff. 103-D-1623.

CHAPTER II-BASIC

DATA

45

5 \9\ n x \ y \ y \ ,p,\

e \I\ \I\ \

s11313wllllyY NI(b)UONntl133tlla

46

DRAINAGE MANUAL

(2) Soil in top foot of the profile is a coarseloamy sandwith 50 millimeters (2 inches)per hour infiltration rate. (3) The watershedis usedfor pasture. (4) At the time of a 75millimeter (3-inch) storm, the soil is at field capacity.

Procedure: Enter figure 2-10 at the given infiltration rate of 50 millimeters (2 inches) per hour (point 1) and read down the chart to the curve for land useof pasture (point 2). Readacrossthe chart to the curve for soil at field capacity(point 3). Then read down to the bottom edgeof the chart to obtain the curve number (CN) which is 70 (point 4). Using a CiV of 70 and the measuredprecipitation of 75 millimeters (3 inches),the direct runoff from the storm canbe read from figure 2-l 1. In this example,the runoff is 18millimeters (0.71 inch) per hectare.For the 400-hectam (1,000~acre) watershed,total runoff would be 72 000 cubic meters (about 54 acre-feet). This method can be applied to large basins with varying soils, crops, and antecedent moisture conditions. The distribution of the various conditionsmust be known to estimatethe weightedaverageand total runoff from a basin Moisture in the top foot of a soil profile can be estimated adequatelyby irrigation schedulingtechniquesexplainedin subsection2-6(d). Figure 2-12 canbe usedto determinethe amount of rainfall that infihrates the ground surface from a storm. The curve number neededfor using this figure is determinedas in the previous examplefor direct runoff. (d) Estimating Irrigation and Deep Percolation Schedules.-To adequately analyzea drainageproblem in an irrigatedarea,the engineermust havea working knowledgeof plant, soil, and moisture relationships.The ability to estimatethe timing of irrigations andestimateroot zonemoisture levelsover a period of time is essential The methodsdiscussed in this sectionhave been successfulIyused in Bureauof Reclamationwork sincethe 1950s. Moisture-holding capacity is the physicalproperty of the soil that determines the maximum amount of water held in the root zoneunder free-drainageconditions. However, only a portion of this capacity can be usedby plants, and this portion is called the availablemoisture (AM). This available moisture is the amount of water held in the soil betweenfield capacityandthe wilting point and is usually expressed in millimeters per meter (inchesper foot) of soil. The total availablemoisture (TAM) in a root zone is not readily availableto plantsbecause of root distribution andthe patternof water usefrom the root zone. Ihe water that is readily available in a given root zone is called total readily availablemoisture (TRAM). This is the amountof water availablefor rapid plant growth. It is a physical characteristicof a given soil profile limited in depth to a specific crop root zone and moisture extraction pattern. With good irrigation

CHAPER 47

II-BASIC

DATA

WIOH tl3d WH3NI NOllVlldl33Ud 93LWllIdNI

4 !\.! ! ! !

! I0

UlOH tiCid St1313WllllW NOllVl.ldl33tld (131VWlldNI

48

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

practice and normal root development,the moisture extraction pattern will be about 40 percent for the fitst quarter of the crop root zone, 30 percent for the secondquarter, 20 percent for the third quarter, and 10 percent for the fourth quarter. A water table near the bottom of the normal root zone may alter the moisture extraction pattern which, in turn, may alter the deep percolation and drainagerequirements.Unlessadditionalinformation is availableon root growth and moisture extraction near a water table, the above extraction pattern can be used. The crop root zonevarieswith different crops,rangingfrom 0.6 meter (2 feet) for the shallow-rootedcrops such as potatoesand vegetables,to 1.8 meters (6 feet) for peach, walnut, and avocadotrees. For most irrigated crops, a 0.9 or 1.2-meter(3- or 4-foot) toot zonecan be usedfor computing the TRAM. When the availablemoisture in the critical quarter is completely exhausted, theplant will beunableto extract sufficient moisturefrom the remainingquarters to maintain rapid crop growth. For most irrigatedcrops, thecritical quartershould not be permitted to use more than about 75 percent of the availablemoisture betweenirrigations. Somepotato growers recommendthis percentage be held to 50 percentor less. The first quarter will be the critical one for most soil profiles becauseof its high (40 percent)extractionrate. However, the critical quartermay changewhere fmer textured soils are underlainby loamy sandsor sandsin the secondor third quarter. The following examplesshow the procedurefor determining TRAM in two different soil profiles of known texture and availablemoisture: Example 1: Soil profile AM, J-IQJvI, &arter Texture millimeters ( inches) First Second Third Fourth CL CL, SiL S 63.50 (2.5) 50.80 (2.0) 55.88 (2.2) 25.40 (1 .O)

millimeters (inches) (63.50 x (50.80 x (55.88 x (25.40 x 0.75)/0.40 = 119.06(4.69) 0.75)/0.30 = 127.00(5.00) 0.75)/0.20 = 209.55 (8.15) 0.75)/0.10 = 190.50(7.50)

The ftrst quarter has the lowest TRAM so it is the critical quarter. When the daily consumptiveuse is a maximum of 6.35 millimeters (0.25 inch) per day, an irrigation would be requiredabout every 18 daysfor continuedrapid plant growth. Using 18 days, the moistureusedwould be 18 x 6.35 = 114.30 millimeters insteadof 119.06millimeters, and the irrigation scheduleshould be developedusing the 114.30millimeters.

CHAPER

II-BASIC

DATA

49

Example 2: Soil profile AM TRAM, Quarter Texture millimeters (inches) First Second Third Fourth CL CL S SiL 63.50 (2.5) 50.80 (2.0) 25.40 (1.0) 55.88 (2.2)

millimeters (inches) (63.50 x 0.75)/0.40= 119.06(4.69) (50.80 x 0.75)/0.30= 127.00(5.00) (25.40 x 0.75)/0.20 = 95.25 (3.75) (55.88 x 0.75)/0.10= 419.10 (16.50)

In this example,the third quarter is the critical one because it hasa TRAM of only 95.25millimeters (3.75 inches).When the daily consumptiveuseis a maximum of 6.35millimeters (0.25 inch) per day, anirrigation will berequired every 15 daysfor rapid plant growth. Local farm organizations sometimesrecommendthat the total availablemoisture (TAM) be depletedby only a certain percent betweenirrigations. If so, the 75-percentfactor in the previous examplesshouldbe adjusted.The TAM is the sum of the AM valuesfor eachquarter of the root zoneexpressed in millimeters or inches. For example,anassociation of local potatogrowersmight recommendthat the root zone should not be depletedof more than 35 to 40 percent of the TAM betweenirrigationsIn example1, there would be 195.58millimeters (7.7 inches) of TAM in the root zone. If 40 percent of this amount were used between irrigations, the TRAM would be 195.58x 0.40 = 78.23 millimeters (3.08 inches), andan irrigation would berequiredevery 12days.Assumingthe normalmoisture extractionpattern, the first quarterwould supply78.74 x 0.40 = 3 1.50millimeters (1.2 inches),the secondquarter 78.74 x 0.30 = 23.62 millimeters (0.9 inch), the third quarter78.74 x 0.20 = 15.75millimeters (0.6 inch), and the fourth quarter 78.74 x 0.10 = 7.87 (0.3 inch). If the recommendationhad been that the available moisture in the critical quartershouldnot be depletedmore than about50 percent,the result would have been about the same as in the above recommendation.In example 1, the first quarterwas the critical quarter, so: (63.50 x 0.50)/0.40 = 79.38 millimeters (3.12 inches)TRAM This is approximately the sameas the 78.23 millimeters (3.08 inches) computed using TAM, so the depletion limits could havebeenrecommendedeither way. Available moisture estimatesmay be availablefrom previoussoil classification studiesmadein the area.Also, agricultural bulletinspublishedby Federalor State agenciesor local colleges and universities often have this information.

50

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Available moisture may be measuredby the methodsdescribedin Reclamation Instructions Series510, Land ClassificationTechniques and Standards. Annual irrigation schedules for any areawill vary from year to year because of variations in crops, acreages,rainfall, solar radiation, and time of planting. Once the total readily availablemoisture, root zonedepth, and crops have been selectedfor study, the schedulingprocess is a simple bookkeepingexercise. Normally, the schedulecan be basedon the TRAM of the entire root zone; however, there are occasionswhen the moisture content in eachquarter of the root zone will be of interest to the engineer.For these occasions,the same techniquesthat follow can be used, but the proceduremust be applied to each quarterof the root zone. Usually the effects of rainfall canbe ignored when annualprecipitationis less than 254 millimeters (10 inches). In areaswith significant rainfall, the amount that infiltrates the soil surfacecan be estimatedfrom figure 5-7 in chapterV or using the techniquesoutlined in section2-6(c). Theconsumptiveuseof water by plantscanbe estimatedmany different ways. In someareas,measured data<are availablethroughcolleges,extensionagents,or Governmentagencies.In drainagedesign, the Bhaney-Criddle method provides reasonable estimatesof irrigation timing (Blaney and Criddle, 1962). Monthly consumptiveuse valuesshouldbe determinedand daily usevaluesestimatedby simply dividing the montNy useby the numberof growing daysin the month. A more refined estimate using the Blaney-Criddlemethod is to estimate the consumptiveusefor various crop growth stagesfrom planting time through harvest (U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 1967). For the calculationsthat follow, assumethat the crop of interestis alfalfa and that the growing seasonbeginson May 14 and ends on September21. Also, assumethe areahasnegligiblerainfall, The monthly anddaily consumptiveuses are:
Sample consumptive use values for alfalfa, in millimeters (inches)

May
Monthly Daily 61.21 (2.4 1) 3.81 (0.15)

June

July

August

September

Total

138.93 (5.47) 4.57 (0.18)

157.48 (6.20) 5.08 (0.20)

139.95 (5.51) 4.57 (0.18)

72.64 (2.86) 3.56 (0.14)

570.21 (22.45)

From the previous example 1 for estimating the TRAM, the moisture used betweenirrigations was 119.13millimeters (4.69 inches). The total amount of water that infiltrates the soil surface upon each irrigation will be equal to the TRAM plus any water that deeppercolatesbecause of inefficienciesand leaching requirements(see sets. 2-5,4-16,4-17, and fig. 2-6 in sec. 2-5). The drains must be designedfor the greaterof the two estimatesfor deeppercolatingwater: (1) leachingrequirement, or (2) normal deeppercolationfrom irrigation

Table 2-4a.-Irrigation
Time period, days Daily consumptive use, millimeters 3.81 17 311 19 6 23 2 23 8 21 3.81 4.57 4.51 5.08 5.08 5.08 4.51 4.51 3.56 64.71 50.29 86.87 30.48 116.84 10.16 105.16 36.58 74.68

and deep percolation schedule for alfalfa (metric units).

Remaining -l-RAM, millimeten 0 54.36 4.06 32.26 1.78 2.29 108.97 3.81 82.55 1.87 Total moisture, millimeten 157.23 54.36 161.54 32.26 159.26 159.76 108.97 161.29 82.55 7.81 Ending -l-RAM, millimeters 119.13 54.36 119.13 32.26 119.13 119.13 108.97 119.13 82.55 7.87 Deep percolation, millimeters 38.10

Date 5-14 5-3 1 6-11 6-30 7-6 l-29 7-3 1 8-23 8-3 1 9-21

Consumptive use for period, millimeters

Infiltraction, millimeters Snowmelt (157.23) 0 157.48 0 157.48 157.48 0 157.48 0 0 787.15

42.42 40.13 40.64 z %I

42.16 203.45

=
I 0 z

Assumed 1%.34 millimeters of snowmelt of which 20 percent runs off. * Assumed. 3 Rounded down to a whole day.

Table 24b.-Zrrigation
Time pel+4 days 17 311 19 6 23 2 23 8 21 Daily consumptive use, inches 0.15 .15 .18 .18 .20 .20 .20 .18 .18 .14

and deep percolation schedule for al&a&a (U.S. customary units).

Remaining J-RAM, inches 0 2.14 0.16 1.27 0.07 0.09 4.29 0.15 3.25 0.31
hlfihtiOll,

w
hP percolation, inches 1.50 1.67 1.58 1.60 1.66 8.0 2 Ei 2 1

Date 5-14 5-3 1 6-11 6-30 7-6 7-29 7-3 1 8-23 8-31 9-21

Consumptive use for period, inches 2.55 1.98 3.42 1.20 4.60 0.40 4.14 1.44 2.94

inches

Total moisture, inches 6.19 2.14 6.36 1.27 6.27 6.29 4.29 6.35 3.25 0.31

Ending TRAM, inches 4.69 2.14 4.69 I.27 4.69 4.69 4.29 4.69 3.25 0.31

Snowmelt (6.19) 0 6.20 0 6.20 6.20 0 6.20 0 0 30.99

t Assumed 7.73 in&es of snowmelt of which 20 percent mns off. 2 Assumed. 3 Rounded down to a whole day.

CHAPTER

II-BASIC

DATA

53

inefficiency. In this example,assume that the overall farm efficiency is 60 percent and about20 percentof the delivery runs off as surfacewaste.Then: Farm delivery = 198.55millimeters (7.8 inches)per irrigation = 0.20 (198.55) = 39.71millimeters (1.6 inches) Runoff Infiltration = 198.55- 39.71 = 158.84millimeters (6.2 inches) Deep percolation = 158.84- 119.13= 39.71 millimeters (1.5 inches)per irrigation The processfor calculatingthe irrigation scheduleis shown in table 2-4. Table 2-4 shows a convenientform for keepingrecords. of soil moisture and deeppercolation. In calculating the schedule,fractions of a day are truncated when determiningdaysof moisture left in the soil. In areaswhere rainfall must be considered,the infiltrated rainfall is simply addedto the bookkeepingas shown in the following example: Assumea typical rainfall pattern in the areaas follows and that the infiltrated rainfall hasbeenestimated usingfigure 5-7. Procedures outlinedin section2-6(c) could alsobe usedto estimateinfiltrated rainfaIl.
Measured and infiltrated rainfall pattern for sample problem Measured Infiltrated

= 119.13/0.60

Date 5-20 5-30 6-12 6-22

millimeters (inches) 13.46(0.53) 11.68(0.46) 6.35 (0.25) 29.46 (1.16)

millimeters (inches) 12.70(0.50) 10.92(0.43) 5.08 (0.20) 25.40 (1.00)

Table 2-5 shows how this rainfall pattern would affect the results shown in table 2-4. Section5-5 of this manualshowsan exampleof how ground-waterbuildup is determined from deep percolation and how an irrigation scheduleis used in transientstatedrainageanalysis. (e) Farm Waste.Farm-surface waste from irrigation varies with many factors, including soil texture, type of irrigation system, land slope, length of irrigation run, andirrigation efficiency. With goodmanagement, it is possibleto irrigate without any wastewaterleavingthe irrigated area,but irrigation without surface waste is the exceptionrather than the rule. A deepsandy soil with flat slopesand short runs is the most easilymanagedcondition for having negligible wastewater, whereasa fine-textured soil on steepslopeswith long runs is very difficult to managewithout having waste.In practice,a drainagesystemmust be designedwith an allowancefor farm waste unlessprior irrigation operationsin the areahaveclearly shown this allowanceto be unnecessary.

Table 2-Sa-Irrigation
Time period, diiys Daily consumptive use, millimeters 3.81 3.81 3.81 3.81 4.57 4.57 4.57 4.57 5.08 5.08 4.57 4.57 3.56 3.56

and deep percolation schedule for alfalfa including rainfall (metric units).
Consumptive use for period, millimeters Remaining TRM millimeters 0 22.86 38.10 3.81 54.86 27.43 18.29 36.58 81.28 76.20 41.15 100.58 17.78 56.90 96.27 70.87 77.98 23.11 0.76 108.84 82.55 1.27 42.93 1.78 18.54 0.76 62.23 Total moisture, millimeters 157.23 108.97 81.79 77.98 2x19 158.24 126.23 82.55 158.75 42.93 159.26 18.54 158.24 62.23 Ending TRAM, millimeters 119.13 108.97 81.79 77.98 28.16 119.13 119.13 82.55 119.13 42.93 119.13 18.54 119.13 62.23 Deep percolation, millimeters 38.10

Date 5-14 5-20 5-30 5-3 1 6-12 6-18 6-22 6-30 7-16 7-3 1 8-9 8-3 1 9-5 9-21

Wilttraction, millimeters Snowmelt (157.23) 12.70 10.92 0 5.08 157.48 25.40 0 157.48 0 157.48 0 157.48

6 10 1 12 6 4 8 16 15 9 22 5 16

39.12 7.11 39.62 40.13 39.12

Table 2-5b.-Irrigation
Time period, days Daily consumptive use, inches 0.15 6 10 1 12 6 4 8 16 15 9 22 5 16 .15 .15 .15 .18 .18 .18 .I8 .20 .20 .I8 .18 .14 .I4

and deep percolation schedule for aIfalfa including rainfall (U.S. customary units).
Consumptive use for period, inches Remaining -l-RAM, inches 0 0.90 1.50 0.15 2.16 1.08 0.72 1.44 3.20 3.00 1.62 3.96 0.70 2.24 3.79 2.19 3.07 0.91 0.03 3.91 3.25 0.05 1.69 0.07 0.73 0.03 2.45 Total moisture, inches 6.19 4.29 3.22 3.07 1.11 6.23 4.97 3.25 6.25 1.69 6.27 0.73 6.23 2.45 Ending TlQW inches 4.69 4.29 3.22 3.07 1.11 4.69 4.69 3.25 4.69 1.69 4.69 0.73 4.69 2.45 Deep percolation, inches 1.50 1.54 0.28 1.56 1.58 1.54 8.0

Date 5-14 5-20 5-30 5-3 1 6-12 6-18 6-22 6-30 I-16 7-3 1 8-9 8-31 9-5 9-21

Infiltraction, inches Snowmelt (6.19) 0.50 0.43 0 0.20 6.20 1.00 0 6.20 0 6.20 0 6.20 0 31.12

DRAINAGE MANUAL CubicFeet per Second(ft %I

0 5 10 15 20

25.-

wo

600

700

600

500

400

300

200

100

0 0 0.1 0.2

0.3

0.4

0.5

0.6

0.7O

CubicMetersper Second(m3/s)

CHAPTER

II-BASIC

DATA

Cubic Feet per Second (ft3/s)

8000

Cubic Meters per Second (m31s)

Figure 2-14.-Typical canal and lateral capacity cuweforunits (l,ooo acres). 103-D-649. greaterthan 4OOhe~ta1ts

58

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Farm wastemay amountto asmuch as 50 percentof the water appliedto any farm unit. The total amountof farm wastethat must be carriedat a particular time at any one point in a drain depends on the amountthat is wastedfrom any single farm unit andon the numberof farm units that arebeingirrigated at the sametime aboveany designpoint. The number of farm units that canbe irrigated simultaneously is consideredin the designof the project irrigation system. The same criteria shouldbeusedto determineanallowancefor farm waste.Canalandlateral capacitycurvessimilar to thoseshownon figures 2-13 and 2-14 canbe prepared for eachparticular situationfrom the criteria. Thesecurvesare basedon the soil, climate, cropping pattern, and similar factors for the particular project and take into considerationthe rotation of irrigation water amongfarm units. Thesesame factors can be used in establishingfarm waste capacity in drains unlessbetter information, suchasactualmeasurements of farm wasteon anoperatingproject, is available. For any point on the drain, a topographicmap on which the irrigated land and the drain arelocatedwill pennit determinationof the total irrigated acreage whose farm wastemust passthroughthat point on the drain. The lateralcapacityfor that acreage can then be taken from a curve similar to the one shown on figure 2-13 or 2-14. By applying a factor to that capacity,a factor which will vary somewhat with project characteristics,the drain capacity allowancefor farm waste can be obtained.For most irrigation projects, this factor rangesfrom 15 to 25 percent. For example,assumethat the topographicmap showsthere are 350 irrigable hectares(approximately865 irrigable acres)which slopetoward the point on the drain in question.From figure 2-13, a lateral capacity of 0.60 cubic meter (21 cubic feet) per secondis found for 350 hectares(800 acres).The drain capacity for farm waste would then be 15 percent of this value, or 0.09 cubic meter (approximately3.2 cubic feet) per secondat that point on the drain S7. Bibliography.American Societyof Photogrammetry,1960,Manual ofPhotographic fnferpretation.

Blaney,H. F., andW. D. Griddle,December1962,Determining Consumptive Use and Irrigation Water Requirements,USDA Technical Bulletin No. 1275. Bouwer, H., March 1969, Salt Balance,Irrigation Efficiency, and Drainage Design, Proceedings of the ASCE,Journal ofthe Irrigation andDrainage Division, vol. 95, No. 141,pp. 153-170. Bureau of Reclamation, 1962-1971, Use of Water on Federal Irrigation Projects, Seriesof Reports. Bureauof Reclamation, 1973,Design of SmallDams, secondedition, p. 117. Fireman,M., 1944,PermeabilityMeasurements on Disturbed Soil Samples, Soil Science , vol. 58, pp. 337-353. Hayward, H. E., andC. H. Wadleigh,1949,PlantGrowthon SalineandAlkali Soils, Advances in Agronomy, ~011, pp. l-38. Stateof Israel, Ministry of Agriculture, Water CommissionersOffice, May 1964,Salinity SurveyProgressReport for 1963, Tel Aviv, p. 37.

CHAPTER

II-BASIC

DATA

59

Shockley,D. R., February 1955, Capacity of Soil to Hold Moisture, Agricultural Engineering, vol. 36, pp. 109-l 12. Soil ScienceSociety of America, February 1973, Glossary of Soil Science Terms. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, August 1951, Soil Color, Soil Survey Manual, HandbookNo. 18, p. 189. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, February 1954, Diagnosis and Improvement of Salineand AIkaIi Soils, Agriculture HandbookNo. 60. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil ConversationService,April 1967, Irrigation Water Requirements,TechnicalReleaseNo. 21. U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, Soil ConservationService,August 1972,Section 4, Hydrology, National Engineering Handbook. U.S. Dept. of Commerce,National Oceanicand AtmosphericAdministration, National Weather Service, 1973, Precipitation-FrequencyAtlas of the WesternUnited States,NOAA Atlas 2,11 volumes. U.S. Dept. of Commerce,Weather Bureau,May 1961, Rainfall Frequency Atlas of the United States,TechnicalPaperNo. 40. Urquhart, L. C., C.E., (Ed.-in-Chief), 1959, Civil Engineering Handbook, McGraw-Hill, fourth edition, chapter9, p. 11.

((Chapter

III

FIELD AND LABORATORY

A.

PROCEDURES

In-Place Hydraulic Conductivity Tests Below a Water Table

3-l. Objective.-A mnnber of tests for determining the in-place hydraulic conductivity below a water table havebeendeveloped.Two tests that have been found to be the most adaptableuse the auger-holeandpiezometertestprocedures. Both proceduresmeasurethe rate of changeof the water level in a hole or the difference of water-level elevationwith time. Any procedurethat can accurately measurewater-level changewith time is satisfactory. For aquifers, the well pumping method is used to determine the hydraulic conductivity and transmissivityof gravelsand gravelly materialsbelow a water table where the coarse materials interfere with conduction preparations for auger-holetest. Test proceduresand data analyses for the classicwell pumping method are describedin the Bureau of Reclamations Ground Water Manual (1977). The well pumping method, an expensivetest both in time andmaterials, is usedmainly for determiningthe suitability of anareato be drainedby pumping rather than by horizontal drams. 3-2. Auger-Hole Test for Hydraulic Conductivity.-(u) Introduction.The auger-hole testmeasures theaveragehorizontalhydraulic conductivity of the soil profile from the static water table to thebottom of the hole. This test canbe run in the presence of a barrier either at or below the bottom of the hole. This manual describesthe equipment,pmedures, and calculationsused in making this test. The developmentof the analytical detailsof the auger-holetest are given in a paperby MaaslandandHaskew (19%). (b) Equipment.-Equipment requirements for the auger-holetestare flexible, but the following items havebeenusedsuccessfully:
(1) An 80-millimeter (nominal3-inch) diameterauger with three 1.5-meter (S-foot) extensionhandlesand a 1lo-millimeter (nominal $-inch) diameter auger.-An 80millimeterdiameter augeris usedinitially for the auger-hole test. In the finer textured soils, the pressurerequired for the initial augering causesa thin, densesealto form on the sidesof the hole. This sealis hard to removeeven with a hole scratcher.
61

62

DRAINAQE

MANUAL

However, reaming the 8Omillimeter hole with a 1lo-millimeter-diameter augerapplieslesspressureto the sidesof the hole andthe resultingsealis very thin and easierto remove. The removalof this thin sealis essentialto ob.ta.in reliable data from the test. Three 1.5meter extensionhandlesfor the augers areusually sufficient for most test holes. The Durango- and Or&a&type augersare suitablefor most soils, but the Dutch-type augeris preferable for someof the high clay and cohesivesoils. Samplesfrom the Durango-typeaugeram lessdisturbedthan thosefrom the other two types, thus permitting a more reliable evaluationof soil structure. Figure 3-l showsphotographsof the different types of soil augersgenerally usedin drainageinvestigations.
(2) Equipment used to record changes in water table elevation.-Two

typesof equipmenthavebeenused to record the recovery of the water table. The first type consistsof a data logger with a preprogrammedlogarithmic sampling schedule connected to a pressure transducer. The second type consistsof a recorder board, recording tape, and float apparatus.The data logger setupcan record recovery datapoints beginningat time zero, which is impossibleto do usingthe float andrecorderboard.This capability allows the test to be conductedin materialswith higherhydraulic conductivity ratesthan canbe donewith a float apparatus. Thehigh initial costsof a dataloggerwould be difficult to justify if only a limited number of auger-holetests are to be conducted. Water table recovery data collected on a data logger can be downloaded directly to a computer.A spreadsheet canthen besetup to computetest results. (3) Recorder board, recording tape, and float apparatus.-This equipment is preferableto manualmeasuringequipmentsuchasan electric sounder becauseit is less expensive, easier to construct, simpler to operate, and provides a permanentrecord. The board commonly used is 50 millimeters (2 inches) thick by 100 millimeters (4 inches) wide by 250 millimeter (10 inches)long. A notch 65 millimeters (2-l/2 inches)long andwide enough to hold a nylon roller is made 25 millimeters (1 inch) from one end and 15millimeters (l/2 inch) from a side.A nylon roller, which canbe taken from a regular chair caster,is installedin the notch and fastenedin place. A pointer is fasteneddirectly over the roller to act asa referencepoint during the test. A 50millimeter (2-inch) diameter recessis drilled near the roller to hold the stopwatchand is located so that the operator can observethe stopwatch and mark on the recordingtapewithout looking up from the stopwatch.A threaded metal plate for attachinga tripod is attachedto the undersideof the board on the oppositeend from the roller and stopwatch. The float should be less than 75 millimeters (3 inches) in diameter an+ weightedat the bottom. It shouldalsobe sufficiently buoyant andcounterbalancedto prevent any lag in the rise of the float as the water table rises in the hole. A counterweight that weighs slightly lessthan the float is usedto keep the float string tight. The float shouldhavesloping shouldersso it will be less

64

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

likely to catch on pebblesor roots on the sidesof the openhole or on thejoints and perforationsin the casing. Recorder tapes are made from IS-meter @-foot) graph paper strips cut 20 millimeters (3/4 inch) wide and backedwith strappingtape. Paperstaplesare fastenedat both endsso the strip canbe connected to the float andcounterweight. Figure 3-2 showsa schematicof the equipmentset up for the auger-holetest. (4) Tripod.-Any rigidly constructedtripod can be used. Planetabletripods furnish a rigid support and allow fast setting up and leveling of the recordingboard. (5) Measuring rod or tape.-A measuringrod canbe made,or a tapewith a weight on the bottom can be used. (6) Hole scratcher.-A hole scratchercan be madein a numberof ways. The easiestmethod usesa woodencylinder, 85 millimeters (3-l/2 inches)in diameter by 75 millimeters (3 inches) long, with small nails protruding as necessary for the augerbeingused.The headsof the nails, after they havebeen driven into the cylinder,amcut off to createsharpedgeswhich will breakthe seal around the periphery of the hole. A 13millimeter (l/2-inch) coupler attachedto the woodencylinder allows the scratcherto usethe sameextension handlesas the augers.A more efficient hole scratchercan be made from a 85millimeter (3-l/2-inch) outside-diameter black iron pipe cut 125millimeters (5 inches)long. A 13millimeter (l/2-inch) coupling is then welded to a 85millimeter (3-l/2-inch) diameter by 7millimeter (l/4-inch) thick plate which, in turn, is weldedto oneend of the pipe. Holes 3 millimeters (l/8 inch) in diameterarc then drilled into the pipe in a staggered pattern.Concretenails are then inserted through each drilled hole from the inside of the pipe. The length of the nails used dependson the diameter of the auger to be used. A woodenblock, 80 millimeters (3-l/4 inches)in diameterand 125millimeters (5 inches) long, is then placed inside the pipe to hold the nails in place. The block canbe heldin position by drilling a few holesat the pipeendsfor holding screws.As different auger-holediametersare required,longer or shorternails canbe placedin the scratcher.A typical hole scratcheris shown on figure 3-3. (7) Bailer or pump.-A bailer can be made from a l-meter length of !%I-millimeter(nominal 3-l/2-inch) diameter,thin-walled conduit with a rubber or metal foot valve at one endanda handleat the other end.Bailers longer than 1 meter are difficult to insert and remove from the augerhole. The hole in the foot valve shouldbe large enoughto allow water to enter as rapidly as possible.The bailer shouldbe weighted at the bottom to increaseits ability to submerge.Present-dayrequirementsfor water quality samplinghave made many types of commercial bailers available.They are manufacturedfrom a variety of materialswhich rangefrom teflon to stainlesssteel.We have found that a bailer of the appropriate diameter made from schedule40 PVC is adequate. A lightweight stirrup pump, similar to the one shownon figure 3-3, capableof pumping about 1.5 liters per second(about 20 gallonsper minute), is preferableto the bailer.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

65

Stopwatch and recess-, Threoded metal plate to attach board to tripod Pointer Nylon roller and recess (Nylon rol ler Recorder board, approximately ecording tape Counterweight (weight slightly less than float) Wind shield -loat string

Float -b

Static water table

- Burlap
f----

I 1

Figure 3-2.-Equipment

setup forthe auger-hole or piezometer test. 103-D-651.

66

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Figure 3-3.-E:quipment for auger-hole test Item (I) perforated casing, (2) wire-wound well screen, (3) stirrup pwnp, and (4) hole scratcher. P80I.D- 77012.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

67

(8) Stopwatch.-Any standanl stopwatch or digital watch with seconds registeredis satisfactorywhen using the float apparatus.All readingsshould be made from a singlereferencetime which is the beginningof bailing, and all time during the test shouldbe accountedfor. (9) Inside calipers.--An ordii pair of inside caliperscan be used to determinethe diameterof the hole. To prevent the points of the caliper legs from gouging the walls of the augerhole, small flat plates shouldbe welded to the legs. An extensionrod screwedinto the top of the calipers is used to measure thehole diameterat variousdepths.Theaverage hole diameteris used in the calculations.The diameteris difficult to measutebelow the water table with ordinary inside calipers becausethe water surface reflects light and preventsvisual determinationof the contact of the caliperswith the sidesof the hole. For this reason, it is satisfactory to determine the averagehole diameterby the measurements madeabout0.3 meter (1 foot) below the ground surfaceandjust abovethe water table. (10) Burlap.-Burlap or a similar permeablematerial will prevent soils from enteringat the bottom of the hole. Eachhole requiresa piecemeasuring about0.6 meter (2 feet) square. (11) Perforated casing or wire-wound well screen.-This protection is necessary for auger holesin unstablesoils. The casingor screenshouldhave the sameor a slightly largeroutsidediameterthanthehandauger.As the screen or casingis pushedinto the ground, the casingand the periphery of the hole make definite contact. Commercial well screen with at least a lo-percent perforated area is the most desirable; however, if this is not available, a thin-walled downspoutcasingwith 4- to Spercentperforationsis satisfactory. Jn most agricultural soils, about two hundred 5 by 25millimeter hacksaw perforations per meter will give 4- to Z&percent perforations, Commercially availableslotted PVC casinghasalso proven adequate for conductingaugerhole tests.Figure 3-3 showsa typical perforatedcasingand wire-wound well screen. (12) Mirror or strong Jflashlight.-Either one of theseitems can be used to examinethe sidesof the augerhole and facilitate measurements with the calipers. wind protection is required, a windshield such (13) Windshield-When as a l- by l-meter sheetof plywood hasbeenusedsatisfactorily. (c) Procedure.-The most efficient team for performing the auger-holefield test for hydraulic conductivity consistsof two people.One operatesthe recorder board,puts the float in thehole, andoperates the stopwatch,andthe other operates the baileror pump. After the water level in the holehasstabilized,an experienced team canperform the entire test in 10 to 15 minutes in most soils. At siteswhere detailedsoil profile datado not exist, a pilot hole will haveto be drilled and logged,and test zonesselected. Thehole shouldbe augered vertically andasstraightaspossibleto therequired depth.If the soil is homogeneous throughouttheprofile, the hole canbeexcavated

68

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

to the total depth to be tested.When the soil is heterogeneous, tests should be made for eachchangein texture, structure, and color. If the material is highly permeablethroughout the profile to be tested, it is best to stop the hole about 0.6 or 1.0 meter (2 to 3 feet) below the water table so that one bailing will draw the water down to aboutthe bottom of the hole.Upon completionof the augering, the sidesof the hole shouldbe scratched to breakup any sealingeffect causedby the auger.Scratchingis not necessary in the coarsertextured soils.Burlap is then forced to the bottom of the hole and tamped lightly to prevent any soils from enteringthe bottom. The sealingeffect can be overcomeby allowing the water tableto rise to the static water level, andthen gently pumpingor bailing the water out to developthe best flow characteristic.Afterward, time must be allowed for the water table to reach static level before running the test. Prior to starting the test, the depth to the static water table from the groundsurface,the total depthof the hole, and the distancefrom the static water table to the bottom of the hole shouldbe measured carefully. Figure 3-4 showsa sampledataand computation sheetfor the test. To beginthe test, the tripod with the recorderboard,recordingtapes,andfloat apparatusis placednear the hole so the float can be centeredover the hole and moved freely into it. The float is then lowered into the hole until it floats on the static water table level. After a short time period, to allow the water to return to static level, a zeromark is madeon the tape,and the counterweightpositionedso the full changeof water table level canberecorded.This positioningmay require that the counterweighthanginsidethe casing.The float is then removed,and the water is bailedor pumpedfrom the hole as quickly as possibleto minimize the amount of water which returns before the readingsare started.For best results, sufficient water shouldbe bailed or pumpedfrom the hole so all readingscanbe completedbefore the water level risesto half its original height, or 0.5 H. One or two passes with the bailer areusually sufficient for most agriculturalsoils. As the last bail is withdrawn from the hole, or the pump starts drawing air, the float shouldbe placed in the hole as quickly as possible.When the water level rises rapidly, the float can be left in the hole andbelow the bailer or foot valve, which will minimize the amountof water returning into the hole before the first reading canbe made.The stopwatchis startedat the momentthe first baileris withdrawn, or whenpumpingbegins,andshouldrun continuouslyuntil completionof the test. Whenusingthe recorderboardandfloat mechanism, usingequaltime intervals is convenient,starting from the initial tick mark on the recorder tape. As equal time intervalsam readon the stopwatch,the operatormarks the tapeoppositethe pointer. Measurements am continueduntil recovery of water in the hole equals about 0.2 of the depth initially bailed out or, statedanotherway, until a reading on the measuringtape of O.SY,hasbeen reached(Y, is the distancethe water in the hole was lowered by bailing). Upon completion of the test, the fti time is recordedat the last tick mark on therecordertape.Any irregularitiesin the record can be quickly observed on the recorder tape, and if all readings am highly irregular, the test should be rerun after the static water table has been

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

69

HOLE NO. OBSERVER HOLE:

E-4 D.MM.S-

L OCATION DATE UNCASED 0 1pz MILIJMETERS DESCRIPTION -

SAMPLBFARW

CASED

HOLE DIAMETER LOG

GROUND SURFACE b\V [

Kiches)

GROUND SURFACE Light brown randy friable, nonsticky, pnular. wet at 1.52 m. (Sft) slightly LYmpxcd below 1.83 m @I). good hydraulicconductivity.

-lb-

BARRIER 3.35-366 m: Blue gray clay (C), Sticky, (11-u-t) stmcttuekas. Appears to be impumcabk.

r=PJKLm DH = am h=mrn H=mm yo=mm 0.8 Yo= p,zZ m

(0.167ft) (9.OA)

(4.8fi)
(4.2Q (3.15ft) (2.52 fi)

y,=

0.960+0.759=08~2 &fe&)

,, r

0.860 = 0.051 = 1686

AY = 0.0335 meter (0.11 ft) At=lOseconds H - =* r . Figure 3-4.-Data 103-D-650. -25.10

c=39o(fromchart) K=C 2 = 1.31 metas (4.3 feet) per day

or 5.45 cencimetas (2.151 inches) perhouf

and computation sheet on auger-hole test for hydraulic conductivity.

70

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

reestablished. Only the period covering the regularly spacedtick marks below O.SY,is used in the computations.One irregular spacingusually occurs at the beginningof the test while the float is steadying.As the water risesaboveO.SY,, the marks will no longerbe equallyspaced, but will becomeclosertogetherwith eachsuccessive reading.The beginningof the shorterspacings usuallywill occur aroundO.SY,,but two or three extra readingsare recommended to show that the spacings are definitely getting closertogether. Theuseof a pressure transducer anda dataloggereliminatesor greatlyreduces many of the problemsrelated to recordingwater tablerecovery discussed in the aboveparagraphs. With this equipment,the pressure transduceris placednearthe bottom of thehole andcalibratedto thestatic water level.The dataloggeris started just prior to removing the bailer from the hole. Running the data logger until 50 percentrecovery hasoccurredwill provide adequate data for computationof the hydraulic conductivity rate. (d) Calculations.-Upon completionof the auger-hole field test for hydraulic conductivity, the time intervals and the correspondingdistancesbetween tick marks on the recorder tape are transferred to the computation sheet. Sample computations are shown on figure 34. The initial Y,, for tune zero can be computedor extrapolatedfrom a Y, versus time curve if the time from start of pumping to the fust tick mark is lessthan 10 seconds. Determining the initial Y,,is necessaryonly when the time interval between the starting time andthe first measurement is longerthan about5 seconds andthe water level recovery rate is very fast. Extrapolating the data to determineY,, or the initial Y,,,is not alwaysreliable.Every effort shouldbemadeto keepthe time interval betweenthe start of pumpingand the ftrst tick mark as short as possible. This short time interval is particularly important in sandsand gravelswith rapid recovery rates. Care should be taken in selectingconsistent,consecutivetime intervals and water table risesto be usedin determiningthe averagedistancefrom static water table to the water surface in the hole during the test period, ?n; the average incrementalrise during incrementaltime intervals, AY, and the averageincremental tune interval betweenticks, AL Water table recovery data collected by a data logger using a properly programmed logarithmic samplingschedulewill provide data points beginningat time zero. This early tune data greatly reduces,if not eliminates,the concerns discussed in the precedingparagraphs.As it is difficult to start the data logger at the exact time water table recovery begins,the early time data shouldbe plotted to determinethe point when computationsshouldbegin. The C value neededin the computationsshown on figure 3-4 is determined from the graphsof figure 3-5 or 3-6, which areintendedfor usewhere thebarrier is consideredto be at infinity or at zero distancebelow the bottom of the hole. The C values plotted against the dimensionlessparamrter m/r simplify the determinationof C for a wide rangeof valuesof H/r andYn/r. For the usualcase where no barrier is present,or the barrier is equalto or greaterthan H below the

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

71

Id
9 6 7 6

i .

3 2.5 I 2

-3s
I

Id

I!!

! !-L.-E

IO

1.5

22.53

7 6910 4,

I.5

2253

7 6 9102

Figure 3-5.-Values of C when baker is Mow (Maasland and Haskew, 1958). 103-D-653.

bottom of hole during auger-hole test

bottom of the hole, figure 3-5 shouldbe usedto determineC. If the hole hasbeen terminatedon a slowly permeablezone, figure 3-6 should be used. If the hole penetratesinto a slowly permeablezone below a permeablezone, figure 3-6 shouldbe usedwith Has the distancefrom the level of the static water table to the slowly permeablelayer insteadof to the bottom of the hole, as is the usual case.The hydraulic conductivity can then be determinedby multiplying the C factor by AY/At.The resulting hydraulic conductivity hasunits of metersper day (feet per day) or centimetersper second(inchesper hour).

72

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

ON THE

BARRIER
3 2.5 2

Id 9 6 7 6

2.5 2 I.5 -

O I

1.5

2.5

676910 HII-

I.5

2.5

7 6 9102

I.5

Figure 3-6.-Values of C when harrier is at bottom of hole during auger-hole test (Maasland and Haskew, 1958). 103-D-652.

(e) Limitations.-The auger-holetest furnishesreliablehydraulic conductivity data for most conditions; however, the results are entirely unreliable when the hole penetratesinto a zone under piezometric pressure.Small sand lenses cccurring betweenlesspermeablelayersmake the test more difficult to perform andmay yield unreliabledata.Water flowing into the hole throughthe lenses falls on the float apparatus andcauses erratic readings.Theauger-holetest alsocannot be used when the water table is at or abovethe ground surfacebecausesurface water or water running through permeablesurface layers will causeerroneous

CHAPTER

III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

73

readings.A depth of more than 5 meters (20 feet) to water table, althoughnot a limitation as far as obtaining valid data is concerned,makes obtaining reliable dataextremely difficult. Comparativelyhigh hydraulic conductivity rates,in the magnitudeof 6 meters per day (10 inchesper hour) or more, make theauger-holetest difficult to perform because the bailercannotremovethe water asfast asit enters.A pump will remove the water from the hole rapidly, but in very permeablesoils only one or two readingscan be obtainedbefore recovery exceeds 0.2 of the initial drawdown. A hydraulic conductivity can be calculatedfrom only one or two readings,but the resultscouldbe erroneous. Theuseof a dataloggerto collect water tablerecovery datawill solvethis problem, which occurswhen usingfloat-activatedequipment. Testshavebeensuccessfullyrun in alluvial materialshaving hydraulic conductivity rates of over 30 metersper day (50 inchesper hour) using a data logger. At the other extreme,auger-holetestsin soils with hydraulic conductivity rates in the rangeof 0.0006to 0.006meter per day (0.001 to 0.01 inchper hour) usually give sucherratic readingsthat accuratevaluescannotbe obtained.However, the resultscan be important in determinationof drainagerequirementseven though exact valuesare not obtained.The knowledgethat hydraulic conductivities are very high or very low can be quite useful from a practical standpoint. The difficulty usually encounteredin augeringor digging a hole of uniform size through rocky or coarse-gravelmaterial can prevent the performanceof an auger-holetest. Casingcan sometimesbe used to stabilizethe walls of the hole if a test is neededin thesematerials.Generally,however, most agricultural soils being investigatedfor subsurfacedrainagesystemscan be testedby the augerhole method if a water table exists closeenoughto the ground surface. v) Step Tests in Layered S&.-Step testsareusedto determinethe hydraulic conductivity of layeredsoils. Step testsare simply a seriesof auger-holetests in or nearthe samehole locationbut at different depths.The hole is initially augered to within 75 to 100millimeters (3 or 4 inches)of the bottom of the first texture changebelow the water table, and then the first auger-holetest is run and the hydraulic conductivity computed. The hole is then augered to within 75 to 100 millimeters of the bottom of the next texture change,the secondtest is run, <and the averagehydraulic conductivity for both layers can then be determined. The procedurecontinuesuntil the last layer to be testedhas beenreached.The hydraulic conductivity value calculatedfor eachstep will be the averagevalue from the water table to the depth of the hole. The hydraulic conductivity for the individual texture is found from the formula:

where:
K n,x

= hydraulic conductivity to be determined = hydraulic conductivity obtainedin the nth step of test, G Kll-1 = hydraulic conductivity obtainedin the (n-l) step,

74

DRAINAGE MANUAL

= = D, Qa.1 = n = x =
4

thicknessof the nth stratum (Dn -Dml), total thicknessof the nth stepfrom the static water level, total thicknessfrom the static water level for the (n-l) step, numberof the test, and stepnumber.

Test errors may producenegativeresults,and the test shouldbe rerun. If the resultsare still negativeafter a rerun, the piezometertest described in section3-3 shouldbeused.A samplecalculationsheetfor the steptestis shownon figure 3-7.

The hydraulic conductivity for a specific layer is given by: 0 LOG -* K %X = KnDn-kn.l Da-,

da da =D,D,.,
EST DATA

Static water level

FELD

ICl = 5.8 Kz = 3.8 K3 = 3.0 K4 = 2.0

dt=t.76-1.31&.a
d2=2.19-1.7M.43 d3&59-2l9&10 d4=3.38-2.SO.79

D1=1.76-1.31n0.45 D2=21~1.31=0.88 D3=259-1.3k1.28 D4=3.38-1.31~207

CALCULATIONS
K1.1~ KSL 3 9 K1l= K1 3 _ m

FOR HYDRAULIC =

CONDUCTIVITY

OF SPECIFIC

LAYERS

= 5.8 ~entimUcrs per hour (23 indm peahew)

= (3*sxo-*; ;I:58x*4q = 1.71 ce~c~crlmr

= -iKlDl = K3D3 -KS&

* -

d:, drl

= (3*ox1.28) - (3-8)(o.88) 0.40

= 1 24 ccntimcXMs per hour (053 inch pr hour)

= 0.38 ccntjmum ptr hour (0.15 inch prr hour)

KI,~=KcL=

K4D4 -K3D3 = (2*ox2*o7) - (3*ox1*28)

0.79

Figure 3-7.-Data

and computation sheet on step test for hydraulic conductivity. 103-D- 1627.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

75

3-3. Piezometer Test for Hydraulic Conductivity.-(a) Introduction.The piezometertestmeasures the horizontalhydraulic conductivity of individual soil layersbelow a water table.This test is preferredover the auger-hole test when the soil layersto be testedare lessthan 18inchesthick andwhen individual layers below the water table are to be tested.In subsurfacedrainageinvestigations,an important applicationof this test is to provide datafor determining which layer below a proposeddrain depth functions as the effective barrier layer. This test also provides reliable hydraulic conductivity dam for any soil layer below the water table. (b) Equipment.-Suggested equipmentrequired for the piezometertest is: (1) Casingof minimum 25-milliieter (l-inch) i.d. (insidediameter)40- to 5Omillimeter i.d. recommended) consistingof a thin-walled electricalconduit for depthsto 4 metersandblack iron pipe with smoothinsidewalls for depths greaterthan 4 meters. (2) Ship augerwhich fits inside the casing. (3) Pipe-driving hammer, consistingof a piece of 5Omillimeter (2-inch) iron pipe which fits over the casingwith a Gilogram (lo-pound) weight fixed to the pipe. A small sledgehammer can be used in place of the Wilogram (lo-pound) weight. (4) Hand-operated pitcherpump with hoseandfoot valve, or a bailerwhich will fit inside the casing. (5) Recorder board, recording tapes, and float apparatusor an electrical sounder.The float resemblesthe float made for the auger-holetest, but is of smaller size to fit into the smaller diameter casing.The counterweightmust be adjustedaccordingly. (6) Computation sheets, clipboard, stopwatch, measuring tape or rod, windshield,and casingpuller. (7) Bottle or vegetable brushfor cleaningsoil film from insideof test pipe. The brush shouldbe fitted with a coupler that attachesto the auger handle. (c) Procedure.-A two-man team is desirablein performing the piezometer field test for hydraulic conductivity. The test layer should be at least 300 millimeters(12 inches)thick so that a NO-millimeter (4-inch) lengthof uncased hole, or cavity, canbe placedin themiddle of it. This placementis especiallyimportant if amarkeddifferencein the texture, struchue,or densityof the layersexistsabove and below the test layer. After the test layer has been selected,the topsoil is removed from the ground surface, and a hole is augeredto within 0.5 meter (2 feet) of the test layer. Someoperatorsprefer to auger 150to 300 millimeters (6 to 12 inches),then drive the casingandrepeatthis processfor the entire depth of the hole. However, this method is slow, and experienceshows its use is generallynot warranted.Other operators jet the casingto within 0.5 to 0.75 meter (2 to 3 feet) of the test layer and then augerand drive the casingthe remaining distance.This procedurerequires additional equipment that usually cannot be moved in to a waterloggedfield. The augeringand driving procedureis always usedfor the last 0.5 meter (2 feet) to assurea good sealand alsoto minimize soil disturbance. The casing is stopped at the depth selectedfor the top of the lOOmillimeter (4&h) long cavity, and the cavity is then augeredbelqw the

76

DRAINAGE MANUAL

casing.After somerecoveryhasoccurred,the pipe shouldbe cleaned with a bottle brush to removethe soil film that the float may cling to. The size and shapeof the cavity am important in the test, so care should be taken to assurethat it is the predeterminedlength and diameter.If the soil in the testlayer is sounstablethat the cavity will not remain openduring thetest, screens shouldbe madethat can be pusheddown inside the casing.For a 25millimeter (l-inch) i.d. casing and a lOOmillimeter (4-inch) cavity, the screenshould be 125 millimeters (5 inches) long and have a 24-millimeter (H/16-inch) o.d. (outsidediameter).A rigid point shouldbe weldedon the bottom of the screento facilitate pushingit down insidethe casing.A poleabout20 millimeters (3/4 inch) in diameter can be usedto push the screento the bottom of the cavity. A small bent nail or hook placedon the oppositeendof the pole will allow the screento bereclaimedat the endof the test by hooking the nail into the screenandpulling it out. The cavity is cleaned by gently pumpingor bailing water and sedimentout of the hole until the dischargeis clear. After the water tablehasreturnedto equilibrium, the recorderboard and float apparatus are setup and the float droppeddown the casing.Figure 3-2 showsthe equipmentsetup.When the float comesto rest, the pointer is set at zero on the recorder tape, the float is removed from the hole, and the water is pumped or bailed out. A small foot valve for the suction line can be made similar to larger commercial types, or a bailer similar to that used in the auger-holetest can be made.After pumpingor bailing the water, the float is immediatelydroppeddown the casing.When the float starts to rise, a tick mark is madeon the recordertape and at the sametime the stopwatch is started. Selecta convenienttime interval betweenobservationsand make correspondingtick marks on the recordertape. Removal of all of the water from the piezometeris not essentialbecause measurementscanbe obtainedandusedanywherebetweenthe static water tablelevel and the initial bailed-out level. Obtaining three or four readingsduring the fust half of the water rise will give consistentresults. (d) Calculations.-After completion of the piezometer test, the hydraulic conductivity is calculatedfrom the equationdeveloped by Kirkham (1945):

Ah-tl)
where: K = hydraulic conductivity in centimeters per hour (inches per hour), Y1and Y, = distancefrom static water level to water level at times tl and t2 in centimeters(inches), D = diameterof casingin centimeters(inches), = time for water level to changefrom Y1to Y2(seconds),and t241 A = a constantfor a given flow geometry in centimeters(inches).

A samplecalculationusing this equationis shown on figure 3-S.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

77

78

DRAINAGE MANUAL

The constantA may be taken from the curves shown on figures 3-8 or 3-9. The curve on figure 3-8 is valid when d and b areboth largecomparedto w (d = distancefrom the static water level to bottom of piezometer;b = distancebelow bottom of cavity to top of the next zone; and W = length of cavity.) According to Luthin and Kirkham (1949), when b = 0 and d is much greaterthan w , the curve will give an A factor for W = 4 andD = 1, which will be approximately 25 percenttoo large. The chart on figure 3-9 is usedfor determiningA whenpiezometricpressures exist in the test zone. When pressures are present,additional piezometemmust be installed. The tip of the secondpiezometershould be placedjust below the contactbetween layers in a layered soil, sekfigure 3-10. In deepuniform soils, the secondpiezometertip shouldbe placed an arbitrary distancebelow the test cavity. After installing the piezometers, the following measurements shouldbe made: (1) DistanceH, in meters (feet), betweenpiezometertips, (2) Difference A in meters (feet), betweenwater levels in the piezometer at static conditions,and (3) Distanced, in meters (feet), betweencenter of the lower piezometer cavity and the contact betweensoil layersin layeredsoils. TheA valuefrom figure 3-9 is usedin equation(2) to determinethehydraulic conductivity. (e) Limitations.-Installation andsealingdifficulties encountered in gravelor coarsesandmaterial compriseone of the principal limitations of the piezometer test for hydraulic conductivity. Even when the hole can be augeredin these materials,rocks on the sidesof the hole often dent or rip the casing.Also, when the casingbottoms in coarsegravel, a satisfactorycavity cannotbe obtained. Six meters (20 feet) is about the practical limit of hole depth, both for installationandwater removal witha stirrup pump. Duplicatetestsin soilsof very low hydraulic conductivity (0.0025 to 0.025 centimeterper hour) am always in thelow range,but canvary asmuch as 100percent.However, this much variation has little consequencein this low range. Test layers less than about 25 to 30 centimeters (10 to 12 inches) thick and lying between more permeable materials will not give reliable results becauseof the influence of the more permeablematerials. The size of the casing is a matter of preference,as long as it is 25 millimeters (1 inch) or more in diameter.Field experience hasshown that 38millimeter (1-l/2-inch) i.d. piezometersprovide adequate open areafor, float operation.Pipe dieters greater than 50 millimeters (2 inches) are diffic/ult to install properly. 3-4. Pomona Well Point Method.-This method resemblesthe piezometer test discussedin the preceding paragraphs,except that this method measures dischargefor a fixed draw-down rather than the water tablerecovery rate. These differencesallow data collection in unstablematerials where an open cavity is

CHAPTER

III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

79

VALUEOFA/H, CONSTANT

38 38 34 32
3

3
3

51 mm (2 in.) diameter piezometer

44.5 mm (1 3/4 in.) diameter piezomeler 38.1 mm (1 112 in.) diameter piezometer 31.8 mm (1 l/4 in.) diameter piezometer

30 28

26 + 24 22 20 18 16 14 12 IO

3 83
3

25.4 mm (1 in.) diameter piezcmeter

Figure 3-9.-ChaIt for determining A-function on piezometer teat for hydraulic conductivity when there is upward pressure in the test zone. 103-D-1628.

80

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Pkansmtar No. 2 1 A, =2.2m \

3
--. SILT LOAM 3,6aOx(Dm2be&YtW
A(t2-t3

K=

FINE SANDY LOAM

Nom: d=Distmcefmttcpoftest layertoceattexoftest cavity. H = Distame frcm wrtsr table to c&u of test cavity. SAMPLE FOR PlEZOMETER a WITH UPWARD PRESSUREIN TEST II TEST ZONE re Tutinthelillyc~y--PhdA-Pundionuring
CALCULATION

SILTY CLAY

LOAM

piemmetmlutd2 SILTY
CLAY
DlsmQad&zamaub3.Ecanhstaa

1
&

H I Hl-H2-6.1-S.l=lmetu A~A1.A2~22-1.4=0.8maa@.6fmt)

(3.3fea)

SAND

GRAVEL

A/H = 0.8/1.0 = 0.8 s=dismccfmm8romulItufretocQtuoftestuvityitt pieNo.2mimsthcdiUmcefmmgmundtotopofsilty clay layer = 6.3 - 6.0 = 0.3 meter (la fat) a/H E 0.3/l = 0.3 A = 71.6 -8 (ftwtt A- function chart) P.2 -) UserccovaydatakanpicmtwtmNo.2to dctcnnioa K value fa the silty clay laym. calculation for piezotneter test with upward pressure in the test zone.

Figure 3-lO.Sample 103-D-1629.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

81

difficult to maintain. This test method can also be used in materials where the water recovery rate is very rapid. The setupmay be identical to the piezometertest or it may employ a driven well point. After installation is complete and the well has been developed,the test is conductedby pumping at a rate to maintain a fixed drawdown. The dischargeis measuredfor 1 out of every 5 minutes until a steadymte is obtained.When the systemreachesequilibrium, the dischargerate is measured.The hydraulic conductivity rate is determinedby: k = Q/Ah where: K = Q = A = h =

Hydraulic conductivity Dischargerate A constantfor a given flow geometry (seefigs. 34 3-9) Headdifference

Layeredsoilscan easilybe investigated,andthe soil neednot supporta cavity if a screenedwell point is used.Even when the cavity is unsupported,as in the piezometersetup, there is substantiallyless hydrostatic pressureon the cavity than in the piezometer test. The primary limitations are the time required to conductthe test and the unpracticality of measuringlow permeabilities. 3-5. Single Well Drawdown Test for Hydraulic Conductivity.-Coarsc sandsand gravelsusually make the auger-hole(pump-out) and piezometertests difficult to run. An alternative pump-out test can be made to obtain a rough estimateof hydraulic conductivities in thesematerials. The test is a small-scale versionof a regularpump test for large wells. Equipment for the test is the sameas that usedfor the auger-holetest except the recorderboardandtripod arenot used.A gasoline-driven pump with a valved discharge shouldbe used.A calibratedbucket anda stopwatchshouldbe usedto determineflow rate. Hole preparationis much the sameas for the auger-holetest; however, hand augeringis usually too difficult. Once the hole is preparedand the static water level is measured,water is pumpedfrom the hole at a constantrate. After some time, the water level in the hole will reach a steady-statelevel. Steadystate can be assumed to exist whenthe water level in thehole dropslessthan 30millimeters (0.1 foot) in 2 hours.When steady-state conditionsexist, the flow rate and depth of water in the hole are recorded.Thesedata, along with the distancefrom the static water level to the bottom of the hole, am usedin oneof the equationsshown on figure 3-l 1. Use the equationthat most nearly approaches the test conditions. This method should be used only in highly permeablesandsand gravels to obtain an estimateof hydraulic conductivity when the auger-holeor piezometer testsfail to give satisfactoryresults.

82

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

K
h

Qlw, 0
= x(H2-h2)

AssumeR=5OOx r for most cases. v

(a) Pumping from a uniform unconfined stratum, water table in stratum being pumped.

(b) Pumping from a confined stratum, water table abovestratum being pumped.

K = Hydraulic conductivity, m3/m2/day (ft3/ft2/da ) Q = Flow rate at steady state conditions, &day (f s /day) Y = Drawdown from static water surface = H-h, m (ft) H = Height of static water table abovebottom of hole, m (ft) h = Depth of water in hole at steadystate pumping conditions, m (ft) D= Flow thicknessof strata between bottom of the hole and overlying (confuting) stratum, m (ft) R = Distance from centerline of well to point of xero drawdowm, m (ft) r = Effective radius of well, m (ft)
Figure 3-ll.-Determination of hydraulic conductivity by pumping from a uniform or confined stratum. 103-D-1630.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

83

B.

In-Place Hydraulic Conductivity

Tests Above a Water Table

3-6.Objective.-The two methodsthat havebeenadapted for usein drainage investigationsare the shallow well pump-in test and the ring permeametertest. Thesetestsam usedto determinethe hydraulicconductivity rates of soils above a water table, and theserates are then used to predict the subsurfacedrainage requirements. To minimize extraneous effectson hydraulicconductivity,the water usedin the testsmust be free of sedimentandshouldbe warmer than the soil. 3-7. Shallow Well Pump-in Test for Hydraulic Conductivity.-(a) Introducrion.-The shallow well pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity, alsoknown as the well permeametertest, is used when the water table is below the zone to be tested.Essentially,this test consistsof measuringthe volumeof water flowing laterally from a well in which a constantheadof water is maintained.The lateral hydraulicconductivity determinedby this testis acompositeratefor the full depth of the testedhole. (6) Equipment.-Equipment requirementsfor the shallow well pump-in test include the following items previously described for the auger-hole test in section 3-2: 75 and lOO-millimeter (3- and 4-inch nominal) diameter soil augers,hole scratcher,perforated casing,burlap, and wristwatch with a second hand.Additional equipmentitems are: (1) Water-supply tank truck of at least 1,200-liter (350-gallon) capacity with gasoline-powered water pump. (2) Calibratedheadtank, 200-liter (50-gallon)minimum. This tank should havefittings so that two or more tanks can be connectedwhen requited. (3) Eight meters (25 feet) of 25- to 50-millimeter (l- to 2&h), heavywalled hosefor rapid filling of headtank from supply tank. (4) Wooden platform to keep head tank off the ground and to prevent rusting. (5) A 25-millimeter (l-inch) diameterpipe 1 meter long to be driven into the groundand wired to headtank to keep tank in position. (6) Constant-levelfloat valve (carburetor)which must fit insidethe casing. (7) A rod threaded to fit the threads on top of the carburetor, used to regulatethe depth that the float valve is lowered into the hole. (8) Sufficient lo- or 12.5-millimeter (3/8- or l/2-inch) i.d, flexible rubber tubing to connecttank to carburetor. (9) Plexiglass cover, 300 by 300 millimeters (12 by 12 inches)by 3 millimeters (l/8 inch) thick, with hole in centerfor carburetorrod, and two other holes,onefor rubbertubing andonefor measuringwater levelandtemperature of water in the hole. (10) Filter tank and filter material. (11) Steel fencepostswith post driver, four required per site. Approximately 25 metersof fencing wire (neededonly when site must be fenced). (12) Thermometerwhich canbeloweredinto hole, Celsiusscalepreferred. (13) Three-meter(lo-foot) steeltape,clipboard,computationsheet,anda 40-centimeter(16~inch)tiling spade. Figure 3-12 showsa schematicof the equipmentset up for this test.

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Filler hole and corkCalibrated head tank Gageconsisting of plastic tube and board cali Pipe driven into ground and wired to heod tank ire or leather strap

Valve4

Plexiglass cover Clamp .-/ *. / Adjustoble rod threoded Fto fit top of carburetor

t
I f

Constont level float valve I (carburetor) to fit inside of casing I h-Depth of water to be maintained from bottom of hole.

Burlap-. I

Figure 3-12.-Equipment 103-D-655.

setup for a shallow well pump-in test.

CHAPTER

III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

85

The constant-levelfloat valve (carburetor)suggested for usein this test andin the ring permeametertest, describedlater, can be constructed out of various materialsand can be made in different shapes. The only requirementsare that it must fit insidea lOOmillimeter (4-inch) diameterhole, haveadequate capacity, cause minimum aerationof water, andcontrol thewater level within plus or minus 15 millimeters. Material to construct a carburetor that has proven satisfactory consistsof the following: (1) One-half meter (20 inches) of 20- by 3millimeter (3/4- by Winch) metal strap, (2) One large tractor carburetor, needlevalve, a needlevalve seatat least 3 millimeters (l/8 inch) in diameter,a float made of Styrofoam, (3) Two 20-by 6millirneter (3/4- by l/4-inch) bushings,and (4) One 20-millimeter (3/4-inch) coupling. A photographof a typical carburetoris shown on figure 3-13. (c) Procedure.-A two-man team can efficiently install the equipmentand conductthe shallow well pump-in test. The hole for the test shouldfirst be hand augered with a 75millimeter (3-inch nominal) diameteraugerand then reamed with the 100~millimeter (4-inchnominal) diameterauger.A completelog, including texture, structure, mottling, and color, should be obtained for use in interpreting and projecting results. The hole should be carefully scratchedafter completion to the desired depth to break up any compaction causedby the lOOmillimeter augerand to remove any loosematerial on the sides.In unstable soils, a thin-walled perforated casing should be installed, with perforations extendingfrom the bottom of the hole up to the predeterminedcontrolled water level. A commercialwell screenor slotted-PVCcasingshouldbe used,but when not available, a lOO-millimeter (4-inch nominal) diameter, thin-walled casing with about 180uniformly spaced,hand-cutperforationsper meter, 3 millimeters wide by 25 millimeters long (l/8 inch wide by 1 inch long), will be satisfactory for most soils. The constant-levelfloat valve should be installed and approximately positioned. The float valve is then connectedwith tubing to the head tank, which is on an anchoredplatform beside the hole. The lo- or 12.5millimeter (3/8- or l/2-inch) tubing will allow sufficient water to flow into the carburetor when testingmoderatelypermeablesoils. The hole should thenbe filled with water to approximatelythe bottom of the carburetor.The valve on the head tank is then opened,and the height of the carburetor is carefully adjustedto maintain the desiredwater level. The plexiglasscover will keep small animalsand debrisout of the hole, hold the carburetorfloat adjustingrod, and allow observationof the carburetorduring the test.The time andthe readingonthe tankgaugearerecorded after everything is operating satisfactorily. The tank should be refffled when necessary. Each time the test site is visited, a record shouldbe kept of the time,

86

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Figure 3-l3.-.Typical constant-level float valve used in hydmulic conductivity tests. Fully assembled float valve is shown on the right. P801-D-770l3.

CHAPTER /J/-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

tank gauge readings, and volume of water added. Reading times are deternrined by the type of material being tested and will range from 15 minutes to 2 hours. Although not a necessity, the use of automatic recorders is desirable so that a complete record may be kept of water movement into the hole. When water temperature fluctuations exceed 2 C, viscosity corrections should be applied. If the test water contains suspendedmaterial, a filter tank should be installed between the head tank and the caIburetor. Polyurethane foam is a satisfactory fIlter material. In-Iine milk fIlter socks have also been used successfully. Figure 3-14 shows a typical filter tank and material. The nomographs shown on figures 3-15a and 3-15b are used to estimate the minimum and maximum volume of water to be discharged during a pump-in hydraulic conductivity test. These nomographs provide an excellent guide to deternrine the amount of water that should be discharged into the hole before the readings become unreliable. The nomographs are especially useful in sands becausethe minimum amount of water will be discharged into the hole in a very short time. Readings should be taken as soon as the minimum is reached. To use the nomogrnphs, the specific yield must be estimated from the hydraulic conductivity, texture, and structure of the soil. Knowing the depth of water maintained from the bottom of the hole, h, and the radius of the hole, r, the minimum and maximum amounts of water needed to meet the conditions set up in the mathematical model can be determined. When the minimum amount has been discharged into the soil, the hydraulic conductivity should be computed following

Figure 3-14.-Typical 77014.

filter tank and filter material. P801-D-

86 tklqhl d mt9r
Rodiu;,;f well hum
Might of water

DRAINAGE MANUAL
Yinmmum volume klallnn *0*mc In Estlsoted specific yield S

- 3.0 - 2.8 -2.6 -2.4 - 2.2 -2.0 -0.6 0.5 0.02-0.4 O.Ol---0.3 oM-_1.8 1.6 1.4 I.2 1.0 0.9 0.8 0.7 am-OM--au)-0.*--

15.00 10.00 0.00 6.00 4.00 .OO 2.00 T9aturr 0.1=---- - Coarse sand 030 - CrOVd ---0.24 0.20 1.00 Medium sand ---krnS _--_--

Structure ----Sinqk qroin .----Sinpk gram .----Medium crumb sljlkW---. ---. 3.0-6.0
5.0-12.0

z3.c
_--.

a40

R20

0.10 QOE cm6 0.04 a03

0.16 - :irdr Sandy barn 0.u -----I LI@~ cby O.I2 bO~ silt - Silt loam 0.10 - Veryflnr - sandyloom LOOIll osa 0.06 0.05 =Y--- - wty cloy ~~~~ cloy loom Silt loam Silt

udortsmatic 6SUbOnpubr bbhy

0.5- 1.5

-----. Fmc 6 m&m Drwnatic, oq ubr blocky. 6 Fmr

_--0.12~05

004

.----very fmr or fme prism& npular block a ploty I

._-006-CL12

Figure 3-15a-Nomograph for estimating the minimum and maximum volume of water to be discharged during a pump-in hydraulic conductivity test (metric units). 103-D-1193.

CHAPTER
tklqhtdwdw Radius of well h/r

III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY
Mlnimum voiuma Maim volume V,ft) Mill Max

PROCEDURES
tlmo ted ic yririd s

89

itdght d water h. ft

IOO--so0 50;, 0.35 0.30 0.24 0.20 0.16 0.1, 0.12 0.10 0.08 0.2 I 0.05 Key to toivbq h/r h Nomogroph mm mor s 0.04 2 OSOOD . it IIt loom try fin mdy im BOllI -----_-OY ity Cloy nndy cloy Ity cloy oom hsubonpUIOI. bkciw --0.0-2.5 -250 30--_200 -160 - I20 = 100 IO-I-00 60 40 30 -2-I.0 7I0.6 - _-0.4-20 5 IO 8 B 4

Terture Structurr orbttir in/h ,------------_

torrc rend rove1 ----------eddlumsand .---.---___ Sinpk pmin Single groin ---

tydMlJli

> 20.0

10.0-20 --5.0 -101 25Gi

64--

____ Fmc 6 medkm prismatic. aqulor blocky. 6 Diotr

---a2-06

layiom
It iwm

it

mdy Cloy oom .--. MO-0.2

001s -

--OY
BY MY WI

-----_

YOSSIW very fine or fine cdunn2r

--<o.io

0.01 - ----t------

--.

Figure 3-lSb.-Nomogmph for estimating the minimum and maximum volume of water to be discharged during a pump-in hydraulic conductivity test (U.S. customary units). 103-D-1631.

90

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

eachreading. The test can be terminated when a relatively constant hydraulic conductivity valuehasbeenreached,andthe total volume discharged into the soil is not greaterthan the maximum value takenfrom the nomograph. (d) Calculations.-A samplecomputationsheetfor theshallowwell pumping test is shown on figure 3-16. Figures 3-17a, 3-E%, 3-18a, and 3-18b show equationsand nomogmphsused in the computations.The use of thesefigures depends upon the depth of water maintainedfrom the bottom of the hole, h, and the depth of the water table or depth to an impervious strata from the surfaceof water maintained,T,. The h valuecanbe determinedaccurately,but the depth to an imperviousor restrictive zone,T,,, requiresa deeppilot hole near the test site. Any zonewhich appears, from visualinspection,to havea much lower hydraulic
Locaton: Obserfer: Hole C . 3 . . snmple AE& DwOctober Farm

n 0.0LO 0.6 (0 12 r, Light

Sandy Loam, friable. non-sdcky 0.6 to 2.tm (2 Lo7 r,. Light grayish brown Sandy my Loam, Oiabk. slight stickiness. damp 1 sbm *.tm (7 0) Fab hydrudic

h = 1.07 meters (3.5 feet) water maintained from

Depth of bottom of hole

Adjuti toaverage tank water Lcmpcmlure. .. se4 Figure 3.20 lot medwd. Rends: No woublc with appanxus. assumed test sadsfawxy and resulu reliable. Calction: hh E 1.074.051 = 20.96 h/&I 1.07/1.37 = 0.78 Q (werage akz mbitimintion) = O.ooO536 cubic meer ( 0.019 cubic feel) per minute 3h 6x3~ l.O7m)>&(L37m)> h(l.07m). soukCondikm II. From nomogmph Qt. 3 . l&&b) : K E 0.52 metez per day ( 0.85 in per hour)

Figure 3-16.-Data and computation sheet on shallow well pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity. 103-D-467.

CHAPTER III-FIELD Q -

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

91

K h- metres
0.15

h/r

;/min. mI/C lay 10.0

6.0 4.0 2.0 1.0 0.6 0.4 0.2

I50 120 100 70 50 40 30 25 20

1
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.70 0.60 0.90 1.00 1.20 1.40 1.60 I .60 2.00 2.40

2, 0
EXAMPLE: h = 0.76m : 0.051 m = I5 i/r : 0.000034 m/doy Q = O.O32m/day K

CONDITION T,k3h

I
a
from shallow well

K (m /day) = 1440 Lag, (k +/pi)-g

Figure 3-17a-Nomograph for determining hydraulic conductivity pump-in test data for condition I (metric units). 103-D-1191.

92

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

h T;

Q ft3/min
: 300 -200 -100 - 60 - 40 r 20 IO 5 3 2

K in /h

h feet
-0.5

- 1.0

- 1.5 r2.0 00.0 40.0 IO.0 20.0 4.0 2.0 I.0 0.49/ 0;20 0.10 0.04 0.02 0.01 0.004 0.002 0.001 / i2.5 / @,/ ,N 1 i3.0 F3.5 i4.0 E4.5 Lb.0 I6.0

- 1.0 - 0.6 - 0.4 - 0.2 -0.1 - 0.06 -0.04 -0.02 :O.Ol,, ;E.E - 0.002 *~O.OOl - 0.000 - 0.000 -0.000 -0.OW 5

17.0
-6.0 Lg.0 -10.0

Example: h= 2.5ft
t-=0.167 ft h/r= 15

CONDITIONI
T, L 3h

Q=O.O012 ft3/min K=o.o~ in/h

Figure 3-17b.-Nomograph for determining hydraulic conductivity from shallow well pomp-in test data for condition I (U.S. customary units). 103-D-657.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY Q m3/min.

PROCEDURES

93

h/Tu

h-m

K m/day

h/r

-0.33 -0.40 -0.50 -0.so -0.70 . 0.01 0.02 0.04 PO.10 0.2 -4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 -8.0 -9.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 .04 -3.0 .I0 .20 .40 I.0 2.0 4.0 10.0 - 2.4 . I.8 IS 20 30 IO -.OOl .002 .004 5

,.ool

\ \
P

0*

.002 ,004 .Ol .02

2.0 4.0 . 10.0 20.0 40.0 * 100.0

-2.0

- 40 50 60

- 80 - 100 -150

16.0 18.0 -20.0

EXAMPLE: = 1.07m ? = I.37m hu/T, = 0.78 0 = 0.00054 m/min. 20:96 m hp,r = 0.051 K = 0.52 m/day

CONDITION
3h LT, Lh

II

K= 1440
Figure 3-18a.-Nomograph for determining hydraulic conductivity from shallow well pump-in test data for condition II (metric units). 103-D-l 192.

94

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Q
ft3/mir

K in/h

h T;

a33 0.4 0.5 0.6 .6 CO, \ 2 3 i 5 6 7 6 - IO - I2 ,3L) ? 41Q 4.5 1 =O 6.0 70 6.0 9.0 101) @ \ \ \ \ 0.00006 0.0001 0$X04 0.001 0.002 0.004 .I0 1.20 .40 ?O-,.-! 1.0 1.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 30.0
;I00 L IS0 - IO 901 .002 a04 I.01

-5

.02 .04

0
2 ,A04 / \ ,A

Or)1 Op2 al 0.2 0.4 1.0

0
----_. i20 & :40 -50 -60

Example: h- 3.5 ft T, - 4.5 ft h/T,-0.78 Q = 0.019 ft /min r-0.167 ft h/r = 20.96 K=08:, in/h

CONDITION It
3h LT,L h

Figure 3-lib.-Nomograph for determining hydraulic conductivity from shallow well pump-in test data for condition II (U.S. customary units). 103-D-657.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

95

conductivity than the zone aboveshould be consideredas a restrictive zone for determiningT,. A water tableshouldalsobe considered a barrier when estimating T,,. If an in-placehydraulic conductivity test in this zoneindicatesthe zoneis not restrictive, the hydraulic conductivity canbe recomputedusinga larger T,, value and the appropriateequationor nomograph. (e) Limitations.-The time requiredto setup the equipmentandcompletethe test constitutestheprincipal limitation of this test. Also, a relatively largeamount of water is required,especiallyif the material has a hydraulic conductivity over 4 to 6 centimetersper hour. In soilshigh in sodium,the water usedshouldcontain 1,500to 2,000 milligrams per liter of salts,preferably calcium. Rocky material or coarsegravelsmay prevent augeringthe hole to accuratedimensions.Also, comparisonsof electric analogtest results with valuesfrom the auger-holetest show that the h/r ratio must be equalto or greaterthan 10. Water moving outward from the hole sometimescausesthe fines near the surface to form a seal before a constant hydraulic conductivity rate has been reached. If a constantrate cannotbe obtainedby the time the estimatedmaximum flow has occurred,the fines can be flushed back into the hole by removing the equipmentandbailing all water out of the hole or by gently surgingthe hole with a solid surgeblock andthen pumping the water out. This procedureis not always successful, but shouldbe tried before abandoningthe test site. Use of a filter on the supply line will generallyprevent this problem. 3-g. Ring Permeameter Test.-(u) Introduction.-In drainagestudies,the lateral hydraulic conductivity of the soil must be known to determine drain spacing.Usually the vertical hydraulic conductivity is assumedto be sufficient to permit deeppercolationfrom irrigation andrainfall to reachthe saturated zone in which it moveshorizontally. However, slowly permeablelayersinterfere with percolationand causetemporary perchedwater tablesin the root zone. Thus, a meansof determiningthe vertical hydraulic conductivity of such a tight layer is desirable. The ring permeametertest is a specializedin-place method of obtaining vertical hydraulic conductivity of a critical zone.The test is basedon Darcy s law for movement of liquids through saturatedmaterial. The test is time consuming whencomparedwith theauger-holetest,but theresultsareuniformly dependable. Tensiometers and piezometersare usedto confii existenceof saturatedconditions, absenceof a perchedwater table, and fulfillment of the requirementsof Darcys law. (b) Equipment.-Equipment requiredfor the ring permeametermethod is as follows: (1) A lCgauge-steel,welded-seam cylinder, 457millimeter (M-inch) i.d. by 508 millimeters (20 inches) high, with a reinforcing band on top and sharpened bottom edge(seamweld must be groundflush). (2) A 50%millimeter (20-inch) diameter by 12.7-millimeter (l/2-inch) thick driving disk with a 45Omillimeter (17-3/4-inch) diameterby 12.7-m& limeter (l/2-inch) thick center ring. This disk fits inside the 457-millimeter

96

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

cylinder and has a 0.6-meter (2-foot) length of 25millimeter (l-inch) pipe welded in the centerfor a hammer guide. (3) A 25 to 35kilogram (50- to 75-pound) driving hammer (heavy steel cylinder with hole in the center and pipe welded to center which fits over the 25millimeter (l-inch) pipe on driving disk). (4) A water-supply tank truck of at least 1,250~liter(350-gallon)capacity anda gasoline-powered water pump to fdl the tank truck. Also, about7 meters (25 feet) of 25- to 38millimeter (l- or 1-l/2-inch), heavy-walled hose are neededto fdl the tank from the water truck. (5) Two calibrated200-liter (50-gallon) headtanks. (6) Two woodenplatforms to keepheadtanks from rusting. (7) Two 25-millimeter (l-inch) diameterpipes1meter (4 feet) long, driven into the ground to keep tanksupright. (8) Sufficient lo-millimeter (3/8-inch) i.d. rubber tubing to connecttanks to constant-levelfloat valves (carburetors). (9) Two constant-levelfloat valves (carburetors). (10) Adjustable rods to hold the carburetorsat the,desiredelevation and threadedbolts which fasten to the steel cylinder and support the adjustable rods. (11) Two 13millimeter (l/2-inch) i.d. piezometers, 450 millimeters (18 inches)long, rigid copper tubing, and a small driving hammerto fit over the 13-millimeter tubing. (12) An 1l-millimeter (7/16-inch) wood augerfor cleaningout piezometers and clean sandto Nl cavities in piezometers. (13) Bentonite to sealtensiometers and piezometets. (14) Two mercury manometer-typetensiometetsand mercury for them. (15) Distilled water to fill tensiometersinitially. (Distilled water is desirablebut unnecessary after initial filling.) (16) Small air syringe to fill tensiometersand expel air after filling. (17) A 25-millimeter (l-inch) wood augerfor installing tensiometets. (18) Thermometer,Celsiuspreferred. (19) Filter tank and filter material. (20) Tiling spadeto clean the hole, and a rope bucket for removing soil from hole. (21) A 3-meter ladder (neededonly for deeplayer testing). (22) Washedsandof uniform size,passingthe No. 14 sieve and retained on the No. 28 sieve. (23) Cover for the457-millimeter (18-inch) cylinder to reduceevaporation andkeep out debris. (24) Steel fencepostswith post driver (four required per site and needed only when site must be fenced).Wire for fencing site, about 25meters. (25) A 3-meter (lo-foot) steel tape, carpenters level, white chalk, clawhammer,wire-cutting pliers, clipboard, andreferencesheets. Figure 3-19 showsthe equipmentset up for this test.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

97

Filler hole and cork Calibrated head tank, two required Gage consisting of plastic tube board calibrated in milliliters Wire or leather strap Pipe driven into ground and wired to head

ISOMETRIC VIEW

Constant level float valve (carburetor), mm@l)cavity filled with sand

102

CROSS SECTION
Figure 3-lg.--Equipment 103-D-658. setup for the ring peuueameter hydraulic conductivity test.

98

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

(c) Procedure.-A two-man team can efficiently install the equipmentand conduct the ring permeameter test:After the site hasbeenselectedand the zone of critical hydraulic conductivity determined,a l-meter-diameter hole is excavated to within 75 millimeters (3 inches)of the test zone.The last 75 millimeters areexcavatedwhenthe equipmentis readyfor installation,taking carenot to walk on the areato be tested.Thetestingarea,which will be insidethe 1%inchcylinder, is checkedwith a carpenterslevel to assurethat it is level before the cylinder is placed. The cylinder is marked with chalk 150 millimeters (6 inches)from the bottom edge and driven 150 millimeters into the soil with the driving disk and hammer. The cylinder shouldbe kept level during driving, andthe blows should be as powerful and steadyas practicable.After the cylinder has been driven to the desired depth, the soil immediately against its inside and outside wall is tamped lightly to prevent channelingalong the sides. About 25 millimeters of clean uniform, permeablesand is spreadover the area inside the cylinder to minimize puddling of the soil surfaceduring the test. The outsideperiphery of the cylinder is alsotampedto keepwater from channelingdown along the sides and causingerroneoustensiometerreadings. Next, the two 450-millimeter (Winch) piezometersate marked 230 millimeters (9 inches)from the sharpened bottom and installedon oppositesidesof the cylinder and about 75 to 100 millimeters (3 to 4 inches) distant from it. The piezometersate installed by driving them 50 to 75 millimeters into the soil, augering out the core, and continuing this process until the 230-millimeter (g-inch) mark is at groundlevel. Careshouldbe takenthat the piezometers do not turn or comeup with the augerduring installation.A lOO-millimeter(4-inch) long cavity is then augetedbelow eachpiezometerandfilled with clean,fine sand.As an additionalmeansof preventingchanneling alongthe sides,a 1:1bentonite-soil mixture is tampedaround the piezometers.Caution shouldalways be exercised to ensurethat no bentonitefalls into the piezometersor into the testingring. The piezometersam filled with water andcheckedto assurethat they are functioning properly. If the water falls in the piezometem,the installation is satisfactory. A small canshouldbeplacedover eachpiezometerto keepout dirt andwater during the remainderof the installation.If the water doesnot fall, the piezometersshould be flushedwith a stinup pump and reaugeredif flushing doesnot clear them. The two calibratedandtestedtensiometers am theninstalledon oppositesides of the cylinder and 75 to 100millimeters (3 to 4 inches)from it on a line at right anglesto that of the piezometers.The calibration and testing shouldbe done in the laboratory. Instructions for calibrating and testing can be ob&inedfrom the manufacturer.During the calibration, 100on the scaleshouldbesetat zerotension so that pressures caused by a rising water table canbe observedif the water table risesabovethe tensiometercup.Theholesfor the tensiometers areexcavated with a 25-millimeter (l-inch) soil augerto a depth of 230 millimeters (9 inches). A smallamountof dry soil is thendroppedinto thehole, followed by a smallamount of water. The tensiometeris then placedin the hole, with the glasstubes facing away from the sun, andworked up anddown in the mud to obtain good contact

CHAPTER

III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

99

between the porous cup, the mud, and the undisturbed soil. The annular space around the tensiometer is filled and tamped with dry soil to within about 25 millimeters (1 inch) of the soil surface..A 1:l bentonite-soil mixture is then added to prevent channeling.Mercury is placed in the reservoir cup and the tensiometertubesfuled with water. A small air syringeis usedto removeair from the tensiometertubeby forcing water through the system. The carburetor float apparatusis installed and adjustedto hold a constant 150millimeter (6-inch) headin the cylinder, and the carburetor is connectedto the headtank with rubber tubing. If the test water containssuspended material, a fnter tank should be installed with the tubing as describedin section 3-7. The tank should always be anchored,and the gaugeshould always face away from the sun.The cylinder is then filled with water to the 15Omillimeter (dinch) mark andthe tank valve opened.The hole outsidethe cylinder shouldalsobefilled with water to a depth of 150 millimeters (6 inches) and should be kept to this 150~millimeter(6-inch) depth during the entire test period. The extra tank and carburetoram used for this purpose.When all adjustmentshavebeen madeand the tensiometersam full, the time and water content of the tank are recorded. The headtank shouldbe checkedat leasttwo or three times a day, depending upon the percolation and hydraulic conductivity rates, and filled as necessary. Eachtime the site is visited, a record shouldbemade of the time, volume of water in the tank, gaugereadingsof the tensiometers andpiezometers,temperature,and the hydraulic conductivity. When the tensiometer gaugesread approximately 100 (zero tension), no water shows in the piezometer, and water is moving through the 150~millimeter(6-inch) test layer at a constantrate, the requirements of Darcys law may be assumedto have been met and valid test results can be obtainedto calculatehydraulic conductivity. Tensiometerreadings sometimes fluctuate when the soil is at or near saturation,and it is not always possibleto get the 100reading.Gaugesfluctuating between100and 105areprobably indicating saturatedconditions for that particular soil. Also, it is not necessaryfor both tensiometersto have the same reading providing they both read in the 100 to 105range. If the saturatedfront should reach a zone less permeablethan the test layer before the requirementsof Darcys law are met, a mound of water will build up into the test zone. When this buildup occurs, the hydraulic gradientwill be less than unity, and the pressureat the baseof the soil column being tested will be greater than atmospheric.Both the piezometersand tensiometerswill indicate this condition. When the piezometersshow that a mound hasreachedthe bottom of the cylinder, the test will no longer give a true hydraulic conductivity value. When this condition occurs, the test will either have to be stoppedor the mound loweredbelow the bottom of the cylinder. When thematerial betweenthe bottom of the cylinder and the less permeablezone has a fair rate of hydraulic conductivity, it is sometimespossibleto lower the water table mound by augering a number of holes around the outside periphery of the cylinder approximately 250 millimeters (10 inches)from the sides.Theseholes,when fflled with sand,

100

DRAINAGE MANUAL

will act as inverted drainagewells and, under most conditions, will lower the mound. If the holesdo not provide the necessary drainage,the testing equipment shouldbe loweredto the lesspermeablezoneand the test rerun At the close of the test, the soil is excavatedfrom around the outside of the cylinder and cut for a short distanceunder the cylinder. A chain placedaround the cylinder andpulled by a truck will usuallybreakthe soil acrossthe bottom to allow examinationfor root holes, cracks,and possiblechanneling. (d) Calculations.-Hydraulic conductivity computations for the ring permeametertest am madeusing the Darcy flow equation: (3) where: K = V = A = = :. = H = Hydraulic conductivity in centimeters(inches)per hour, volume of water passedthrough the soil in cubic centimeters(inches), cross-sectional areaof the test cylinder in squarecentimeters(inches), time in hours, lengthof the soil column in centimeters(inches),and height of the water level above the base of the ring in centimeters (inches).

Sampledata sheetsand computationsare shownon figures 3-20a and 3-20b. When fluctuationsin the water temperatureexceed 2 C, viscosityadjustments should be made. This adjustment usually results in more uniform hydraulic conductivity values,and is illustrated on the sampledata sheets,figures 3-20a and 3-20b. (e) Limitations.The principal limitation in this test is that the material directly below the test zonemust have equal or greaterhydraulic conductivity than the test zone.Also, it must extendto a sufficient depth below the test zone sothat a steady-state flow is reached for at leastthreeconsecutive hourly readings before any water mound builds up to the bottom of the cylinder. Another limitation is the presenceof progressivelytighter soils below the test zone. A steady-state flow is never reachedunder this condition, and the hydraulic conductivity apparentlydecreases as the test proceeds. Unreliable data may result when the test zoneis immediately abovea thick, very permeablematerial. A fairly steady-stateflow can be obtained, but the tensiometersin the very permeablematerial will never indicate zero tensions below the test zoneand, thus, the requirementsof Darcy s law are not met. This test cannot be used in rocky or coarse gravel materials becausethe cylinder cannotbe driven into such material without allowing channelingalong the insideperipheryof the ring during the test.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

101 1

1630 lo-14 10.14-74 0725 lo-14 1235 # lo-14

0725 14% 1235 1635 5.17 4.00

11831 28546 34576 *

28546 34576 392%

dry dry dry

1.0299 10-15-74 l&1&74 10-l&74 10-l&74 1210 lo-16 1650 lo-17 1650 4.67 0820 +iO3 122663 + 27219 22663 27219 32151 4932 1056 919 18 13 1.2363 1.1404 1.0559 1.2028 1004 995 0.31 0.30 lK! 104 102 102 &y dry dry dry

1550 32151

46392 14241

Notes:

1 This is the temperahue of the yater moving into the test zone and is measured in the teat cyliner.

* To convert to pascal seconds, divide by 1000.

3 Adjusted Q = Q times viscosity of water at teat temperature divided by viscosity of wattx at temperature at which the. water seemed to stabilize which in this test was 16cC. (i.e. Adjusted Q (fmt time increment) = 1.412 x m Location: Depth: Hole D-Z-Sample = 1376
(A&ud lo timprams cfl6%)

Farm Observer: A.P. Brown

107 to 122 centimeters (42 to 48 inches) K = *H = s (centimeters per hour)

Cakulati01~

Q = 1002 cubic centimeters per hour (Adjusted Q, average of last 6 time increments) A=1~~=~~(0.2286m~=0.1642m~=1,642cn? L = 0.1524 meters = 15.24 centimeters H = 0.3048 meters = 30.48 centimeters Therefore: K= w = 0.305 centimeters per hoor (0.12 inches per hour)

4 A tensiometer reading of 100 represents zero tension (atmospheric pressure)

Figure

3-2Oa.-Data

and computation

sheet on ring pemwuneter

test for hydraulic

conductivity

(metric

units).

103-D-659.

102

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Votes: This is the temperoture of the water moving into the test zone and is measured in the test cylinder. 1.0299 2Adjusted Q- ,,, , , , x 62.0 =57.5 (Adjusted to averoge tank water temperature of 16oC which is the first reading after apparent stabilization) Location: Depth : Calculations: Hole D-2--Sample Farm 42 to 48 inches K= *H = g Observer: --___~ A.P. Brown

(inches per hour)

Q- 61.2 cubic inches per hour overage (Average for 48.5 hours) A= Tfr2 - 3.1416 x 92-254.5 L- 6 inches H- 12 inches Therefore: K- Qx0.00196-61.2x0.001965=0.12 inch per hour square inches

Figure 3-20b.-Data and computation sheet on ring permeameter test for hydraulic conductivity (U.S. customary units). 103-D-659.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

103

3-9. Test Pit Method.-(u) Introduction.There is no exact method for determining the hydraulic conductivity above a water table in soils of coarse gravel and cobbleswith matrices of finer materials. The following procedure, equations,and samplecomputationsdescribeone method which is considered sufficiently accurateto give a reasonable hydraulic conductivity when appliedto field problems. The test pit can be of three different shapes: (1) a circular test pit of diametera, (2) a squaretest pit with side dimensionsof a, and (3) a rectangular test pit with sidedimensionsa by 2~. The test should be conductedin only one textural classification such as a cobbly, coarsegravelly, or loamy sand. A backhoe,power auger, or hand tools can be used to excavate down to the test zone. The test pit is then carefully excavatedto the desiredshapeanddepth by hand.For the different shaped pits, an a valueof 0.3 meter (1 foot) shouldbe adequate. Larger sizescan be used,but will requite proportionally more water. Small cavities left when cobbles are removed, or a few small cobblessticking out into the test pit, will causelittle difference in the quantity of water enteringthe test pit, the averagediameterof a circular pit, or in the sidedimensionsof a squareor rectangularpit. Matrices with texturessuchas fme sands,silts, silt loams, andvery fine sands tend to sloughinto the pit when saturated. For theseconditions,the pit shouldbe filled with a clean (washed)fine gravelbefore water is applied. (6) Procedure.-After the test pit hasbeenexcavatedand, if required,backfilled with fine gravel, it is filed to a predetermineddepth with cleanwater. All water enteringthe pit shouldbe filtered to remove the suspended silts and clays. The depth of water in the hole can be maintainedby using bypasshosesand a large carburetor for the finer regulation to keep the water depth reasonably constant.The carburetor can be installed by placing it in a perforated tin can locatedin the middle of the test pit. This test normally takesonly a short time to run, so the water depth in the pit can be maintainedby handif a carburetoris not available.A clearplastic cover shouldbeplacedoverthe pit to keepmaterialfrom blowing in. (c) Calculations.-The following equationis used to compute the hydraulic conductivity: (4) where: K = hydraulic conductivity in meters (feet) per day, U = diameter of a circular pit, the side dimension of a squarepit, or the a dimensionof a rectangularpit that is a by 2u all in meters (feet), Q = quantity of flow per unit of time in cubic meters(feet) per minute, D = depth of water maintainedin the test pit in meters(feet), and C = conductivity coefficient from the following tabulation:

104

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Conductivity coejjkient

I!

a 1 2 3 4 5 6 I 8 9 10

Circular test pit of diameter 1.50 2.11 2.68 3.25 3.78 4.29 4.84 5.34 5.86 6.32 (4.92) (6.92) (8.78) (10.65) (12.39) (14.09) (15.87) (17.52) (19.22) (20.72)

Square test pit of dimension 1.67 2.34 2.96 3.54 4.13 4.67 5.23 5.78 6.32 6.86 (5.49) (7.68) (9.70) (11.63) (13.54) (15.33) (17.15) (18.95) (20.74) (22.51)

Rectangular test pit of dimensions 2.24 3.01 3.71 4.40 5.06 5.68 6.30 6.95 7.57 8.19 (7.35) (9.89) (12.18) (14.44) (16.59) (18.62) (20.68) (22.81) (24.82) (26.87)

A sampledataandcomputationsheetis shownon figure 3-21. Sufficient time must elapseafter fnling the test pit and before taking measurements to permit establishmentof a relatively steadystate of flow. A comparisonof valuesof C obtained by an electric analog study with K values determined analytically showedthe aualogvaluesto be about 30 percentlower at a ratio of 5 = 3 and about 10percentlower at a ratio of ; = 10 than the analyticalstudy. Whenever possible,the test pit method should be checkedagainstsome other method of determininghydraulic conductivity. MO. Test for Determining Infiltration Rate.-Although the drainage engineeris mainly concernedwith the hydraulic conductivity of the soil, the infiltration rate is also important in determining the deeppercolationand runoff that must be carried by the drains.Infiltration is generallyconsideredas the rate at which water entersthe soil surface.Hydraulic conductivity is considered asthe rate at which water will move through a unit cross sectionof soil under a unit hydraulic gradient.The two terms neednot be and generallyare not identical. In fact, they am identical only if all the following conditionsare true: (a) The soil must be homogeneous throughout. (b) A zero headof water must be maintainedat the soil surface. (c) No lateral movementof the water may occur. (d) The surfacesoil may not restrict the water movement. (e) Atmosphericpressuremust exist at all times at the baseof the downward advancingwaterfront. These conditions might occur in a sandy soil before the water reachesan impervious layer or a water table. Usually, in an infiltration test the infiltration rate will be greater in the initial stagethan the hydraulic conductivity rate. The infiltration rate will be greaterbecause of somelateral movementand because a
D

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

105

Location: Observers: Texture of test zone: Date: Srructure of test zone:

Type of pit: circular with diameter p D = 0.6 meter (2 feet) a = 0.3 meter (1 foot)

C = 6.92 Tank reading. m3 (ft3)

Initial
0 (0)

Time

Time,

Q
m3/min(f?/tnin)
0.0144 (0.510)

Initial Final min

0800 0810 10

Final
0.144 (5.10)

Hydraulic conductiviy, K m/day (ft/day)

16.658 (53.5)

0810 0820 0830 0840

082cl 0830 0840 0850

10
10 10 10

0.144 (5.10) 0.283

0 (0) 0.119

(9.98)
(4.20) (8.36)

0.0138
0.0119 0.0118

(0.488)
(0.420) (0.416)

15.953
13.756 13.619

(50.8)
(43.6) (43.4)

0.119 (4.20) 0.237

.0237 (8.36) 0.354 (12.51)

0.0117

(0.415)

13.586

(43.2)

Calculations: K = z K=
Figure 3-21.-Data

Q
(6.9;.3)(0.6)

= 1156Q, m/day

(104.05 Q, ft/day)

and computation sheet on test pit method for hydraulic conductivity. 103-D-1632.

106

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

head of surface water greater than zero must be maintained of necessity. A downwardcapillary pull, which initially is significant,alsoexists.As the wetting front moves downward, lateral and vertical capillary movement becomesnegligible; the hydraulic gradient will approachunity, and the infiltration rate will approachthe hydraulic conductivity rate. The sameequipmentcan be usedfor the infiltration test asis usedfor the ring permeametertest. The site selected for the infiltration test should be representativeof conditions that will be encountered when the areais irrigated. If the areais aheadyundercultivation, the457-millimeter- (l&inch-) diametercylinder should be set in a level areaand driven in about 25 millimeters (1 inch). Care shouldbe takenthat the soil within the cylinder hasnot beencompactedor sealed. Infiltration rates for virgin soil will not be indicative of the infiltration mte of a cultivated soil. Therefore,if the areahasneverbeencultivated, the soil in the test site shouldbe turned over to a depth of 200 to 250 millimeters (8 to 10 inches), then leveled,and all large clods broken up and worked into the soil before the cylinder is installed. When the cylinder has beeninstalled, both the inside and outside edges at the soil surface should be carefully tamped to seal possible cracks. Next, a mound of soil, metal, or plastic, 150 millimeters (6 inches)high and about 1 meter in diameter, should be constructedaround the cylinder. A calibrated tank should be set up outside the mound, and the carburetor and connections shouldbe installedasdescribedfor thering permeameter test. Before starting the test, a moisture sampleshouldbe taken just outside the cylinder at 50-, 150-, and 25Omillimeter (2-, 6-, and lo-inch) depths to determine the moisture content in the top foot. Both the cylinder and mound shouldbe filled with about 75 millimeters (3 inches) of water, the time recorded,and the water withdrawn from the calibratedsupply tank. The 75millimeter depthof water is maintainedinside the mound by a secondtank and carburetor. A reading on the tank supplyingwater to the cylinder shouldbe takenevery 5 minutes for the frost 30 minutes,every 15minutesfor the second30 minutes,every 30 minutesfor the secondhour, and at l-hour intervals for the next 5 hours. The cylinder shouldbe permitted to go dry, andafter 24 hours the surfaceshouldbe scratchedto a depth of about25 millimeters (1 inch) andthe testrerun the sameasthe first day. Before the secondtest is statted,moisture samples shouldbe takenoutsidethe ring at the samedepthsas on the previoustest. Because infiltration is definedas the volume of water passinginto the soil per unit of area per unit of time, the cross-sectionalareaof the cylinder should be computed: (rw-2= 3.1416 x 22.862 = 1,642 square centimeters). Therefore, 1,642cubiccentimetersareequalto 1.Ocentimeter(0.39 inch) insidethe cylinder. If 1,642cubic centimetersrun through the cylinder in 1 hour, the infiltration rate would be 1 centimeterper hour. When recording the rate for a particular site, the texturesof both the surfaceandunderlying zoneshouldbe shown.For example, if the surface texture is a fine sandyloam underlainby a clay loam, the texture shouldbe shown asFSL 20 centimeters(8 inches)/CL.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

107

Initial Date Tie

Final Date Tii

bnkRyting Tii. em hours Initial Final

, IRLIP

Voy

CJfi

r-c, trr

Lcxation: Projecl: Party: tXeulatiom3:

Q=&z
A=~~=%~2236 =1641.7quare

centimeters for a
45.72~mtimctu

(18-&h) ring. Second

dianwer

Run

rnfiltmtion rate =& (cultim~perhoor NOTES:

Figure 3-22.-Data

sheet for determining infiltration rate. 103-D-1633.

The initial readingscanbeusedto estimatethe infiltration rate during wetting, and the later readingsindicate the steadystate infiltration rate. A sampledata sheetfor determiningthe infiitration rate is shownon figure 3-22.

C. Laboratory

Tests for Hydraulic Conductivity

3-11. Hydraulic Conductivity From Undisturbed Soil Samples.-An undisturbedsample is one taken from the test site with as little disturbanceas possible.Severaldifferent methodsam usedfor taking undisturbedsamples,but all methods attempt to provide for removal of a certain size of eatth sample without disturbing the relation of the soil grains to each other with respect to compression,expansion,or lateral displacement.A properly performed test on sucha sampleshouldgive a hydraulic conductivity value reasonablyconsistent with the accuracy obtained from an in-place field test. However, there are economiclimitations in using this type of samplein an overall drainagestudy. A properly obtained undisturbedsampleis usually about 100 to 150 millimeters (4 to 6 inches)long, but for solutionof drainage problemsit is necessary to know the hydraulic conductivity through at lcast a 3-meter (lo-foot) depth over the

108

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

study area. Therefore,in a heterogeneous profile, many samplesmust be taken in the field and tested in the laboratory to get the desired information. This procedure is usually more costly than obtaining an equal amount of data by in-placetesting. The lateralhydraulicconductivity of many soilsis greaterthanthe vertical and may be many times greater.This is a result of the natural depositionof soils in horizontal layers. Although movement of ground water to a drain is a resultant of lateral and vertical components,the movementis primarily lateral. The hydraulic conductivity value usedin the solutionof drainageproblemsis usually the resultant value of lateraI and vertical hydraulic conductivities that apply to the particular problem, but in some instancesthe vertical hydraulic conductivity aloneis of critical importance. Either horizontalor vertical undisturbedsoil samples canbe taken.Horizontal samplestaken at depthsgreater than a meter are especiallycostly. Undisturbed samplestaken in both directionscan be used to analyzedrainagerequirements, but inplacetest resultsprovidemore reliabledata,particularly for a largevolume of material. Methods of taking undisturbedsamplesand laboratory methodsof determining hydraulic conductivity are describedin Reclamation Instructions, Series5 10,Land ClassificationTechniques and Standards. >12. Hydraulic Conductivity From Disturbed Soil Samples.-A disturbed (or remolded) soil sampleis one in which no attempt has beenmade to maintain the naturalrelation of the grainsto eachother and,in fact, the grainsare deliberatelydisturbed.The sampleis usuallytakenfrom an augerholeandbroken up in a machinebefore the test is run. Thehydraulic conductivity valuesobtained by this procedurehavea doubtful relation to the true hydraulic conductivity value of the soil in its natural state and should not be used for determining drainage requirements.However, looseand uncemented sandsandgravelshave aboutthe samehydraulic conductivity in both the disturbed and undisturbedstates.Disturbed hydraulic conductivity, pH, and electrical conductivity can also serveas screeningteststo identify possiblesodium problems. D. Observation Holes and Piezometers

3-13. Introduction.4bservation holesandpiezometers for drainage studies are neededto furnish information concerningthe characterof soil materialsand to provide a means for periodic observationof the location, fluctuations, and pressuresof ground-water bodies. Observationsfor ground-water information serve three purposes: (1) to measurethe static water level, (2) to measurethe pressure of the water at a givenpoint in anaquifer,and (3) to samplewater quality. 3-14. Location of Observation Holes.-Selection of hole locations should be made in the field where conditionsthat might affect the generalwater table canbe readily observed.Holes shouldbe locatedto eliminatethe effect of ponds, lakes, road borrow ditches, canals, laterals, rivers, and similar water-holding reservoirson the generalwater table. If the hole cannotbe locatedto completely eliminatethe effect of surfacewater, it is important that a notation be madeof the

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

109

presence or recentpresence of water on the surfaceeachtime the depth to water is measured. Observation holes should be located on a fence line or near some other reasonably permanentstructureto ensuretheir permanence. Whenpossible,they shouldbe locatednearanall-weatherroadso they canbeeasilyreachedat regular intervalsthroughouttheyear.Wheninstalledprior to construe tion of the irrigation system,the holes shouldbe locatedin the arableland areawhere they will be of maximum value after irrigation. Usually they should not be located on high, nonirrigateddivides.Holes shouldalwaysbe loggedcarefully, usingagricultural soil classification,and shouldalsobe locatedsocrosssectionscanbe drawn both parallelandperpendicular to the surfaceslopes.At breaksin slopes,holesshould be located both aboveand below the break so that the drawdown in the water tablecaused by the break can be shown.Occasionally,observationholescan be located on a grid system along a land subdivision. This method of locating observation holesshouldbeusedonly whenthetopographyisuniform. Generally, observation wells will be located based on landform and local topography. Placementwith a legal subdivisionis consideredthe leastimportant parameter. Piezometersare located where needed to provide information on vertical movementof water. They are always installed in clustersof two or more, each terminatingat a different depth,andtheir logsandlocation shouldfollow the same criteria as statedfor openobservationholes. 3-15. Installation of Observation Holes.abservation holes may be installedby any of severalmethods,dependingon the characterof the material, required depth of hole, and the equipmentand personnelavailable. A 50- to lOOmillimeter (2- to 4-inch) diameterhole is usually sufficient. If the materials areunconsolidated and thehole is not deep,a handaugermay beused.Generally, a power augershouldbe usedif a largenumberof holesarerequired; thematerial is compacted;sand and gravel arc encountered;or the holes are over 3 meters deep. The hole should be augeredto final depthand pumpeduntil the dischargeis clear. About 100millimeters (4 inches)of sandor gravelam thenput into the hole before the perforated casing is installed. The annular spacearound the casing shouldthenbe filled with sand(passing the No. 8 sieveandretainedon the No. 18 sieve) to the top of the perforations. At this point, a 1:1 bentonite-soilmixture should be tamped around the casing and mounded at the gmund surface. This mixture will preventsurfacewater from flowing directly into the sandandcasing. A concretecollar should be placedaroundthe pipe at the ground surfaceif the installationis to be permanent. The depthof an observationhole usuallyshouldbe below the lowest expected water level. Deeperholesmay benecessary to locateandidentify artesianaquifers or deep barriers. A careful log of each hole should be made showing texture, structum, color, moisture, etc. Sufficient samples of thematerialsshouldbetaken for mechanicalanalyses to ensurethat accuratetextureappraisals arebeingmade.

110

DRAINAGE MANUAL

When a sodic environmentis suspected, some samplesshould alsobe taken for exchangeable sodium analyses. 3-16. Casing for Observation Holes.-Generally, most observationholes will be in material that will not stay openwithout casing.Many types of material can be used for the casing, and the type chosenwill dependon the cost and availability of the material and the degreeof permanence required. The least expensive material is probablythinmetal stovepipeor downspoutpipe; however, standardpipe or well casing is ordinarily used. With the present emphasison water quality, observationwells may also serve as sample sites. If used as a sampling site, the casingmaterial should meet EPA standardsfor the type of samplescollected.Thesevarioussamplingstandards have resultedin the manufacture of many different typesof slottedpipe. They rangefrom stainlesssteelto teflon, to PVC, andareavailablethroughmanysuppliers.For most drainage work, slottedPVC casingis adequate. Severalstateshavestatutoryrequirements for the completionof monitoring wells. Theseare legal requirementsthat must be met. All casingsfor observationholesmust be perforatedand shouldbe largeenough in diameterto allow acquisitionof water quality samples.A satisfactorymethod is to perforate at about 150-millimeter (6-&h) vertical intervals, with the perforations alternating on oppositesidesof the pipe andextendingfrom the bottom of the pipe to within 1 meter of the ground surface.The perforations shouldbe large enoughfor water to enter but small enoughto prevent soil materials from enteringthe casingin any quantity. Generally,a slot about3 millimeters (l/X inch) wide will be satisfactory. When automaticwater table recordersare to be used, the observationhole shouldbe at least 100millimeters (4 inches)in diameterand casedwith an economicalcommercialwell screen. The casingshouldbe extended300 to 450 millimeters (12 to 18 inches)above ground surfaceso that it will be visible from a distance.An additional aid is to paint the extendedportion of the pipe either yellow, orange,or someother color that contrastswith the natural surroundings. This not only makesthe hole easyto locate for measuring,but alsomakesit easyfor the farmer to seethe casingin a cultivated field. When the casingis not protectedby a fenceor similar permanent structure, a painted lOO- by NO-millimeter (4- by 4-inch) by l-meter (4-foot) wood post or a painted steel post shouldbe installed near the casing.The hole number shouldbe painted or stampedon the post for easyidentification. Another method that canbe usedif it is considered inadvisable to leavea rigid pipe or post projecting in a field is to attacha rubberhoseto the top of the casing. The casingis cut off about 150 millimeters (6 inches)below the ground surface and a tubber hoseabout 600 millimeters (2 feet) long slippedover the top of the casing.This method resultsin fewer damaged observationholesand lessdamage to farm equipment. The casing shouldbe cappedand the cap tightenedwith a wrench to prevent rocks or sticks from being droppeddown the casingto check the water level. A hole should be drilled in the cap or in the pipe just below the cap to prevent pressureor vacuum from building up during fluctuations in the water table.

CHAPTER

III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

111

M7. Piezomet.ers.-The piezometeris a device which allows measurement of the piezometric water surfaceat a given point in an aquifer. This device is important because pressuredifferentials exist in a moving ground-water body. Differential elevationsof the water table, as measured in observationholes, give only information on the thicknessof unconfinedwater bodiesand the gradientof their phreaticwater surfaces.Data from piezometersgive information on vertical pressure differentials in confined and unconfined water bodies. Piezometer measurementsare frequently used in the study of seepageflow from canals, laterals,or other surfacesourcesto determineground-waterflow patternsandin the determinationof upward leakagefrom a confined aquifer. In such studies, groupsof two or more piezometersare usedto measurethe hydrostatic pressure at specific depthsin separate saturated soil strata.Singlepiezometers do not show the water table exceptin very permeablematerial, and shouldnot be usedin lieu of an observationwell. 3-18. Installation of Piezometers.-The method of installing a piezometer pipe must be such that a tight seal is formed around the outside of the pipe to prevent vertical movement of water between the pipe and wall of the hole. For shallow installations,pipe as small as lo-millimeter (3/8-inch) diameterand up to as large as a lOO-millimeter (4-inch) diameter can be used. However, 25 to 5Omillimeter (l- to 2-inch) diameter pipe has been found to be the easiestto install. There am many methods of installing piezometers. For depths less than 1.5meters(5 feet), alternateaugeringanddriving of thepiezometerpipeprovides a good seal.For depthsmore than 1.5 meters, the hole can be augeredto within about 0.5 meter (18 inches)of the proposedbottom, the pipe placedin the hole, and the alternateaugering and driving method used for the last 0.5 meter (18 inches).A driving headshouldbe usedwhen driving the pipe to prevent splitting or smashingthe end. A type of driver which has beenusedsuccessfullyconsists of a Od-meter (2-foot) length of pipe with an insidediameterslightly larger than the outsidediameterof the pipe to be driven. The driving pipe shouldhavean end cap. A 5- to lOkilogram (lo- to 20-pound)weight can be welded to the pipe to give the driver additionalweight. A hardwoodor plastic plug shouldbe inserted into the cap of the driving pipe to prevent the driver from hitting the piezometer pipe directly. A standardwood augerfitting insidethe piezometercanbe usedas an auger.The augermust be altered by grinding the end to a point to penetrate the soil. A 12-millimeter (l/&inch) pipe coupling must be welded to the shank to accepta handleandextensions. When usingthe alternateaugeringanddriving method,the hole is augeredabout 150millimeters (6 inches)below the pipe each time, and the pipe is then driven to the bottom of the hole. A cavity about 100 millimeters (4 inches)longandwith the samediameterasthe insidepipediameter is augeredbelow the bottom of the pipe to provide an easy accessfor water enteringthe pipe. This cavity shouldbe flushedby insertinga hoseto the bottom of the cavity andpumpingout the water. After flushing, the cavity shouldbefilled with sandto assurethat it remainsopen.

112

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

An alternatemethod of installing deeppiezometersandmultiple piezometers is to augerto the full depthwith a power auger.Before the pipe is installed,about 100millimeters (4 inches)of coarsesandor fine gravelam pouredinto the hole. Thepipe is then installedon top of the sandandanother25 to 50 millimeters (1 to 2 inches) of sandpoured around it. The annular spacearound the pipe is then sealedwith grout or a dry 1:l bentonite-soilmixture to eliminate vertical water movementaroundthe pipe. This sealshouldbe a minimum of 0.6 meter (2 feet) thick vertically when grout is usedand a minimum of 1.5 meters (5 feet) thick when the bentonite-soil mixture is used. When more than one piezometer is installedin the samehole, the aboveprocedureis repeated exceptthat the ,sealant must fill the annularspacebetweenpiezometerlevels andfor a 0.6- to 1.5-meter (2- to 5-foot) distanceabove the last piezometer.Remaining ammlar spacecan be fdled with any material available. In unstablematerial, an outsidecasingmust be used to keep the hole open. After the pipe has beeninstalled,the casingis removedby pulling as the sealer is placedand the hole is filled. After a period of 24 hours, the piezometershouldbe testedto ensurethat it is functioningproperly. Water is thenpumpedfrom or pouredinto the pipe, andthe time is observedfor the water level to rise or fall. If there is a definite rise or fall in the water level in the pipe, the piezometeris functioning properly. If the rate of rise or fall is very slow, the pipe might be pluggedat the bottom and shouldbe flushed or reaugered.A piezometerinstallation shouldnot be consideredcomplete until it hasbeentestedand found to function properly. If the piezometeris capped,a perforation must be made in the cap or in the pipe just below the cap to assureatmosphericpressurewitbin the pipe. 3-19. Records of Observation Holes.-A permanentrecord shouldbe made of all observationholes.This recordshouldincludesuchitems asthe location and depthof the hole; type, depth, diameter,perforatedlength,and total length of the casinginstalled; a log of the hole showing a completetextural descriptionof the material encountered;elevationof natural ground surfaceat the top of the hole and of the measuringpoint from which measurements of the depthto water will be made (usually the top of the casing);and the periodic measurements of depth to water. When cooperativeprogramswith the U.S. Geological Survey(USGS) are carried on, it may be preferableto use their forms for recording information on the hole and for recording water level measurements. 3-20. Numbering Systemfor Observation Holes.-A numbering systemfor observationholes should be established for ready referencein the field and for location on maps. Two systemshaveproved satisfactory,the coordinatesystem and a land subdivisionsystemdeveloped by the USGS. In the coordinatesystem, the study area is locatedon a map, and the northsouth(N-S) andeast-west(E-W) lines,calledthezero lines,areestablished. These lines can be in any location with respectto the area,but it is a little easierand them is lesschancefor error if the E-W line is chosento be adjacentto the south of the areaandthe N-S line adjacentto the west of the area.The areacanthen be

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

2 I JESJ g

I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 IO II 12 I3 14 I5 I6 17 18 I9 20 21 22

i-

EAST

Location OWI PE-3N OW2 1.2E-2.13N

OW3 2fE-2+

l Observotion Well (OW) -Project Boundory

Figure 3-23.~Coordinate

system for numbering observation holes. 103-D-1636.

visualized as being in the first quadrant of a rectangular coordinate system. Figure 3-23 shows an example of this system. A well that is 0.6 kilometer (2 miles) eastand0.9 kilometer (3 miles) north of the intersectionof the zero lines (point of origin) would be well No. 2E-3N. Wells do not have to be located an even number of miles from the point of origin, they can also be located by decimals (1.2E-2.13N) or by fractional parts of a mile (2-1/4E-2-1/2S). This system not only readily locates the wells on maps and in the field, but also identifies their locationwith respectto eachother. The systemoperatesbestin an areawhich hashad a land survey,but this is not essential.Locating the point of origin at the intersection of two highways that traverse the ama might be

114

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

convenient.In this case, wells in all four quadrantscould have numbers with combinationsof E, W, N, and S. TheUSGSmethodis basedon a landsubdivisionsystemwhich usestownship, range,section,and four lowercaseletters for well locations.The fust designation of a well number denotesthe township, the secondthe range, and the third the section.Each township contains 36 sections,and each sectionis 1 mile square (640 acres). The lowercaseletters that follow the sectionnumber indicate the positionof the well within the section.The fust letter indicatesthe quartersection, the second the quarter-quarter section, and the third, if present, the quarterin quarter-quartersection,or lo-acre tract. The letters a, b, c, and d are assigned a counterclockwisedirection, beginningin the northeastquadrantof the section, or quarter-quarter section. If two or more wells are located within the same lo-acre tract, they are distinguished by anumeral following the lowercaseletters. Figure 3-24 showsan exampleof the USGSnumberingsystem.1 3-21. Measuring Devices for Depth to Water.-There are severaldevices for measuringthe depth to water in an observationhole. Figure 3-25 showsthe most commonly used devices.Probably the most widely used is the weighted, chalkedline. An ordinary steel tapewith a suitableweight attachedto the end is chalkedfor the fmt 0.5 to 1.Ometer (2 to 3 feet) with carpenterschalkor ordinary blackboardchalk. When immersedin water, the chalk will changecolor, andthe point to which the tapepenetrates the water surfacecan easilybe read. The tape is lowered into the hole until it reachesthe water and then further lowered until an evenmeter mark is held at the measuringpoint. The reading on the chalked portion is subtractedfrom the readingat the measuringpoint and the difference is the depthto water. This proceduremay requiremore than onetry to get the end of the tapeproperly submerged, but canbe donequickly if the approximatedepth to water is known. Another method is to use a steeltape with a popper attachedto the end of the tape. A popper can be made from a 12-millimeter (1/24nch) pipe plug. A fasteneris welded to the headend of the plug so that it canbe fastenedto the end of the steel tape. The threadedend of the plug is hollowed out to provide an air pocket. The popper is lowered into the hole, and a distinct pop can be heard when the popper meets the water surface. With a little experience,the water surfacecan be located within 3 millimeters (0.01 foot). The tape is read at the measuring point when thepopperisjust touchingthe water, andthe distancefrom the endof the popperto the tapeis addedto the readingto obtain the depth of the water surfacefrom the measuringpoint. A graduated rule or dipstick made of 1Zmillimeter (l/2-inch) thick by 25millimeter (l-inch) wide hardwoodis usefulfor measuringwater levelswithin

~U.S.GeologicalSulveyWater-SupplyPapers.~issystrmisnotusedbytheUSGSintheStateofWashington and cannot, of come, be used in States that do not use the rectangular system of the United States public land surveys.

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

115

R. 29 W.

Well No. 7-29-12

b

aad {
o

-aC

-L

du

SECTION
I?igure 3-24.-USGS 103-D-696.

12
system.

township-range well numbing

116

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Power. PX-D-25996. OIalked Line. PX-D-25997.

Pressure Transducer and Data Logger. PX-D-25995.

Figure 3-25.-Devices

for measuring depth to water in wells.

CHAPTER

III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

117

2.5 meters (8 feet) of the surface.This devicecanbe jointed like a fishing rod or hingedandfolded for convenience. The wood is not paintedor treatedin anyway, which eliminatesthe needfor chalking. With ah nonelectricmeasuringdevices except the popper,caution should be exercisedto avoid errors in measurement causedby displacementof a sufficient volume of water with the device during the measuringprocess,patticularly when measuringin small diameterpipes. AU permanentpump installationsshouldinclude an air line and gaugewith which to measuredrawdown during pumping. The air line usually consistsof 6-millimeter (l/4-inch) tubing of sufficient length to extend below the lowest water level to be measured.The vertical distancefrom the centerof the pressure gaugeto the bottom of the air line shouldbe measured at the time of installation. A pressuregaugeand an ordinary tire valve are placedin the line at the surface so air can be pumped into the line and the pressuremeasured.To measurethe depth of water, pump air into the line until a maximum reading occurs on the gauge. This reading is equal to the pressureexerted by the column of water standingabovethe bottom of the air line in the well. The depth to water below the pressuregaugeis then computedby subtmcting the gaugereadingfrom the vertical distanceto the bottom of the air line. If the gaugereadsin kilopascals, multiply the readingby 0.102 to convert to meters. Example: If the length of the air line from center of gaugeto bottom of air line is 30 meters(100 feet) and the gaugereads150kilopascals(21.6 poundsper squareinch), the water level in the well is 15meters (50 feet), 30 - (150 x 0.102) [( 100- (21.6 x 2.3l)], below the center of the gauge.Unlesscarefully calibrated against taped readings, the air line is accurate only to about plus or minus 0.15 meter (0.5 foot). Severalcommercial electrical soundingdevicesare availablefor measuring the depthto water in a well or observationhole. Most of thesedevicesare based on completingan electrical circuit through the water in the well. Someuse two electrodes andthe circuit is completedwhen they reachthe water surface.Others use only one electrodeand the well casing servesas the other electrode.These devicesusually employ flashlight batteriesfor power, andcontact with water is signaledby a bell, buzzer, light, or movement of an ammeter indicator. The electrodes areattachedto insulatedwire which is markedin incrementsof length Devices are also availablewhich measurevarious water-quality parametersas well as depth. Parametersmost likely to require measurementduring drainage investigationswould includesalinity, pH, temperature,etc. Instrumentshavealsobeendevelopedwhich usea diaphragmarrangement to measureeither positive or negativepressures. Theseinstrumentsare sometimes referred to as transiometers. As the water table fluctuates, they alternately measure depth of water above the measuring point or negative pressure in unsaturatedsoils. S22. Plugged Observation Holes.-After a seriesof measurements, it may be noted that the water level no longer fluctuates in certain holes, that the fluctuation departsfrom its former pattern, or that the position of the water table and the magnitude of fluctuation has changedin nearby holes. Suchholes may have become plugged by an accumulation of silt. Possibleplugging can be

118

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

detected by pouring water into the hole and measuring the rate at which it is acceptedinto the formation. A very slow rate, consideringthe soil in the formation, indicates a plugged hole. Usually these holes can be retumed to usefulness by flushing the hole from the insideor by bailing. A stirrup pump can be usedfor flushing by attachinga small diameterplastic hoseto it, inserting the hose in the hole, and pumping water into the hole. The water will then flow upward out of the hole between the casing and the plastic hose. The flushing action will loosenthe materialthat forms theplug andwashit out or permit bailing it. Under someconditions, a hand auger sized to fit inside the casinghas been usedto cleanmaterial from a pluggedwell. Augering usedin combinationwith bailing works well for somesoils. When a monitoring well hasoutlived its usefulness, environmentalconsiderations and legal requirementscall for proper disposalor abandonment. The well should be cut off 0.5 meter (2 feet) below ground surface and backfilled with concreteto precludethe possibility of providing an avenuefor contaminationof the ground water. State and local codes should be checkedto be sum that all statutory requirementsaremet. S23. Bibliography.ASCE, June1961,Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, vol. 87, No. lR2, part 1. Bureauof Reclamation,1977, Ground Water Manual. Kirkham, D., 1945,PmposedMethod for Field Measurement of Permeability of Soil Below a Water Table, Soil ScienceSocietyof America Proceedings, vol. 10, pp. 58-69. Kirkham, D., and C.H.M. Van Bavel, 1948, Theory of Seepage Into Auger Holes, Soil ScienceSociety of America Proceedings, vol. 13, pp. 75-82. Luthin, J. N., and D. Kirkham, 1949, A PiezometerMethod for Measuring Permeability of Soil In Situ Below a Water Table, Soil Science,vol. 68, pp. 349-358. Maasland,M., and H. C. Haskew, May 1958, The Auger Hole Method of Measuringthe Hydraulic Conductivity of Soil and its Application to Tile DrainageProblems. Paperpresentedat the International Commissionon Irrigation and Drainage,Third Congress,SanFrancisco, Calif., Question8, pp. 8.69-8.114. Mantei, C. L., datedMay 2,1972. A-function Valuesfor Field Permeability Measurement.UnpublishedBureauof Reclamationmemorandum. Van Beer, W.F.J., 1958,The Auger Hole Method. InternationalInstitute for Land Reclamation and Development, Bulletin No. 1, Wageningen,The Netherlands. Winger, R. J., Jr., December9-12, 1956, Field Determination of Hydraulic Conductivity Above a Water Table. Papergiven at the annualmeeting of , the American Societyof Agricultural Engineers,(unpublished). Winger, R. J., Jr., June 1960, In-Place Permeability Testsand Their Use/in Subsurface Drainage, InternationalCommissionon Irrigation andDrain-

CHAPTER III-FIELD

AND LABORATORY

PROCEDURES

119

age, Transactionsof the Fourth Congress, Madrid, Spain, pp. 11.41711.469. Zanger,C. N., 1957,Theory and Problemsof Water Percolation,Bureauof Reclamation,EngineeringMonographNo. 8, revisededition.

((Chapter IV

DRAINAGE INVESTIGATIONS

4-l. Scopeof the Investigations.-The many typesanddiversity of drainage problemsrequirea clearunderstanding of the purposeof aparticular investigation at its outset. The scopeof the investigationand the level of the report shouldbe directed toward specific objectives. The objectives should be establishedwith economyand timelinessin full perspective.Theminimum amountof dataneeded for solutionof the problemsmust be determined.Existing datamust be evaluated and the bestmeansfor obtainingnecessary additional dataexamined. After becomingacquaintedwith the areaand the availabledata,the scopeof the investigationcan be established. The scopewill representa balancebetween the availabledataandthe amountandtypesof additionaldatarequiredasdictated by the accuracyand completeness expectedof the final report or plan, including the time andmanpower availablefor the investigation. The scopeof the investigation and the resultant plan and report will be less detailedfor a reconnaissance investigationthan for an investigationimmediately prior to construe tion. The work performed during a reconnaissance investigation should fit into a pattern that can be expandedinto the more complete study requiredfor construction. Eachdrainage project or segmentof constructionmustbejustified aseconomically necessary.The dminageengineersprincipal job is to devisean effective drainagesystem at minimum cost. The Bureauof Reclamation method of economic analysisappears in ReclamationInstructions,Series110,ProjectPlanning. Some drainageproblems are simple and their solution readily apparent:for others, a limited investigation will suffice. Most drainageproblems, however, involve a thorough study of the complexrelationshipsamongsoils, water, crops, salts,and irrigation pmctices. 4-2. Factors in an Investigation.-The main factors in any drainageinvestigation are topography,soils, salts,groundwater, solubletrace elements,andthe sources and quantities of excess water. Any investigation must answer the following questions: l Is excess water or salt presentnow or anticipatedin the future? l Is an adequate outlet availablefor excesswater and salt?
121

122
l l

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

What is the sourceof the excesswater and salt? What is the depth of the drainablesoil zone? l What type of dminagesystemis best? l How much water and salt must be removed? l Can the soil be economicallydrained? l Are solubletrace elements presentin potentially toxic quantities? 4-3. Review of Existing Data.-The fust step in the drainageinvestigation is to collect, review, and analyzeexisting data. Data on geology, soils, topogmphy, well logs, water levels and their fluctuations, precipitation, salinity, ground-waterquantity, and surfaceflow area few of the pertinentitems. Analysis of thesedatawill ascertaintheir adequacyandestablishthe amount and kind of additionaldatarequired. 4-4. Field Reconnaissance.-The field reconnaissance is one of the most important stepsin any investigation.Firsthand information and impressionsare valuablein evaluatingcurrent conditionsandprogrammingadditionalinvestigations. If possible,in making a field reconnaissance, someonefamiliar with the areashouldaccompanythe investigator. The initial field study should acquaint the investigator with data on the following items: (a) Location and capacityof natural waterways. (b) Location and condition of outlets. (c) High watermarksor other information which may beusedin evaluating floodflows. (d) Location and characteristicsof canals,laterals, wells, springs,ponds, reservoirs,or other possibleground-watersources. (e) Local irrigation practices, such as method of water application and efficiency of irrigation. v) An estimateof the presentwater tablelevel andinformation with regard to its fluctuation and direction of movement. (g) Presentcroppingpractices,crop conditions,anda notation of any trend toward possiblefuture changes. (h) Type, location, spacing,depth, and effectivenessof any drains in the specifiedstudyamaandadjacent areas.Theanalysisof dminsinadjacentareas is one of the most important items in the investigation. Existing drains in similar areas can often constitute the soundestfoundation from which to determinedrainagerequirementsin the specifiedstudy area. (i) Topographic features which might obviously affect the location of drains. 0) Geologic setting and featureswhich will affect the designof drains. (k) Indicationsof salinity or alkalinity, suchas surfaceflorescence,barren soil surface,certain plant populations,or abnormalcultural practices. (r) Discussionswith local people,particularly thoseresiding in the cultivatedor irrigated areas.They may provide important information on types of

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE

INVESTIGATIONS

123

crops currently grown and trends, crop yields, irrigation practices, and the extent and effects of local floods. (m) Statusand scopeof any existing drainageprograms administeredor undertakenby State,Federal,or private agencies. The preliminary information collected from the aboveitems for field reconnaissance is associated with the analyses of certain subsurface conditionsthat are introducedin this sectionbut discussed in more detail in subsequent sections. The analysisof subsurfaceconditions requireseither a value for the depth to barrier or the knowledgethat the barrier is at sucha sufficient depth that it hasa negligibleeffect on thedrainage requirements.Thelogs of any existingwells may show the depth of barrier; otherwise,new holesmust be drilled for barrier depth determination.Suchholesshouldbelocatedat strategicpoints ondepth-to-barrier contour maps. To graphicallyshow the effect of subsurface characteristics on drain location, depth,and spacing,a seriesof ground-waterprofiles shouldbe madeshowing the location, extent, and slope of the different strata. These features can then be analyzedin relation to the slope of the ground surface and to the existing or projected ground-water conditions.A sampleset of profiles is shown on figure 4-l. Wherepertinent soil strata(either fine-textured, slowly permeablematerial, or coarse-textured,highly permeablematerial) are continuousover a large area, a contour map of the surface of the stratum is often useful. Sucha contour map is extremely helpful in planninga drainagesystemfor an areaunderlainat depths of 1.8to 3 meters(6 to 10feet) by thesematerials.Contourmapsandground-water maps drawn on transparentpaper can be used as overlays on a basemap of the studyareawhich showsgroundsurfaceelevations,canalanddrain locations,and other pertinent data. When making these overlays, using a color system as suggested on figure 2-l will simplify the interpretation.This methodis often very helpful in locating new drains. Thesetypes of maps and profiles can be easily developed using a GIS (GeographicInformation System). 4-S. Subsurface Investigations.-A goodinvestigationof subsurface conditions representsa balanceamong: the availabledata: the amount and types of additionaldatarequired; andthe time, money, andmanpoweravailable.Hydraulic conductivity measurements representthe grates t investmentin time, money, and manpower, but the resulting data are the most important of all the data produced in the subsurfaceinvestigations. Therefore, hydraulic conductivity shouldbe measured using the best techniques. (a) Log of Drainage Holes.-Each hole or cutbank used in a particular drainagestudy should be completely logged so the description of soil characteristics has maximum useftdnessin identifying and correlating similar soils. Figure4-2 showsthe type of log preferredfor a drainage hole. Personnellogging holes should coordinate their efforts so that identical soil characteristicsare recognizedand uniformly describedwherever possible. (b) Projection of In-Place Hydraulic Conductivity Data to Similar Soil Horizons.-An in-place hydraulic conductivity test, when conductedin two or more

1244 1242 ,240 1238 1236 1234 co 5 I 1238 1236

EXPLANATION
LS SL FSL SCL L SiL SiCL LOAMY SANDY FINE SANDY LOAM SILTY SILTY CLAY CLAY LOAM CLAY LOAM LOAM SAND LOAM SANDY CLAY LOAM LOAM

PROFILE

4Y

CL 1244 1242 1240 ,238 C

i; 1c
1254 w rMnin cnnnt

J 1236

PROFILE

2Y

1244 1242 ,240 1238 1236 1234 1252 Ground well water readings

NOTE
profiles of March based on ohs. 13;1970.

3000

2000

1000

1000

moo
DISTANCES

3000
FROM

-mm 5ooo 6000 Y-Y AXIS IN METERS

7000

8000

SCQO

PROFILE
Figure 4-l.-Typical

X-X
ground-water profiles. 103-D-1428.

IOLE NO. Hydraulic Conductivity :REW J. Smith, :ROP S. Williams

No. 1

T 120 N, R 64 W, 34 bbbb-Oahe

Project,

South

Dakota September 10.1967

LAND in July) DESCRIPTION OF MATERIAL

STRUCTURE CLASS GRADE . PERM S.Y.

CLASS

Wheat (harvested

3 std C228Y U2f2

NOTES

TEXTURE

DEPTH

COLOR

TYPE

SiL(SiCL) M.A. Sand 16% Silt 56% Clay 26%

4.61 to 6.61

7.5YR 514 &own

sm. Ang. _ Blocky

Fine to Medium

Moderate

Pump-in 0.5 in per hour

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8.

Medium cleavage lines Moist consistence-friable, Few very fine and fine Many fine discontinuous Very few clay films in pH 7.5 Slightly effervescent Moisture less than field

between peds slightly plastic roots, concentrated along vertical ped faces vertical imped simple closed tubular pores tubular pores

capacity

SiL(FsL) M.A. Sand 44% Silt 51% Clay 5%

6.61 to 8.81

1OYR 612 CZP 1OYR 516 and 5YR 514

Platy

Medium

Moderate

Pump-in 0.9 in per bout

1. Light brownish gray with common medium prominent yellowish brown and reddish brown 2. Fine cleavage lines between peds 3. Very few fine roots in the 6.6 to 7.0 ft zone 4. Few fine vesicular pores 5. Few clay films between plates 6. pH 8.0 7. Slightly effervescent 8. No visible moisture on auger or in pores

mottles

of

Figure 4-2.Sample

log of a drainage hole. 103-D-1637.

126

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

textures,givesa weightedvalue for the textures.This valuecan be useddirectly to designdrains at the test site because the weighted hydraulic conductivity for the flow zoneis usedin designcomputations, rather thanthe valuesfor individual strata.However, the weightedvalueis not readily transferableto other locations. If the test is conductedin only one texture for which the physical and chemical characteristics are known, the resultscan be averaged with other in-placedatain similar soilsof that texture to determineanaverage hydraulicconductivity. When the averagehydraulic conductivities have been obtained for all the different texture-structurecombinationsin the project, the datacanbe usedto estimatethe weighted hydraulic conductivity at every site where a hole hasbeenlogged.By following this procedure,the weighted hydraulic conductivity valuesare availableat a maximum number of siteswith a minimum amountof field testing. This procedureis most valuablewhen estimatesof drainagerequirementsare needed for large areas. 4-6. Identifying the Barrier Zone.-By definition, asusedby the Bureauof Reclamation,a barrierzoneis a layer which hasahydraulicconductivity one-fifth or lessof the weightedhydraulic conductivity of the strataaboveit. Although this is a somewhat arbitrary standard, it has worked out satisfactorily in practice. Identifying anddeterminingthedepthto barrier zonein turn definesthe thickness of material through which water may flow to a drain. &7. Geologic lnfluence.-Geologic processes often produceareasin which the soil mantle is underlain by material with markedly different characteristics than the overburden.The underlyingmaterial may have an irregular surfacethat shows significant relief. Material that is less permeableas compared to the overburdenmay affect ground-water movement. Deep, percolating water may perchon the material, or the lateralmovementof groundwater may be restricted. If the surfacesof the underlyingmaterialhaveappreciable relief, groundwater may be channeled in topographiclows, andthe surroundingareaswill betributary to the channel.In somecases,the key to successfullydraining the areais to tap the channelwith drains andwells. On the other hand, the surfacetopographyof the underlying material may act as dikes or damsto the lateral flow of water to natural or manmadeoutlets.Either casewill requirecareful investigationin areas believedto havebarrier material that hasan unconformablecontact surfacewith the overburden. The normal observation hole system may not reveal the true subsurface condition. In areasknown to be underlainby shale,or in areaswhere deepcuts have revealedundulating strata of impermeablematerial, more closely spaced holeswill be necessary to locate andmap the barrier surface. Knowledgeandunderstanding of the geologicprocesses which developed the soil mantle abovethe barrier zoneare important in defining a drainageproblem. Early recognition of the landforms in the areaandhow they developedwill assist in developingthe most efficient dam-gathering plan. As an example,an elevated river terrace may require backhoe pits becauseof the size of the cobble and

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE

INVESTIGATIONS

127

boulders.At the sametime, ancient lakebedmaterialsmay be investigatedwith a hollow-stem drill rig; an alluvial fan may require a combinationof both. 4-8. Water Source Studies-(a) General.-The presenceof excesswater that createsa drainageproblem can ordinarily be traced to: (1) Precipitation. (2) Irrigation applications. (3) Seepage from surfacewater bodies. (4) Hydrostatic pressurefrom an artesianaquifer. (5) A combinationof any of thesesources. Properprotectivemeasures cannotbe takenunlessthe sourceof the damaging water is known. If the source of the water is precipitation, the solution may involve additional surface drains; an over-irrigationproblem may require water use educationas well as additional drains (recognizing that practically all arid soilsrequire someirrigation in excessof consumptiveusefor salt control); canal lining can slow or stop seepage; pumpedrelief wells may alleviatehydrostatic pressure.Relief or interceptor drainswill generallyaccompany all thesepossible solutions. precipitationrecord obtainedin the study of rainfall(b) Precipitation.-The runoff relationshipsshouldbe analyzedfrom the standpointof its effect on both the surface runoff and the ground-water table. The precipitation distribution should be related to the fluctuations in water table elevations,and long-term precipitation recordsshouldbe relatedto long-term hydrographsof water levels, where possible. (c) Irrigation.-Drainage problems are most frequently traced to irrigation practices.In determiningthe possiblecontribution of excessirrigation water to the drainageproblem, the aspectsthat shouldbe investigatedare: (1) The effect of individua.lirrigations on the water table. (2) The fluctuation of the water tablethroughoutthe irrigation seasonand during times of no irrigation. (3) The changesin water table elevations over a period of years, both before andafter the beginningof irrigation, if possible. Irrigation practicesshouldrelate to soil typesandcrop needsand, ideally, only enough water should be applied to furnish crop needs and to maintain a salt balance. (d) Seepage.-Seepagecan be a major sourceof ground water moving into many drainageproblem areas.Most seepage originatesfrom irrigation development works such as canals,laterals,reservoirs, or the irrigation of higher lying lands. In some cases,seepagemay result from rainfall or snowmelt on the high-lying areas.The comparisonof ground-waterfluctuations with water levels in canalsandreservoirs,or with the applicationof irrigation water at higherlevels, may indicate the sourceof the seepage water. The growth of tules, willows, or other water-loving plantsdownstreamfrom possiblesources of seepage indicates a high water table. Other methods of detecting seepageinvolve the use of radioisotopes, dyes, salts,observationholes,and piezometers.

128

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

(e) Hydrostatic Premure.-In someareas,hydrostaticpressure in underlying aquifers may be damaging.Hydrostatic or artesianpressuresare found where a slowly permeablelayer overlies a saturatedpermeablelayer that is under pressure.Hydrostatic pressure may force water upward throughthe slowly permeable layer or through fracturesin this layer. Damagingamountsof artesianwater may be presentin areaswhere old artesianwells ate leakingbelow the groundsurface or am allowedto run freely without properfacilities to disposeof the surfaceflow. &9. Ground-Water Studies.-(a) GeneruL-Studies of the water table produceinformation necessary to solvea drainageproblem. Areaswhere a high water table has developedor is anticipatedmust be mapped.Information concerning depths, trends, and movementsis essentialto understandthe problem. The water table investigationprovidesdata on the position, extent, and fluctuations of the water table, the quantity and direction of movement of the ground water, and an indication of water sourcesand areasof discharge.Analysesof periodic measurements from observationholesand piezometersare the focus of the investigation. The frequency of depth to water measurementsin observationholes and piezometersdependson the particular problem under investigation. The frequency may vary from daily to quarterly readings,but in general,the readings should be made monthly. The objective of the measurements is to establisha record of the water table fluctuations over a period of time that will reflect all factors affecting the water table. At least one full annual cycle of readingsis neededbefore locating and designinga drainagesystem. Data on water tableobservationsaremeaningless without an analysisof their significance.The mere gatheringof data is a needless expense unlessthe dataare plotted in a form for study and interpretationof the results.Interpretationbegins with the datagatherer,who must remain alert to abruptchanges in conditionsand must attempt to accountfor them. A few notesmade in the fieldbook can avoid confusionlater. In many cases,using automatic recorders at selected locations provides records for use in conjunction with other measurements. The use of recorders often permits longer time intervals betweenvisits to the wellsite. Drawings found useful in analyzingground-waterproblemsare ground-water table contour maps, depth-to-groundwater maps, depth-to-barriermaps, water table profiles, piezometricprofiles, and hydrographs. (b) Ground-Water Table Contour Maps.-To prepare this type of map, all points at which ground-water elevationswere taken shouldbe marked on a map of the area.A contour map of the water tablecan then be preparedsimilar to the one shown on figure 4-3. The measurements of water table elevationsshouldbe madefor all wells in the project ama in the shortestpossibletime to ensuregood correlation. The inclusive datesduring which the elevationswere read must be noted on the map. Water table maps show the direction of water movement by the shapeand position of the contour lines, indicate the areasof rechargeand discharge,and

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE

INVESTIGATIONS

129

EXPLANATION
/loJ-Ground-wotsr 11.3 -Depth to 0 Observation Contour elsvotion ground hole interval water e feet

Figure 4-3.-Typical

ground-water table contours. From drawing

103-D-703.

130

DRAINAGE MANUAL

may give some indication of the relative hydraulic conductivity by the distance betweencontour lines.Themapsshouldalsoincludeinformation on construction and depth of the well. This information is useful in assuringthat the water table map showscontourson hydraulically interconnected ground-waterbodies. (c) Depth-to-Ground Water Maps.-One method of preparing these maps involves overlaying the water table contour map on a topographicmap. This procedurecan be doneby marking eachintersectionof contours and noting the difference in their elevations at the intersection point. Using these values, a contour map which shows the depth to water below the ground surfaceat any point canbeprepared.Another methodof preparinga depth-to-groundwater map is to mark the measureddepthsto water from the ground surfaceon a basemap at eachmeasuringpoint and preparea contour map from thesevalues.A typical depth-to-ground-watermap is shown on figure 4-4. (d) Depth-to-Barrier Maps.-A depth-to-barrier map can be preparedin a manner similar to a depth-to-ground water map if sufficient information is availableon the location of the barrier. This type of map is useful in establishing drain locations, estimating quantity of ground-watermovement, and providing other information neededfor drainagecalculations. (e) Water Table Profiles.-A water table profile canbe madefor a seriesof observationholes. The baseprofile is preparedby plotting the ground surface elevation:the locationanddepthof theobservationholes;andany springs,canals, or ponds that are in the profile. The profile is generallymade downslopein the direction of water movementbut can be made in any direction. The elevationof the water surfaceat eachobservationhole or otherknown point canbe plotted on a print of this profile. The use of different colored pencils for readingstaken at different times of the year facilitates a visual comparisonof fluctuations in the water table along the profile. A water table profile is even more useful if it also contains information on subsurface material. The logs obtainedfrom installationof the observationholes canbe plotted at eachhole, and any other pertinent information canbe plotted at the proper location. If soil textures are available,tentativecorrelationsbetween holes may be possible.The elevationof the barrier in eachhole shouldalso be plotted on the profile, as this information will be helpful for locating drains and in calculatingother drainagerequirements. cf) Piezometric Profiles.-Readings from severalclustersof piezometerscan be plotted on a profile drawn throughthe clusters.The elevationof the piezomettic water table for eachpiezometercanbe plotted at the elevationof the bottom of that piezometer.Lines drawn throughpoints of equalpiezometric water table elevationshow linesof equipotential. Lines dmvn from higher elevations through lower elevationsandperpendicularto the equipotentiallinesform a flow network and show the direction of movement of water and, possibly, the sourceof the water. This procedureis particularly useful in locating an artesianwater source. (g) Hydrographx-Drawings may be made showing the elevation of the water tablewith respectto time for any singleobservationhole, well, or piezome-

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE

INVESTIGATIONS

131

E
3N

i-i
R.\BW. I .

i
/ $

EXPLANATION reDWh +o proumJ wJ+er contour Int*r.l 2 Bet

Figure 4A.-Typical 103-D-661.

depth-to-ground water map. From drawing

132

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

ter. Sucha drawing clearly showsfluctuationsin the water tableas well astrends in water tablemovement.Figure4-5 showsa typical hydtogmph.When analysis of the hydmgraphdoesnot provide an explanationof certainproblems,it may be helpful to superimpose additionaldataon the hydrographfor use in the analysis. Figure 4-6 shows the plotted data for a special problem where river stage, precipitation,periodsof canaloperation,and water deliverieswere all included on the samehydrograph. A useful tool in analyzing hydrograph data is to compare departuresfrom normal weather data with hydrograph fluctuations. The plot often explains upward or downward trendsin water levels. Availablegeographicinformation systemsoftware designed for useon a work station makes development and modification of the maps, profiles, and hydrographsdescribedin this sectionmuch easierthan hand drafting methods. 4-10. Ground-Water Accretions to Drains.-In its natural state, ground water follows the hydrologic cycle wherein a portion of the precipitation falling on the land surface percolatesdownward to join the ground-water body. The ground-water body moves slowly from a higher to a lower elevation. Over a period of time, the undergroundbasinfills with water until it spills into a natural outlet such as a spring or a stmam. As a result of the cycle, a rise occurs in the water table during periodsof high precipitationanddeeppercolation,causingan increasein flow at the natural outlet. A period of low precipitation causesa lowering of the water tableand a decrease in flow. A stability is reachedwherein the ground-water table and the natural dischargefluctuate within an established pattern. Whenirrigation water is addedto the land surface,thusincreasingpercolation, the pattern is upset. The water table rises and the dischargeat the natural outlet increases. If water is addedannuallyat a fasterrate than it can travel to the outlet to be discharged,the water table will rise in searchof outlets. When the water table approachesthe land surface, agricultuml production may be adversely affected, andadditionalmanmadeoutlets in the form of drainsmust be installed. The drainskeepthe water table from encroaching into the root zone.A depth-towater tableof 0.9 to 1.5 meters (3 to 5 feet) is generallysatisfactory, depending on local conditionsincluding type of crops grown. The dataobtainedby observingan operatingdrainagesystem can be usedto verify the designcapacityand drainagerequirementsfor a new system,provided the soils, croppingpattern, climate, water management,and other conditionsare similar. Before any data from an operatingproject are used,the effectivenessof existing drainsshouldbe investigated.Only when thesedrainsarefunctioning as expectedshouldthe databe usedto verify the designof new systems. Cll. Outlet Conditions.-(u) Physical Constraints.CSne of the most important considerations in all drainageplanning is to determinethe adequacyof the outlet for the systemof drains. An inadequate outlet must be made adequate by channelconstruction or pumping of the discharge.Either of thesemeasures may affect the overall feasibility of a &Gage project.

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE 133

133jNOllVA313

INVESTIGATIONS

I!!!!!!!!

I I III1

I I III

I I III

1339 - NOIlVA313

a I-?-32dd

I iii

..

............. .......

....

OBSERVATION WELLS ALON EAST EDBE OF SEC 32. 1. IN., R. 7 W.

TOTAL IRRltATIONy DELIVERIES TO LAT.

6 SO

,..... :-...:I.:

i;i;;iiig

,-I.-- -----. -F1.Q 13.9-0.9-0.4

1951

Is52

I953

IS54

I955

1956

1957

I958

l9-

19-

Figure 4-6.-Additional

plotted data on an actual project hydrograph. 103-D-1638.

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE

INVESTIGATIONS

135

The investigationsnecessary to determinethe adequacyof an outlet depend upon the characteristicsof the stream or area which will serve as the outlet or disposalarea.Where drainagesystemswill dischargeinto rivers, creeks,lakes, or other water bodieswhich are affected by high water, the elevation,frequency, and duration of the high water must be determinedasaccuratelyaspossible,and the effect on the drainagesystemmust be analyzed.Thesehigh-water elevations will limit the elevation of the hydraulic gradient at the lower end of the system. The water surface in gravity-drainage outlet works should coincide with the normal water surface of ponds, lakes, and reservoirs,unless studiesshow that high water will be of sufficient frequency and duration to be detrimental to drainage.Under usualcircumstances,this meansthat the drainedlandsmust lie about 3 meters(10 feet) or more abovethe outlet elevationif the landsare to be economicallydrained,althoughpumping can sometimesbejustified. High-water conditions can be obtained from gaugerecords, observationof watermarkson the banksof streamsor lakes,anddiscussions with local residents. The adequacyof natural outlets can be determinedby computing the estimated runoff from the entire ama which they serveandchecking their capacity. Theremay be exceptionalcasesin which the effluent from surfacedramsmay be disposed of by using sumpswhich allow the water to percolateinto the ground andjoin the ground-waterbody. This method is possibleonly where the grotmdwaterbody itself discharges into a stream,other drainagefeatures,or into an area where the water will not be a problem. The infiltration rate in thesesumpsmust be high enoughto supportdisposalof thenecessary quantitiesto makethemethod economical.In somecases, invertedwells canbeusedto dispose of surfacewaste, provided adequate measuresare taken to prevent aquifer contamination. (b) Quality Requirements.-Quality of surface and ground water is an item of national concern. As most drainagesystemsdischargeto surface waters, the drainageengineer needsto be awareof the effect drain effluent will haveon those waters. Stateandnationalwater-quality criteria are beingrefined to includetrace elementsand other potentially toxic constituents.Dependingon the applicable water-quality standards,specialdischargerequirementsmay have to be met. 4-12. Drain Location.-There are no fixed rules or methods to direct the drainageengineerin locating every drain. Each location presentsan individual problem which can be solved by analyzing the conditions involved. Wherever possible, outlet, suboutlet, and collector drains should be located in natural drainageways.Relief and interceptor drams should be located where they will produce the best drainageresults. The location and spacingof drains require careful study and intuitive judgment on the part of the drainageengineer. As tentativedram locationsaredecidedupon,they shouldbe locatedon a map of the area. The centerlinesof the drains should then be stakedout on the site.,Fmquently, unmappedbuildings, etc., at the construction site will make c&ges necessaryin location or alignment of dmins. In theseinstances,drain locations on the site shouldbe changedasrequiredand the tentativemap locationsrevised to show the new alignments.Dram centerlineson the map shouldbe scaledand

136

DRAINAGE MANUAL

stationsmarked for future reference.After the centerlinehasbeenstakedon the ground,holes shouldbe drilled along the centerlineat various intervals down to theproposeddraindepthto confinmthat the drainis properly locatedin permeable material. Holes offset from the centerlineshouldalso be drilled for this purpose. Data collected from centerlinedrilling shouldbe logged to provide information on constructionconditions in addition to drainageparameters.This information shouldbe provided to potential bidders as a part of the contract specifications. Thoseholes canalso be used to co&m the gravel envelopedesignfor the soils at actual drain depth.Stationingshouldstart at the mouth of the outlet dmin and proceedupstream. In some instances,fust-order surveys may be required to establishcenterlines,but quite often, in an openlocation, the line may be staked out visually with the useof rangepoles.In consideringditch locations,allowance shouldbe madefor sufficient right-of-way, usually 30 meters (100 feet). &13. Drain Numbering.-After drainlines have been laid out and staked, they shouldbe given identifying numbers.No singlenumberingmethod fits all drain layout situations. One method adaptableto many situations is to locate station O+OO of the suboutletor collector drain with respectto land subdivisions andthe junction of tributarieswith respectto the suboutletor collector. If station 0+00 of a collector drain is locatedin sec.3, T. 7 N., R. 10 W., the numberof the collector drain would become3-7N-10W. Letters for the cardinal directionscan be omitted if thereis no possibility of confusion.If more than onecollector drain discharges in sec.3, the fmt could be 3A, the second3B, etc. For example,if the frostbranchis located975meters(3,200feet) upstreamof thecollector drainfrom stationO&O, the numberof the tributary drain could be 3-7N-lOW, 0.975 (3.2). If a tributary drain from both sidesintersectsthe collector drain at this point, the one on the right (looking upstream)could be numbered0.975R (3.2R) and the one on the left, 0.975L (3.2L). Junctionsupstreamfrom the tributary drain could be numberedthe sameway by addingto the previousnumber the distanceto the upperjunction from the lower junctioninunits anddecimalsof 1000meters(feet). This systemcanbe continuedas necessary until the highestdrain is numbered.It shouldbe noted that using R andL doesnot conform to the hydraulic practice of assigningright and left when looking downstream, but does conform to drain surveyingpracticeof startingthe stationingat theoutlet andproceeding upstream. If this method is not adaptablefor a particular situation, another numbering methodshouldbe devised.Drain numberingis a valuableaid in locatingthe drains both on maps and in the field. 4-14. Existing Structures.-The location, elevations,and capacitiesof all existingbridgesandculverts throughwhich a proposeddrain will passshouldbe determined.Bridge footings shouldbe investigatedand the elevationsof road or railroad falls determined.The location of all utility lines and buildings which could havean effect upon the constructionwork shouldbe noted andappropriate descriptionsof structuresand conditionsobtained.Other possiblestructuresthat the designershouldbe aware of include buried water supply and powerlines to center-pivot sprinkler systems,and farm lateralsboth surfaceandburied, includ-

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE

INVESTIGATIONS

137

ing parts of permanentsprinkler systems.Also, the trend to rural small acreage subdivisionsrequites care to ensureproper clearanceof septic tanks and leach fields. 4-15. Economic Considerations of Drainage Problems.-Determining economic benefitshasbeenprimarily the responsibilityof economists.The drainage engineers responsibilityhasbeento designdrainagesystemsthat do the bestjob for the leastcost. Drainagesystemsare most often justified by comparingthe direct cost of the drainswith the direct benefitsof maintainingor increasingcrop production.Net direct benefitsof farm operationarecomparedwith the total costof the irrigation anddrainagesystem.The comparisonis usuallymadeusing the presentworth of capitalizedbenefits and estimatedcosts. Benefits am capitalizedover the life of the drain system;a RIO-yearlife expectancyis usedon most Bureauof Reclamation systems. The economic analysis on a drainagesystem is usually left to economists: however, the engineer is often asked for a quick estimate of the economic feasibility of a project. To do this estimate,the engineermust have an estimate of net direct benefitsby land classand the current interestrates for capitalization. In an area subject to salinization, the entire net benefit less the costs for the distribution systemandoperationandmaintenance (O&M) canbe usedto justify drainageworks. An examplefor a preliminary estimatefollows: Assume: Interest rate = 5.5 percent Averagecost for irrigation works = $1,125per hectare($450 per acre) Total drainagecost = $875per hectare($350 per acre) O&M annualcost = $23.75per hectare($9.50per acre) Distribution of acreages by economicland class:
Class Hectares Acres

1 2 3 Total Net direct benefitsby land class:

240 100 x!Q 256 hectares 640 acres 2

96

Class

Annual benefit per hectare per acre

Total annual beneBt [hectares (acres) x annual benefit]

1 2 3

$181.25 156.50 107.75

$72.50 62.60 43.10

$17,400 6,260

Total $36,590 Averageannualbenefit = $36,590/256= $142.93per hectare($36,590/640= $57.17per acre)

138

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Find An estimateof the economicfeasibility over the 100-yearlife expectancy of the system. Presentworth (PW of capitalizedaverageannualbenefit):

PW = interest factor x annualbenefit

pw _ (1 + i)l x $142.93= $2586.46 per hectare($1,034.55per acre) i(1 + i) where: n = number of interestperiodsin years,and i = interestrate at which compoundingtakesplaceover the period, 12, expressed as a decimalfraction. Presentworth of capitalizedannualO&M costs:
pw= (1 +iY-1

i(1 + i)
cost slmlmaly:

x $23.75=!fi429.78per hectare($l71.91per acre)

Drainage Irrigation O&M Total

= =

$875 per hectare($350 per acre)

$1,125per hectare($450 per acre)

= =

$430 per hectare($172 per acre) $2,430per hectare($972 per acre)

Benefit-cost (B/C) ratio = Drainageprojects having B/C ratios greater than 1 are generally considered feasible.However, this exampleis obviouslyborderlineandmay proveinfeasible under a more detailed analysis, particularly if unquantified impacts on the environmentare considered. The aboveexampleassumes that no crop production can be expectedshortly after the drainage problemdevelops. This assumption is reasonable in areaswhere saline conditions follow high ground water, and also assumes that irrigation is the bestuseof the land.In areasnot affected,or only moderatelyaffectedby salts, the net benefit (if basedon maximum production)must be adjusteddownward to allow for reduced production becauseof poor drainage. In some cases, the benefits can be increasedif drainage will increase yields over that used to determine net direct benefits. The exact amount of adjustment is difficult to determine.Theoretically,the total amountthat could be spenton drainagewould be the differencebetweenmaximum productionwithout saltsandproductionwith a given level of salinity.

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE
100 -

INVESTIGATIONS

139

80only trends be used in crop to indicate production. too use

Supporting dota limited to permit in detailed 71 z 8 2 k!! k! 20 IO 0 I 0.5 MINIMUM 50 40 30

analysis.

Range of normal root zone for drain design.

1 (FEET) j 6 1.5 1.0 DEPTH TO FLUCTUATING

I 2.0 2.5 WATER TABLE,

IO , 3.0 METERS

Figure 4-7.-Crap

production response to a fluctuating water table. Drawing 103-D-1639.

Information regarding crop responseto shallow, fluctuating water tables is limited. Figure 4-7 shows composite curves of available information on crop responseto water table depths.The chart must be usedjudiciously, if at ah, and is includedin this manualonly to indicatethe generalrelationshipbetweencrops andwater tablelevels.Most researchers report yield reductionswhenwater tables fluctuate to levels lessthan 0.9 meter (3 feet) below ground surface. If adequatedata exist in the project areato developcharts similar to the one on figure &7, the average direct benefit presented in the previousexamplecould be adjustedas follows: Assume: Annual benefits based on maximum production = $142.93 per hectare ($57.17per acre) Presentminimum depth-to-watertable = 0.67 meter (2.2 feet) Crops am deeprooted. From figure 4-7: Percentof full production is 50 percent. Adjusted annual benefit without drainage = $142.93 x 0.50 = $71.47 ($28.59per acre)

140

DRAINAGE MAt+JAL

Annual benefit available for drainage= $142.93 - $71.47 = $71.46 per hectare($28.58) per acre Assuming the objective is to upgrade an operating project, the economic analysiscould then be:
PW of annual benefit =
(1 + i) - 1 i(1 + i)
x

$71.46 = $1,293 per hectare ($517 per acre)

cost summary: Drainage = O&M = Total

B/C ratio

$875per hectare($350 per acre) $430 per hectare($172 per acre) $1,305per hectare($522 per acre) 1293/1305(517/522) = 0.99

= =

This approachwould be valid, assumingpresentcrop returns were sufficient to defray existing obligationsandsaltswould not precludeproductionin the near future. The approaches shown in the previous examplesare highly simplistic and should be usedonly for preliminary estimates.Complete economic and repayment analysesfor large projects shouldbe made by qualified economists.This information, along with environmentalconsiderations and other related factors, shouldbe usedin decidingthe feasibility of drainageprojects. This manual doesnot addressthe problem of analyzing alternativecosts for severalapproaches to a problem. For different methods of comparing costs of alternativeplans and other information on making economiccomparisons,see the Bureau of Reclamation publication A Guide to Using Interest Factors In Economic Analysis ofWater Projects (Glenn and Barbour, 1970)and textbooks on engineeringeconomics. 4-16. Drainage for Sprinkler Irrigation.-Sprinkler irrigation does not necessarily eliminateall possibledrainageor salt problems.The leachingrequimment must be considered in the designof all irrigation systems. If natural drainage is not adequateto remove the deeppercolation without damageto plant roots, subsurface drainswill be required. When the estimateddeep percolation is basedon the leachingrequirement neededfor salt balance,subsurface drainage requirementsfor sprinkler irrigation shouldbe about the sameas for good gravity irrigation. In areasof permeable surfacesoils having high infiltration rates,however, the minimum deeppercolation under gravity irrigation will usually be more than requiredfor salt balance. Consequently,the drainagerequirementsfor gravity irrigation shouldbe greater than for sprinkler irrigation. Properly designed sprinkler systemscan offer a high degreeof control for the total water application. Sprinkler application is not exactly uniform, however, and someareasreceivemore water than others.If the

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE

INVESTIGATIONS

141

farmer doesnot apply sufficient water to bring the soil to field capacityover the entire field, crops in the drier areasmay suffer from lack of moisture and will probably developsalt problems.If the farmer irrigates in a manner that ensures all areassufficient water, someareaswill receivemore water thanrequiredwhich results in somedeeppercolation.Figures4-S and 4-9 show typical distribution patternsof two different sprinkler systems. In the planning stageof a sprinkler-irrigated project, the drainageengineer must assumegoodsprinkler systemdesignandcareful operation.All subsurface investigationsshouldbe made, and the estimateddminagerequirementsshould be determined to satisfy leaching requirementsand normal deep percolation losses.Investigationsshouldinclude ground-watermovement from other areas, canaland lateral leakage,and studiesof the water table fluctuations before and after irrigation. Measureddeeppercolation,if greaterthan that requiredfor salt balance,shouldbe usedin designingthe drainagesystemif the amountof deep percolationdiffers from planningstageestimates. 4-17. Tests for Estimating Deep Percolation From Sprinkler Systems.The tests should be located in an area where the sprinkler lateral pressuresare typical of the system. Severaltests may be neededwhere large variations in pressure occur in the line because of topographyor other factors. Catchcansshouldbeplacedsymmetrically in a grid coveringan areasprinkled by two or three nozzles.Thesecansshouldbe at least 10centimeters(4 inches) in diameterand set at the centerof 3- by 3-meter (lo- by lo-foot) grids with the sprinklersplacedat the grid comers. The cansshouldbe set carefully with their tops parallel to the ground. Vegetation or other obstructions should not be permittedto interfere with entry of water into the cans.If necessary, the cansmay be fastenedto spikesto hold them upright. Water collectedin the cansmust be measuredfor two settingsof the sprinkler line. The catch volume for each set must be added together to obtain the total catch volume in a grid square. Generally, all water caught in the cans can be assumedto infiltrate the soil. However, any significantrunoff from the test field shouldbe subtractedfrom the volume. Measurements to be madeam: (1) depthof water in the cans,(2) time for the water to accumulate,and (3) total time of irrigation per setting of the sprinkler line. If the water depthin the can is 50 millimeters (2 inches)or more, depthscan be determined to plus or minus 2 millimeters (0.1 inch). For less than 50 millimeters (2 inches),the depthsof catch shouldbe determinedfrom volumetric measurements to ensureaccuracy.

142

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

TYPICAL

SPRINKLER
location

PATTERN

For 9m(30) spacing, 12m(40) radius, and 15m(50) move with less than an 8 km (5mi.) per hour wind at ground level.

S - Indicates
NYBER ;F

of sprinklers

SPRINKLERS OVERLAPPING

SET TIME - -.-.._ MAXIMUM TOTAL INFILTRATION -- _ .---. DESIRED APPLICATION ___._AVERAGE APPLICATION __ . APPLICATION LESS THAN 3 INCHES---p.....p APPLICATION EFFICIENCY __... .._. COEFFICIENT OF UNIFORMITY .-.-. ._ AVERAGE DEEP PERCOLATION Figure 4-8.-Typical

~-.~ __._. _ ._-.-.-.._

__-

14.3 HOURS 116mm (457) 76mm (3.0) 95 mm (3.791 13% OF PATTERN 72 %

60 %
21 %

sprinkler irrigation pattern. Dewing

103-D-1640.

Deep percolation is calculatedby multiplying the catch rate (adjusted for lossesif necessary)at eachgrid point by the averagetotal time per set. The deep percolation is the difference betweenthis product and the amount of moisture depletedsincethe last irrigation. Studieshaveindicatedthat deeppercolationcan vary over a wide range,from 9 to 30 percentof the amountof water infiltrating the soil surface.For a seasonal average,an overall farm efficiency of 65 percent canbe expectedwith most sprinkler systems.A breakdownof farm lossesunder sprinkler irrigation could be as follows:

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE

INVESTIGATIONS

143

TYPICAL PIVOT SPRINKLER PATTERN DISTRIBUTION DEEP PERCOLATION

ALONG SPRINKLER LINE

20

40 PERCENT

50 Go OF LITERAL

70 LENGTM

60

90

loo

WEIGHfED AVERAGE OF DEEP PERCOLATION COEFFICIENT OF UNICORYlfY

31.9s

798

Figure 4-9.-Typical

pivot sprinkler irrigation pattern. Drawing 103-D-1641.

Percent

Evaporationandnonbeneficialconsumptiveuse ........ Surfacenmoff .......................... Deep percolation .........................

10 to 15 3 to 5 15 to 22

The percentagelossesshown above are basedon the total amount of water delivered to the farm. This breakdown assumesthe system is reasonablywell designedfor soil, topographic,and climatic conditionsencounteredin the field under study. The breakdown also assumesthe farmer irrigates for a sufficient length of time to bring all of his land to field capacityupon eachinigation. For very sandy soils in hot climates, deeppercolationmay be considerably higher than 22 percent of the total delivery becauseof the practice of using sprinklers to cool the crops. In very fine soils, surface runoff may exceed 5 percent,which canreducedeeppercolationto quantitiesconsistentwith values obtainedfrom gravity irrigation of fme-texturedsoils.Figure2-6 summarizesthe relationshipsbetweenthe deeppercolationandinfiltration rates and canbe usyd I for both sprinkler and gravity methods. Liited information has beenpublishedregarding tests on pivot sprinklers; however, the information that hasbeengatheredindicatesthat generalvaluesfor deeppercolationlie in the samerange as for straight-line sprinkler systems.In

144

DRAINAGE MANUAL

evaluatinga pivot system,the catch cansshouldbe spacedthe samedistanceas eachsprinkler is spacedand beyondthe last nozzleby a distanceof one-half the radiusof the circle coveredby the last nozzle.The catch volume andtime should be recordedfor one completepassof the sprinkler line. C18. Numerical Models.-Previous editions of this manual contained a section on building and using electric analogmodels for solving ground-water problems.Although electric modelsare still viableanduseful tools, they areused infrequently thesedays.With the adventof low-cost digital computers,numerical modelsare more commonly employedto solve ground-waterproblems. In the field of drainageand seepage, most numerical models use either the ftite-difference method or the finite-element method to solve the governing partial differential flow equations.Numerical models are powerful tools for solving difficult problems.They can be usedto solvecomplex problemsinvolving nonhomogeneous anisotropicmaterials,highly variable problem geometry, spatialand temporalhydraulic stresses, andcomplex initial andboundaryconditions for both saturatedand unsaturatedflow. Solute transport is increasingly more important, and modelsam availablethat provide this capability. A number of robust, well-proven, and acceptedgeneral-purpose, ftite-element andfinite-difference codesare availableat reasonable cost. Code selection shouldnotbetakenlightly; inchoosinga code,costshouldnotbe thesolecriterion for selection.Somecodesinherently dealwith certain classes of problemsbetter than others. Additionally, easeof use, documentation,and the availability of preprocessor andpostprocessor utility programscanmake themodeling task less burdensome. The relative merits of the numericalmethod the codeemploys and the broad topic of constructing,calibrating,andverifying a numerical ground-watermodel arebeyondthe scopeof this manual.The literatureis repletewith articleson these subjects. Models can serve as an important framework into which all the available information canbe integrated.Coarse,pt&minary modelsand existing information can be used at the outset of a study to explore the sensitivity of parameters and to identify data deficiencies.When modeling is initiated early in a project, modeling and data collection can be coupledin an iterative process.Using the model asthe framework for understanding, further damcollectioncanbe directed to specific areasof need, which results in a more thorough knowledge of the systemand a more cost-effectiveuseof availablefunds. Numeric modelsam not a panacea for a lack of information about the physical system.The modelresults are only as good as the dataused and the assumptions made. &19. Bibliography, Bureau of Reclamation, 1962-1971, Use of Water on Federal Irrigation Projects, Seriesof Reports. Glenn, B. P., and E. Barbour, December 1970, A Guide to Using Interest Factors in Economic Analysis of Water Projects, Bureauof Reclamation, A Water ResourcesTechnicalPublication.

CHAPTER IV-DRAINAGE

INVESTIGATIONS

145

International Institute for Land Reclamation and Improvement, May 1972, Drainage Principles and Applications, Wageningen,The Netherlands, PublicationNo. 16, vol. 1. Merriam, John L., 1968, Irrigation System Evaluation and Improvement, California State Polytechnic College, Blake Printery, San Luis Obispo, Calif. Pair, ClaudeH., December 1968,Water Distribution Under Sprinkler Irrigation, Transactionsof the American Society of Agricultuml Engineers, Vol. 11, No. 5, pp. 648-651.

((Chapter V

DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

A. Spacing of Drains

51. Introduction.-Nearly all irrigated areaseventuallyrequire installation of some spaceddrains. Proper spacing of these drams is very important but difficult in areaswhere field experience is inadequate or nonexistent.Spacingof drains that will be efficient, effective, and economical dependsupon the full considerationof such factors as: depth of dram, depth to a slowly permeable barrier,hydraulic conductivity and specificyield of the soil, requireddepthof soil aeration for plant growth, effects of irrigation practices on deep percolation, length of irrigation season,number of irrigations, amount of deeppercolation, climatic conditions,and irrigation water quality. Every effort shouldbe madeto obtain information from operatingsystemsin the vicinity of the study or in other areaswheresimilar soil, topographic,climatic, and other related conditions permit comparisons.Suchinformation may verify drainagerequirementsas determinedfrom mathematicalanalyses.If wide vat% ations exist in the spacingrequirementsbetween the field observationsand the mathematicalsolution, field datashouldbe checkedto determinewhetherirrigation practices,moisturerequirements,andwater tableconditionsare satisfactory for optimum plant growth. Most methodsfor estimatingdrain spacingare empirical and were developed to meet specific characteristicsof a particular area.Somemethodsam basedon assumptionsof steady-stateflow conditions where the hydraulic head doesnot vary with time. Other methods assume transient flow conditions where the hydraulic headchanges with time. The very natureof precipitation andirrigation practicesdictatesthat storageanddischargeof groundwater follow a nansientor nonsteady-state flow regimen. 5-2. Transient Flow Method of Drain Spacing.-In the 1950s,the Bureau of Reclamation developeda method for estimating dram spacing based on transientflow conditions that relatesthe behavior of the water table to time and drain spacing.Thevalidity of this methodis demonstrated by theclosecorrelation betweenactual spacingand drawdown values,and the correspondingpredicted values.Reclamationsmethod of determining&am spacingaccountsfor time, water quantity, geology, and soil characteristicspertinent to the irrigation of
147

148

DRAINAGE MANUAL

specific areas.Although this method was developedfor use in a relatively flat area,laboratoryresearchand field experienceshow the method is applicablefor areashaving slopesup to 10 percent. Figures 5-l and 5-2 comparemeasured values of dmin spacing and water table heights with predicted values using Reclamationsmethods. S-3. Background of the Method.-In general,water tables rise during the irrigation seasonin responseto deeppercolating water from irrigation applications. In arid areas, water levels reach their highest elevation after the last irrigation of the season. In areasof year-roundcropping,maximum levels occur at the endof the peakperiodof irrigation. The water tablerecedes during the slack or nonirrigation period andstartsrising againwith the beginningof irrigation the following year. Nearly all shallow water tablesexhibit this cyclic phenomenon on an annualbasis.Shallowwater tablerises alsooccur after eachrechargeto the groundwater from precipitationor irrigation. Lowering of the water tableoccurs betweenrecharges. If annualdischargefrom an areadoesnot equalor exceedannualrecharge,the generalcyclic water table fluctuation trend will progressupward from year to year. Specifically, the maximum andminimum water levelsboth reachprogressively higher levelseachyear. When the annualdischarge andrechargeareabout equal,the rangeof the cyclic ammalwater table fluctuation becomesreasonably constant.This condition is defined as dynamic equilibrium. Figure 5-3 showstwo ground-waterhydrogmphsthat indicatehow the above conditionsdevelopedunder irrigation in two specific areas.The hydrogmph for (A) on this figure showsthe upwardcyclic trend andthe stabilizationof the cyclic fluctuation. Dynamic equilibrium occurred when the maximum water table elevationreacheda point sufficiently below groundlevel to precludethe needfor artificial drainage.The hydmgmph for (B) shows a similar upward trend of the water table in another area. At this location, the maximum 1956 water table elevationandthe continuedupward trend indicatedtheimminenceof a damaging water table condition in 1957.Therefore,a drain was constructedearly in 1957, and its effect in producing dynamic equilibrium at a safe water table level is evidentin the graph. Reclamations method of determining drain spacing takes into account the transientregimenof the ground-waterrechargeand discharge.The method gives spacings which producedynamicequilibrium below a specifiedwater tabledepth The method alsoprovidesfor consideration of specific soils,irrigation practices, crops, and climatic characteristics of the areaunderconsideration. 5-4. Data Required.-Figure 54 showsgraphicallythe relationshipbetween the dimensionlessparameters: versusE and 5 versusg basedon the

transientflow theory. This figure shows relationshipsmidpoint between drains for caseswhere drains are locatedaboveor on a barrier.

(feet

400 350 300 250 200 150 100 50 800 ZI al 600 p

50

100 Computed

150 Spacing,

200 meters

250

300

Figure 5-l.-Comparison

between computed and measured drain spacings. Drawing 103-D-1649.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

151

F ?I Y (6) OBSERVATION HOLE 4S-2tE 0

IO

YEAR

Figure 5-3.-Ground-waterhydrographs.

Drawing 103-D-777.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

153

Definitions of the various terms in the parametersare as follows: (a) yO,and H.-The water table height abovethe drain midway betweenthe drainsand at the beginningof eachindividual drain-outperiod, is represented by y. and H for drains above and on the barrier, respectively.As used in the drain spacingcalculations,y0andH representthe water tableheight immediatelyafter a water table buildup caused by deeppercolationfrom precipitation or irrigation. Parameterterms y0 and H also representthe height of the water table at the beginningof eachnew drain-outperiodduring the lowering processwhich occurs in the noninigation season. The maximum valuesof y0 and H are basedon the requirementsfor an aeratedmot zonewhich, in turn, are basedon the crops and climatic conditionsof eachspecific area. (b) y and Z.-The water table height above the drain, midway between the drainsand at the endof eachindividual drain-out period, is represented by y and Z for drainsaboveandon the barrier, respectively.Thesetermsrepresentthe level to which the midpoint water table elevationfalls during a drain-out period. (c) Hydraulic Conductivity, K.-As used in this method, K representsthe hydraulic conductivity in the flow zone between drains. Specifically, K is the weighted averagehydraulic conductivity of all soils between the maximum allowable water table height and barrier, the barrier being a slowly permeable zone. The mathematicalsolution of the transientflow theory assumes homogeneous,isotropic soils in this zone. Such assumptions rarely exist; however, the use of a weighted K value has given a good correlation betweenmeasuredand computedvaluesfor dmin spacingand water table fluctuations. The K value is obtainedby averagingthe results from in-place hydraulic conductivity tests at different locationsin the areato be drained. (d) Qecijic Yield, S.-The specific yield of a soil is the amount of ground water that will drain out of a saturatedsoil under the force of gravity. S is appmximatelytheamountof water heldby a soil material,on a percent-by-volume basis,betweensaturationandfield capacity.Specificyield, therefore,relatesthe amountof fluctuation of the water table to the amount of ground water addedto or drainedfrom the system.On the basisof considerable data,a generalrelationshiphasbeendeveloped betweenhydraulic conductivity and specific yield. This relationshipis shown on figure 24 in chapterII, and valuesfrom this figure can be usedto estimatespecific yield valuesusedin the drain spacingcalculationsin most cases. Becausethe fluctuation of the water table in a drainedareatakesplace in the soil profile zone between the drains and the maximum allowable water table height, it is reasonable to assumethat the averagespecific yield in this zone will adequately reflect water table fluctuations. The useof figure 2-4 to estimatethe specific yield requires that the weighted averagehydraulic conductivity in this zonebe determined. The specific yield value, when usedin the parametersof figure 54, accounts for the amountof drainoutassociated with lowering the water table. To determine

154

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

the buildup of the water tablefrom eachincrementof recharge,the depthof each rechargeshouldbe divided by the specific yield. (e) Time, ~-This variablerepresentsthe drain-out time betweenirrigations or at specifiedintervals during the nonirrigation season.In an irrigated area,the time periods between irrigations have generally beenestablished.Methods for estimating unestablished time periods are discussedin section 2-6. The drain spacingcalculationsshouldseparatethe longer nonirrigation season into two or three approximatelyequaltime periods for accuracyin results. fj) Flow Depth, D.-The flow depth is the averageflow depth transmitting water to the drain As shown on figure 54, D is equal to the distancefrom the barrier to thedrain, plus one-halfthedistancefrom the drainto themidpoint water table at the beginningof any tinout period, D = d + +.

The theoreticalderivationfor the casewhere drainsarelocatedabovea barrier was basedon the assumptionthat the distancefrom the drain to the barrier, & is large comparedwith the midpoint water table height, y,,. This posesa question regardingcases wherethe drainsareabovethe barrier, but d is not largecompared with yO.In verifying the applicability of figure 5-4, studieshave indicatedwhen d 5 0.10, the spacingcomputationsshouldbemadeasif the drainswere located YO on the barrier, and when z 2 0.80, the computationsshouldbe made as if the drainswe% locatedabovethe barrier. A family of curvescould be drawn between the two curves shown on figure 54, or a computer program could be used to accomt for the $ valuesbetween 0.10 and 0.80. The need for either of these refmementsin the practical applicationof this method is not necessary. (g) Druin Spucing, L.-The drain spacingis the distancebetween parallel drains.However, this distanceis not calculateddirectly usingthis method. Values of L must be assumeduntil a solution by trial and error results in annualwater tablebuildup anddeclinethat will offset eachother within acceptable limits. This resulting condition is definedas a stateof dynamic equilibrium. S5. Convergence.-When ground water flows toward a drain, the flow converges nearthe dmin. This convergency causes aheadlossin the ground-water systemandmust be accountedfor in the drain spacingcomputations.Figure 54 doesnot account for this convergencyloss when the drain is above the barrier, and the drain spacingderivedthrough the use of this curve is too large. A method of accounting for convergenceloss, developed by the Dutch engineerHooghoudt, considersthe loss in head required to overcome convergencein the primary spacingcalculation.His method accountsfor this headloss by using an equivalent depth, d, to replace the measured depth, d in the calculation of D = d + $. Hooghoudts correction for convergencecan be determinedfrom the following equations:

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTFIUCTION

155

d=

1 + d/L(2.55 In d/r-c)
d =

for0 < t IO.31

2.55 (In L/r-1.15)

for:

> 0.31

where: d = d = L = r =
C

distancefrom drain to barrier Hooghoudtsequivalentdistancefrom drain to barrier drainspacing outsideradius of pipe plus gravel envelope

= 3.55-1.6;+2

In = log,= Natural log Curves have also been developed for determining d and ate shown on figures5-5a, 5-5b, 5-6a, and5-6b. Thesecurveswere developed for aneffective drain radius, r, of 0.18 meter (0.6 foot) and should cover most pipe drain conditions.The effective drain radius is defined as the outsideradius of the pipe plus the thicknessof the gravel envelope.The use of the Hooghoudt method is also a trial and error processof assumingdrain spacings.The d value for the assumedspacingis obtainedfrom figures 5-5a, 5-5b, 5-6a, or 54b and is used to obtain the corrected average flow depth, D = d + $. This method of correcting for convergence has been found to be most appropriatefor use with Reclamationsmethod of determiningdrain spacingand dischargerates. If the spacingthat results from use of the equivalentdepth d is reducedby more than 5 percentfrom the spacingthat resultsfrom useof the initial depth d, anotheriteration shouldbe doneusing the initial depthd andthe reducedspacing that resultedfrom the fust d. If the drainspacinghasbeencorrectedfor convergence andthedraindischarge is to be computedfrom the formulas of section5-l 1, the correctedaverageflow thickness,D, shouldbe used. Correction for convergenceshouldalsobe madewhen using the steady-state drain spacingformulas of section5-10. The curve of figure 54 for the drain on the barrier is basedon a solution with the convergence accountedfor in the initial mathematicalmodel. Therefore, no correction for convergence is requiredwhen using this curve.

156
0.3 0.4 0.5 0.1 i

DRAINAGE

h4ANUAL

2 3

20 30 40 50 70 100

200 300 0.3 0.5 0.7 1 2 345 7 10 20 ~40507OlW 200300

d Cmetewl

Figure 5-5a.-Curves for deteunining Drawing 103-D-1653.

Hooghoudts

couvergence correction (metric units):

Figure 5-5b.-Curves for detemining units). Dmwing 103-D-1653.

Hooghoudts convergence correction (U.S. customary

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION
120 M 43

157

42 33 38 33 30 27 24 < = -5 0 21 13 15 12 0 5 3 0 3 45 7 10 203050 loo L (melets) 300 500 NY33 3ooo = 42 meters

Figure 5-6a.-Expanded curves for determining Hooghoudts convergence correction (metric units). Drawing 103-D-1654.

Figure 5-6b.-Expanded curves for deWmining (U.S. customary units). Drawing 103-D-1654.

Hooghoudts

convergence correction

158

DRAINAGE MANUAL

56. Deep Percolation and Buildup.-Deep percolation from any source causesa buildup in the water table. The methods of estimating drain spacing developed by the Bureau of Reclamation require that deep percolation and buildup in the water table from eachsourceof recharge(rainfall, snowmelt, or irrigation application) be known or estimatedand accountedfor in the drain spacingcalculations. When a drainageproblem exists on an operatingproject and dramsare being planned,the buildup in the water tablecaused by irrigation applicationscan best be determinedby field measurements. The water table depthshouldbemeasured at severallocationsin the areato be drainedon the day beforeand on the day after severalirrigation applications.The averagebuildup shown by thesetwo measurements should be used in the spacingcomputations. These measurements obviate the needfor theoreticalestimateson the amountof deeppercolation,and relate the buildup to the actualirrigation operationsof the areato be drained. In the planning stage of new projects or on operating projects where the measured buildupis not available,the amountof expecteddeeppercolationmust be estimated from each irrigation application. The buildup is computed by dividing the amount of deeppercolationby the specific yield of the material in the zone where the water table is expectedto fluctuate. Table 5-l shows deep percolationas a percentage of the irrigation net input of water into the soil to be considered. Thesepercentages are given on the basisof various soil texturesand on infiltration ratesof the upper root zonesoils. The following examplesshow how to usetable 5-l to obtaindeeppercolation and, in turn, the water table buildup: Example 1: Assumethe irrigation applicationis known to be 150millimeters (about 6 inches)per irrigation, soils in the root zone havea loam texture with an infiltration rate of 25 millimeters (1 inch) per hour, and about 10percent of the 150-millimeter (6&h) applicationruns off. The net input of water into the soil per irrigation would then be 90 percentof the 15Omillimeter (6-inch) application, or 135millimeters (5.4 inches).From table 5-1, the deeppercolationwould be 20 percentfor an infiltration rate of 25 millimeters (1 inch) per hour. Therefore,the deep percolationis 135 x 0.20 = 27 millimeters (1.08 inches).If the hydraulic conductivity in the zone between the root zone and the drain depth is 25 millimeters (1 inch) per hour, then the specific yield correspondingto this hydraulic conductivity is 10 percent, as given by figure 2-4. The buildup of the water table per irrigation is the deeppercolationdivided by 27 -= 270 millimeters (10.8 inches). the specific yield, or 0.10

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

159

Table S-L-Approximate

deep percolationfrom (percent of net input).

By texture Texture CL SiCL SC C By infiltration rate

surface irrigation

Texture Ls SL L SE SCL Jnf. rate mm/b ( Ad (kFO5) 1.27 2.54 (JO) 5.08 w9 7.62 (.30) 10.2 (.40) (.50) 12.7 15.2 W) 20.3 (.80)

Percent 30 26 22 18 14 Deep percolation, percent 3 5 8 10 12 14 16 18

Percent 10 6 6 6

h&fate mm/h ( /h) 25.4 (YOO) 31.8 (1.25) (1.50) 38.1 50.8 (2.00) 63.5 (2.50) 16.2 (3.00) 102.0 (4.00)

Deep percolatioq
Percent

20 22 24 28 31 33 37

Example2: Assumethe total readily availablemoisture in the root zone(allowable consumptiveusebetweenirrigations) hasbeendeterminedas 107millimeters (4.2 inches) and that the infiltration rate of the soil in the area is 25 millimeters (1 inch) per hour with a corresponding deeppercolationof 20 percent. The net input of water into the soil per irrigation will be s = 134millimeters (5.25 inches),where 0.80 = 1.00 - 0.20. The deeppercolation will be 134- 107= 27 millimeters (1.05 inches).The buildup in the water table per irrigation would be this deeppercolation amount divided by the specific yield in the zone between the drain and the maximum allowablewater table. Rainfall in arid amasis usually, but not necessarily,so small that the effects of deeppercolationfrom this sourceduring the irrigation season canbeneglected. In semihumidareas,deeppercolationfrom rain may be appreciable andmust be accounted for inestimating subsurface drainagerequirements. Whenit is apparent that precipitationis a significant sourceof soil moistureanddeeppercolation,the curve of figure 5-7 can be used to estimate the infiltrated precipitation. This infiltrated precipitation can then be usedin a manner similar to that describedin section 2-6 to determine the resultant irrigation scheduleand the amount and timing of deeppercolation from rainfall and irrigation. In areasthat frequently have 3 or 4 days of rainfall separated by only 1 or 2 rainlessdays, the transient flow methodsyield more accuratevaluesfor dischargeif the accumulateddeep

Measured 45 0 I 40 I I I 0.5 1.0 1.5

Precipitation

(inches) 2.5

I I I I I I I I I I I I

I I

IEASURED TECIPITATlOC 31mm (1.22) 4

If IFILTRATEC RAINFALL 26mm (I.047

CALCULATIONS

33mm (1.30)

3mm (0.11) 22mm CQ65, 60 1 65

0 0 5

I I
IO

15

IIIIII
20

25

30

IIll

35

40

111
45 Precipitation

25mm CO.969 I I I 55 (millimeters)

31(1.227+ 20 (O&Y) = 5lmm(2.02) Accumulative infiltrated rainfall from curve = 38mm (1.51) 38(1.51) - 26 (l&I? = I2 mm (0.441) 51 C2.02? + 33 U.30) = 64mm (3323 Accumulative infilrated roinfall fram = 41 nvn(l.62? 41(1.62%36(1.51)=3mm

cwve 011

3
ICH

I
I

I
75

I
80

I
65

I
90

I
95

Measured

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

161

percolationfrom infiltrated precipitation is assumedto occur on the last day of min. Deep percolationfrom spring snowmelt occurs in some areasand shouldbe accountedfor where possible.In someareas,the buildup in the water table from this snowmelt can be measuredin observationwells and used directly in the spacingcomputations.In other areas,the estimatemay haveto be basedentirely on judgment and generalknowledgeof the area. 5-7. Using the Data-The method of using the datadescribedin section5-3 to obtaindynamicequilibrium is briefly described in this section.A more detailed description is given in examples shown in subsequentsections. A computer program has also been developedby Reclamationpersonnelto perform drain spacingcomputationsand analyzereturn flows for salinity studies. The drain spacingcomputationshavealsobeenadaptedfor use on a personal computer. This program is called the Agricultural DrainagePlanningProgram (ADPP). The progmm manualanddisksare availablethroughthe Superintendent of Documents,U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office. Beginthe calculationsby assuming a drain spacing, L, andthe assumptionthat the water table reachesits maximum allowableheight, yO,immediately after the last irrigation applicationof eachseason. At leasttwo successive positionsof the water table are calculated during the nonirrigation season(even in areas of year-roundcropping, a slackperiod occurssometimeduring the year). Then, the buildup and drainout from eachirrigation is calculatedfor the irrigation season. If the assumed spacingresultsin dynamicequilibrium conditions,the water table height at the endof the seriesof calculationsfor the irrigation season will equal the maximum allowablewater table height, yO.If y0 after the last irrigation is not equalto the maximum allowabley0the procedureis repeatedwith a different L. Normally, only two drain spacing assumptionsare necessaryto verify the dynamic equilibrium-producingspacing.A straight-linedrelation betweentwo assumedspacingsand their resulting valuesof y0 after a completeannualcycle will permit determinationof the proper spacingif the original assumptionsare reasonably close. Where the annualhydrogmph peaksat some time other than the end of the irrigation season,the normal high point should be used as a starting point for calculations.This high point often occursin the spring where sprinkler irrigation is usedin semiaridor subhumidclimates. S-8. Drain Above the Barrier Layer.-The following exampleis given to illustratethe methodof determiningthe drainspacingfor a drain abovethebarrier. The following conditionsare assumed: (a) The distancefrom the barrier to the drain, d, is 6.7 meters (22 feet), and the depthof the drain is 2.4 meters (8 feet). (b) The root zonerequirementis 1.2meters (4 feet), which givesa maximum allowable water table height, yO, above the drain of 2.4 - 1.2 = 1.2 meters (8 - 4 = 4 feet).

162

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

(c) The weighted averagehydraulic conductivity in the zone between the barrier and the maximum allowable water table height is 127 millimeters (5 inches)per hour, or 3.05 meters (10 feet) per day. (d) Thehydraulicconductivity isuniform withdepth. Therefore,thehydraulic conductivity in the zonebetweenthe maximum allowablewater table height and the drain is also 127 millimeters (5 inches) per hour. From figure 2-4, the corresponding value of specific yield is 18 percent. (e) The deeppercolationfrom eachirrigation (also assumedto be the same from a springsnowmelt)is 25.4millimeters (1 inch), or 0.0254meter (0.083foot). The water table buildup from eachincrementof rechargeis the deeppercolation .(n54 divided by the specific yield, or o.l8 = 0.14 meter (0.46 foot). cf) The approximatedatesof the snowmelt andthe irrigation applicationsare asfollows:
Time between irrigations, &YS

Irrigation or srwwmelt (SM) SM

Date

First Second Third Fourth Fifth Sixth

April 22 June6 July 1 July 21 August 4 August 18 September1

45 25 20 14 14 132

Therefore, the nonirrigation period is 233 days (365 - 132). As previously mentioned,this period shouldbe divided into two or three approximatelyequal periods;for this example,usetwo periods: oneof 116daysandoneof 117days. A drain spacing,L, of 442 meters (1,450 feet) resulted from two prior trial calculations. Assuming that the water table reachesthe maximum allowable height immediately after the applicationof the last irrigation of eachseason, the computationsbegin at this point in time. The fust stepin applying the method is to computethe g valuefor the first

time period. Using this value, the value of $ is then found from figure 54. Knowing the initial yO,we can then calculatey, the height to which the midpoint water table falls during this time period. This process is repeated for each successive time period, which resultsin a water table height for eachsuccessive rechargeand drainout. The processis shown in tables5-2a and 5-2b.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

163

Table 5-2a.-Computation of water tablefluctuation in meters with drain abovethe barrier layer.

al
Irrigation No. 6

Q
Time period, t, days 117 116

0
Buildup per inigation, meters

@
YO. meters 1.22 0.701

0
D, meters 7.31 7.05 6.98 7.01 7.07 7.13 7.19 7.26

Q
KDt sr? 0.0742 .0710 .0272 .0152 .0123 .0087 .0087 .0088

8
1 YO 0.575 .590 .870 .958 .978 .985 .985 .985

Q
1. meters 0.701 0.414 0.482 0.596 0.720 0.847 0.972 1.095

SM 45 1 25 2 20 3 14 4 14 5 14 6

0.140 0.554 .140 0.622 .140 0.736 .140 0.860 .140 0.987 .140 1.112 .140 1.235

Table %2b.-Computation of water tablefluctuation in feet with drain abovethe barrier layer.

al
Irrigation No. 6

Q
Time period, t, days 117 116

Co
Buildup per irrigation, feet

@
YO. feet 4.00 2.30

Q
D, feet 24.00 23.15 22.91 23.02 23.20 23.41 23.61 23.82

8
KDt z 0.0742 .0710 .0272 .0152 .0123 .0087 .0087 .0088

0
1 YO 0.575 .590 .870 .958 .978 .985 .985 .985

Q
Y. feet 2.30 1.35 1.58 1.95 2.36 2.77 3.17 3.58

SM 45 1 25 2 20 3 14 4 14 5 14 6

0.46 1.82 .46 2.04 .46 2.41 .46 2.81 .46 3.22 .46 3.63 .46 4.04

164

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Explanationof eachcolumn: Column @.-Number of each successiveincrement of recharge, such as snowmelt (SM), rain, or irrigation. Column Q.-Length of drainoutperiod (time betweensuccessive increments of rechargeor betweenincrementaldrainoutperiods). Column @.-Instantaneous buildup from each recharge increment (deep percolationdivided by specific yield). Column @.-Water table height above drains at midpoint between drains immediatelyafter eachbuildupor at beginningof incrementaltime periodsduring the nonirrigation seasondrainout (col. @ of preceding period plus col. @ of current period). Column @.-Average depth of flow, D = d + ? (d shouldbe limited to $). Column @.-A calculatedvaluerepresentingthe flow conditionsduring any particular drainout period: sL2 K x col. 0 x col. 0. Column B.-Value taken from the curve on figure 5-4. Column. @-Midpoint water tableheight abovedrain at endof eachdrainout period, col. @ x col. 6. Table5-2 showsa fmal y0 = 1.235meters(4.04 feet), which is approximately equal to the maximum allowable y0 of 1.22 meters (4.00 feet). Therefore, the spacingof 442 meters (1,450 feet) results in dynamic equilibrium. As statedin section5-4, this spacingsolution doesnot accountfor headloss due to convergence. Using Hooghoudts method of correcting for convergenceas given in section54 and using figure 5-5, we find that for d = 6.7 meters (22 feet) and a drain spacingof 442 meters (1,450 feet), the equivalentdepth, d, is 6.1 meters (20 feet). TheD to be usedin the dram spacingcomputationsis: D = d f 2 = 6.1+ F. The trial and error approachis againusedto find the correctedspacing of 427 meters(1,400feet). Table5-3 showsthe resultsof usingD with a spacing of 427 meters ( 1,400feet). The calculationsin table5-3 result inessentiallythe samewater tableheights, yO,that were obtained in the previous calculationsin table 5-2 and verify the 427-meter (1,400-foot) spacingas corrected for convergence. Figure 5-S illustrates the water table fluctuation producedas a result of the conditions of this example.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONST!=lUCTlON

165

Table 5-3a.-Computation

of water tablefluctuation in meters with drain above the barrier layer using D as corrected by Hooghoudt.
f, days 117 116 Buildup per irrigation, meters Yor meters 1.22 0.689 0.140 45 0.554 .140 25 0.622 .140 20 0.736 .140 14 0.856 .140 14 0.987 .140 14 1.112 .140 1.235 6.65 .0087 .985 1.09 6.59 .0086 .986 0.97 6.52 .0085 .986 0.84 6.46 .0120 .970 0.71 6.41 .0149 .955 0.59 6.73 .0267 .870 0.48 D, meters 6.71 6.44

Irrigation

No.
6

KD't
2SL 0.0730 .0695

y YO
0.565 .600

Y,
meters

0.69
0.41

SM 1 2 3 4 5 6

Table S-3b.-Computation of water tablefluctuation in feet with drain above the barrier layer using D as corrected by Hooghoudt.
Irrigation

No.
6

6 days 117 116

Buildup per inigation, feet

YO. feet 4.00 2.26

D, feet 22.00 21.13 20.91 21.02 21.21 21.40 21.61 21.82

KD't
SLY 0.0730 .0695 .0267 .0149 .0120 .0085 .0086 .0087

y
YO 0.565 .600 .870 .955 .970 .986 .986 .985

feet 2.26 1.36 1.58 1.95 2.34 2.76 3.17 3.58

Y.

SM 45 1 25 2 20 3 14 4 14 5 14 6

0.46 1.82 .46 2.04 .46 2.41 .46 2.80 .46 3.22 .46 3.63 .46 4.04

166

DRAINAGEMANUAL

Figure 5-8.-Water

table fluctuation chart for example problem. Drawing 103-D-776.

5-9. Drain on the Barrier Layer.-The following example is given to illustrate the methodfor determiningthe drain spacingfor a drain on the barrier. All assumptions are the sameas thosein the exampleof section5-g except that d in this example is zero. The assumptionof a drain spacingand subsequent computationsof water tableheightsarealso similar to thosefor a dmin abovethe barrier. A drain spacingof 125meters(410 feet) is assumed, and subsequent computations are shownin tables5-4a and Wb. Table SAa.-Computation
of water tablefluctuation with drain on the barrier layer.
Buildup per irrigation, meters

in meters

Irrigation

No.
6

Time period, t, days 117 116

H
meters 1.22 0.719

KHt
-is 0.1546 .0905 .0321 .0199 .0180 .0141 .0159 .0176

z H
0.590 .720 .900 .945 .950 .975 .970 .955

5
metels 0.719 0.518 0.591 0.691 0.789 0.911 1.015 1.103

SM 45 1 25 2 20 3 14 4 14 5 14 6

0.140 0.658 .140 0.732 .140 0.832 .140 0.930 .140 1.051 .140 1.158 .140

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

167

Table54b.-Computation
Irrigation Time period, t, days 117 116 SM 45 1 25 2 20 3 14 4 14 5 14 6 .46 .46 .46 .46 -46 .46 0.46

of water tablejluctuation with drain on the barrier layer.

Buildup per hi&on, feet

in feet

H
feet 4.00 2.36 2.16 2.40 2.73 3.05 3.45 3.80

KHt
sL2 0.1546 .0905 .0321 .0199 .0180 .0141 .0159 .0176

No.
6

z H
0.590 .720 .900 .945 .950 .975 .970 .955

z
feet 2.36 1.70 1.94 2.27 2.59 2.99 3.33 3.62

Table5-4 showsa final H = 1.243meters(4.08 feet), which is essentiallyequal to the maximum allowableH of 1.22meters (4.00 feet). Therefore, the spacing of 125meters(410 feet) resultsin dynamicequilibrium,andbecauseno correction for convergenceis required for this case,the final dram spacingis 125 meters (410 feet). SlO. Other Usesfor Transient Flow Curves.-The transientflow method is valid for either irrigated areas(dry climate) or humid areas.However, this manualemphasizes drainagefor irrigation in dry climates. At times, the drainageengineeris interestedin the time necessary to lower a water tableto somespecifiedlevel, or may be askedfor a drain spacingthat will lower the water table to a specific depth in a specified time. The basic data regardinghydraulic conductivity, depthto barrier, specific yield, time, and drain spacingareasrelevantin theseproblemsasin the previouslyillustratedproblems. The main difference is the simplicity in solving theseproblemsas shown in the following examples: Example 1: Drain abovethe barrier. K = 0.305 meter (1.0 foot) per day, d = 6.1 meters (20 feet), Assume: depth to dmin = 2.7 meters (9 feet), water table at ground surfaceat t = 0, specificyield = 7 percent,andexisting drains are 91 meters (300 feet) apart. Determine: Time requiredfor the water table to drop 1.5 meters (5 feet) below the ground surface.

168

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Because the water table is initially at the groundsurface, y,, = 2.7 meters (9 feet);
D = d +% = 7.45 meters (24.5 feet);

d =4.4 meters (14.5 feet) from figure 5-5; and,

D' = d+t

=575meters(19feet).

y = 2.7 - 1.5 = 1.2 meters (4 feet) ; = g =0.444

KDt

From figure 5-4, m

= 0.096when:

= 0.444

- SLz = 0.096for t (metric andU.S. customaryunits): Solvingtheparameter

KDt

us customary t = 0.096 SD _ 0.096(0.07)(300)2 =31.8 days . . , KD' (1W)

From the abovecalculations,the water table will drop 1.5 meters (5 feet) below the ground surfacein about 32 days. Example2: Using example 1, determinethe drain spacingrequired to drop the water table 1.5 meters (5 feet) below the ground surfacein 20 days. Using a similar approach,m
KDt

= 0.096, when ;

= 0.444.

(uncorrectedfor convergence)

CHAPTER

V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

169

From figure 5-5, d= 4.00 meters(13.1 feet) andD = d+ % = 5.35 meters (17.5 feet).

L = [(gx$mg]m

= 69.1 meters (227 feet) (secondtrial)

From figure 5-5, d= 3.9 meters(12.8 feet) andD= 5.25 meters(17.2 feet). L = [(~~~6~~]m=68.5meters(224feet)(cormcteddminspacing). A drain spacingof 68.5 meters (224 feet) is required to lower the water table 1.5meters (5 feet) below the ground surfacein 20 days. S-11. Drain SpacingUsing Steady-StateFormulas-The theory of steadystatedrainageconsiders a uniform, steadyrate of rechargeto the drainagesystem which, under specifiedconditions of depth of dram depth to barrier, hydraulic conductivity, and dmin spacing,will causethe water table betweenthe drainsto rise to and remainat someheight so long as that rate of rechargecontinues. For eachsetof physicalconditions(depth of dram, depth to barrier, height of water table betweendrains,and hydraulic conductivity), there is a different drain spacingfor eachassumed valueof steadyrecharge.Therefore,the validity of the dram spacing obtained by use of the steady-stateformulas dependson the assumedsteady recharge. The steady-stateassumptionsseldom representthe conditions produced as a result of the intermittent rechargesfrom irrigation applicationsand the transient flow conditions. The method of determining the steady rechargerate is based on the experienceof Reclamation engineersin comparingtransientand steady-state solutions. The steady-state dram spacingformula generallyusedin the irrigated areasof the United Statesis the Donnanformula. Donnanformula,LZ = 4K(?-a2) where: drain spacing,meters (feet); hydraulic conductivity, meters (feet) per day; a distancebetweendram depth and barrier, meters(feet); b distance between maximum allowable water table height between drainsand the barrier, meters (feet); and rate, cubicmetersper square meter (cubicfeet per squarefoot) Qd = recharge per &Y. Note: This formula is valid for any consistentset of units.
L K

= = = =

170

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

As previouslymentioned,the validity of this formula depends upon the value of Qdused.Throughexperience, engineers havefound that Qdshouldbe derived by dividing the unit depthof deeppercolation from an irrigation applicationby the number of daysbetweenirrigations during the peakportion of the irrigation season. This value of steadyrechargeshouldbe used for the casewhere drains are above a barrier. Where drains am on a barrier, it has been found that this rechargerate should,generally,be divided by two. The following examplesshow the use of the Donnan formula: Example 1: Assumethe conditionsof the previousexample in section5-8, wherethe drainswere locatedabovethe barrier andthe transient flow method was used. From section5-8: Deeppercolation= 25 millimeters (1 inch) = .025 meter (0.083 foot); Number of daysbetweenirrigations during peak of season = 14 days; d = 6.7 meters (22 feet), maximum y0 = 1.22meters (4 feet); D = d+$ = 6.7+? = 7.32 meters (24 feet); and

K = 3.05 meters (10 feet) per day. In steady-state nomenclature: a = d = 6.7 meters (22 feet) and u2= 44.9 m2 (484 ftz), b = d + max. y0 = 6.7 + 1.22 = 7.92 meters (26 feet) and b2 = 62.7 m2 (676 ftz), and Q =0.025 = 0.0018meter (0.0059 feet) per day. d 14 Using Donnans formula: L2 = (4)(3.05)(62.7- 44.9) = 120,645m2 (1,300,OOO ft2) 0.0018 and L = 347 meters(1,140 feet) ascomparedto 442 meters (1,450feet) by the transientflow method in section 5-8. Donnansformula usually gives results that agree with the transient flow method within plus or minus 20 percent. Example2: Assumethe conditionsof the previousexample in section5-9, where the drains were located on the barrier and the transient flow method was used. From section5-9: Deep percolation= .025meter (0.083 foot), Numberof daysbetweenirrigationsduring peakof season = 14days,d = 0, maximum H = 1.22meters (4 feet), and K = 3.05meters (10 feet) per day.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTFWCTION

171

In steady-state nomenclature: a=d=Oanda*=0; b=d+max.H=O+ 1.22= 1.22meters(4feet)andb*= 1.49m*(16ft*); and 0.025 Qd = 14 = 0.0018meter (0.0059 foot) per day. As mentionedpreviously, this value for Qd shouldbe divided by two for drainson the barrier. Then, Qd = 0.0018 2 = 0.0009 meter (0.00295foot) per by. Using Donnansformula: L2 = (4)(3.05)(1.49) = 20,200 m* (217,000 ft 2) and L = 142 meters 0.0009 (466 feet) as compared to 125 meters (410 feet) by the transient flow method in section5-9. Thepreviousexamples show that the steady-state method doesnot necessarily result in the samedrain spacings asthe transientflow methods.BecauseQdis an empirical value, this result is expected.The steady-state method does,however, give spacingswhich are reasonablyclose for use where quick estimates are needed or asgoodfmt approximations for the transientflow method. Very narrow spacings calculatedby the steady-state method havebeenfound invalid because of problems with the basic assumptionof steady-stateconditions. The drain spacingsobtainedusing the steady-state methodshouldbe correctedfor convergence,using the methodspreviously describedin section5-5. 5-12. Determining Discharge Froni Spaced Drains.-The discharge of spaceddrains canbe computedusing the following formulas:
qp = 86

, ,

(for drains abovea barrier) (for dramson a barrier)

qp = &

where:
qP

y,orH
K D

= dischargefrom two sidesper unit length of drain, cubic meters per secondper meter (cubic feet per secondper foot): = maximum height of water table abovedrain invert, meters (feet); = weightedaveragehydraulic conductivity of soil profile between maximumwater tableandbarrieror drain,meters(feet) per day; = averageflow depth (D = d + $) , meters (feet);

172

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

d L

= distancefrom drain to barrier, meters (feet); and = dram spacing,meters (feet).

The terms in the aboveformulas relate to the terms shown on figure 5-4. Subsurface water flowing into an areafrom upslopesourcescan be evaluated quantitativelyby useof the basic equation: q. = KiA (3)

where: qu = unit flow, cubic meters (feet) per second: K = weighted averagehydraulic conductivity of the saturatedstrata above the barrier, meters (feet) per second; i = slope (obtained from a ground-water table contour map along a line normal to the contours,because flow is in this direction); and A = areathrough which flow occurs, squaremeters (feet). Generally, the maximum water table height would be used to obtain the saturateddepth from which K is obtained.This same depth would be used to obtain the area,A, for a unit width. The plane along which the area must be obtainedis parallel to the contoursor normal to the direction of flow. An applicationof equation(3) is given in section5-58. The valueof quin equation(3) is the total amountof moving water within the saturatedprofile above the barrier; however, an interceptor dram cannot be expectedto pick up more thana portion of this water when the bottom of the drain is abovethe barrier. For practicalpurposes,the dmin canbe expectedto intercept only that portion of the saturatedprofile above the water surfacein the drain Equation(3) then becomes: q,, = KiA y y+d where: q,, = K = i = A = Y = volume rate of flow per unit length of drain from underflow sources; hydraulic conductivity in meters (feet) per second; slopeof water table; saturatedareain squaremeters (feet) of flow in a unit length of width, height in meters (feet) of maximum water surfaceimmediatelyabove proposeddraim and d = distancein meters (feet) from dram invert to barrier.

The flow determinedin this mannermay originatefrom oneor severalupslope sources,depending on the circumstances. Someof thesesourcescould be underflow from upslopeirrigated farmland; seepage from canalsat high elevations;or seepage from streams,lakes,or other water bodies.Anevaluationof contributions from individual sourcesmay be necessary,or a single computation for qu may

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

173

suffice. In making a single computation for q,,, the situation must be carefully consideredto obtain either an averagevalue or limiting high and low values. Water tablecontourswill changethroughoutthe year. It is important that records be availablefor at leasta year so that an estimateof the valuesof i and A can be made. Sometimes,the ground-watercontribution from a surfacewater body suchas a stream, pond, or lake must be evaluated.This evaluation may be done by analyzingsurfaceand subsurface inflow, precipitation, transpirationand evaporation, imported and evaporatedwater, surface outflow, and the changein the surfacestorage. Contributions to ground water by seepage from canalscan be obtainedby a ponding test. In this test, seepage loss can be measuredby changesin volume, correctedas necessaryfor transpirationand evapomtionlosses.Other methods for estimatingseepage lossesare describedin the following paragraphs. In the planning phaseof an irrigation project, considerationshouldbe given to the effects seepagefrom unlined canals and laterals has on the drainage requirement. If lining is neededbut not provided, additional drains may be requiredto protect nearbycrops. A method of estimatingthe seepage losses from unlinedcanalsand lateralsis given in section5-15. To evaluatethe benefits from reducingcanalseepage to the groundwater, the amountof this seepage must be known. The effect of canallining on the drainage requirementcanbe determinedanda cost comparison madebetweencanallining and drain construction.The drainagerequirementmay be reducedby lining the canalsand in someinstances may beeliminated.Lining of a canaldoesnot permit the assumptionthat seepage is eliminatedbecauseeven the best lining usually permits someseepage. The effect of canallining on thedrainagerequirementwill dependupon the capability of the formation to convey water in relation to the seepage rates. Drains shouldbe designedfor the total accretions: 4 = qp+ 4u (5)

where: q = cubic units of flow per unit of time per unit lengthof drain; qp = flow in aboveunits due to deeppercolation;and qu = flow in aboveunits due to underflow from outsidethe area or due to seepage from surfacewater bodies. S-13. Design Discharge for Collector Drains.-The dischargeq in equation 5, determinedfor eachunit lengthof pipe, canbe usedin the formula Q = qL, where Q is the dischargein cubic units per secondat the end of a pipe L units long. This formula for Q is applicablefor a lengthof pipe,L, which servesan area that can be irrigated within about2 days. If q is the maximum rate of discharge per unit length of pipe, the formula gives the dischargeonly for the period that the water tableis highest.At anyother time, the rate of dischargewill be lessthan maximum. For example,considera collector drain receiving water from a group

174

DRAINAGE MANUAL

of drainsservingan ama that takesabout 10 days to irrigate. Eachof the branch drainswill deliver water to the collector at a different rate, Q, dependingon the valueof q. Theparcelwhich hasbeenirrigatedmost recently will havethe highest water tableandthehighestdischarge,while the parcelirrigated first will havethe lowest discharge. Theother drainswill discharge at ratessomewhere betweenthe highestand the lowest. The summationof the Q values from eachbranchdrain, at a point on the collector drain, will be lessthan the maximum q multiplied by the total lengthof collector and all branchdrainsabovethat point. The water table height and the resultant value of Q will fluctuate mainly because of the intermittent applicationof irrigation water, because the q valuefor canalseepage, underflow, etc., is nearly constant. Little data exist on which to basea rationalizationof the reduction in flow receivedby collector drains. In general,few drainswill collect drainwater from more than about 2,000 hectares(5,000 acres)before they dischargeinto a deep, opensuboutlet.The following equations will provide a reasonable designcapacity for most collector drains: Drains abovebarrier: q = Cw Drainsonthebarrier:
2fiYfl A x 0 (7)

4KW A q = C86,4001, x

where: 4 = discharge[cubic meters (feet) per secondper unit area]; yO,K, D, H, and L are as describedin section5-12; A = areadrainedin squaremeters (feet); and C = areadischargefactor. The factor C is the relationship between possible dischargeand probable discharge,and is determinedfrom table 5-5. Table5-5.-Area
Hectares drained O-16 16-32 3249 49-65 65-8 1 81-97 97-113 113-130 130-194 194-259 259-324 324-389 389-453 453-518 518-2.023

discharge factors.
Factor, C 1.0 1.0-0.92 0.92-0.87 0.87-0.82 0.82-0.79 0.79-0.76 0.76-0.74 0.74-0.72 0.72-0.65 0.654.60 0.60-0.56 0.56-0.54 0.54-0.52 0.52-0.50 0.50

Acres drained 040 40-80 80-120 120-160 160-200 200-240 240-280 280-320 320-480 480-640 640-800 80-960 960-1.120 1,120-1,280 1.280-5.000

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

175

B.

Interceptor Drains

S-14. Introduction.The principal function of interceptordrainsis to control ground-waterlevels on sloping lands. As a generalrule, this control should be accomplished by pipe drainsexceptwhere the drain must receivesurfacerunoff. Opendrainsaremore expensive to maintain thancloseddrains,and they alsouse producibleland for their construction. Interceptor dramsam usually requiredat abrupt breaksin slopeto control the water table on the lower slope. An interceptor drain should be placed on or as close to the barrier as practical, which usually meansthe drain is located at the toe of a break in slope.However, the drain can be locatedabovethe break if the drain is placedon the barrier. Interceptor drains am required when the slope of the barrier convergeswith the ground surfaceslope.Under this condition, sufficient boringsmust be made to determineat what point the barrier is about 2.4 meters (8 feet) below the land surface. An interceptor drain at this location will intercept all water moving downhill. Specificconditionswill determinethe needfor additionaldrainseither upslopeor downslopefrom the initial interceptor. When there is an appreciabledecrease in the hydraulic conductivity on the slope, the water table rises to compensatefor the reduced conductivity by increasingthe flow area. This may causethe water table to approachthe land surface. As was the case where the barrier and ground surfaces converged, sufficient borings must be madeto determinewhere the hydraulic conductivity changes. The interceptor drain is then locatedwhere it will be about2.4 meters (8 feet) deepjust upslopeof the decrease in hydraulic conductivity. If the change is abrupt, the interceptor dram shouldbe locatedin the more permeablematerial just before the change. 5-15. Location of First Drain Below an Unlined Canal or Lateral.-Data required to determine the location of the first drain below an unlined canal or lateral are: (a) Channelsectionsand grades.
(b) Hydraulic conductivity of the material adjacentto the channel.

(c) Weightedhydraulic conductivitybetweenpermissible root zonedepthand barrier. (d) Depth to barrier. (e) Slopeof barrier and ground surfacein the vicinity of the channel. cf> Distancefrom thecenterlineof channelto the irrigatedland, seefigure 5-9.

176

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Firs+

required

drain

Figure 5-9.-Measurements needed for estimating location of first drain below an unlined canal or lateral. Drawing 103-D-1656.

The following stepsshow a methodof determiningthe distancefrom the canal centerlineto first drain: Step 1. Estimate the channel seepage under free drainageconditions. The following formulas may be used for estimating in the absence of a better method.
Kl@ 41 = +w

3.5

(8)

where: q1 = seepage in cubicmeters(feet) per linearmeter (foot) of channel per day, whenwater table is below channelbottom (free dminagecondition); Kr = hydraulic conductivity adjacentto the channelsection,meters(feet) per
day;

d B

= depthof water in channelat normal operatinglevel, meters (feet);

= width of water in channelat normal opemtinglevel, meters (feet); and 3.5 = factor usedto adjusthydraulicconductivity testvaluesto seepage losses from pondingtests. For a canal sectionwith a basewidth of 3 meters(10 feet) and 2: 1 side slopes,find q1 if K1 = 0.46 meter (1.5 feet) per day and d = 0.76 meter (2.5 feet).

Example:

q1 = 0.46 [6.1+ (2 x O.Wl = 1.Oms/m/d (10.71 fts/ft/cl) 3.5 For existingcanalsand laterals,q1 can be measured, but caremust be @en to ensurethat free drainageexistsbelow the canalor lateral. When a water taI$ehas developedunder the canalor lateral,the depthto the water tablemustbemeasured

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

177

at the sametime as the seepage. Unless a thick, permeableaquifer underliesthe canal,a ground-watermound will rise under the channeland eventuallyreachthe samelevel asthe water surfacein the channel.The tune requiredfor this to occur canbe estimatedfrom the formula:

where: t = time in days for water table mound to rise from water table depth at beginningof irrigation season to water surfacein canal; K2 = weighted hydraulic conductivity between root zone depthand barrier, meters (feet) per day; = distance from water table depth at beginning of irrigation seasonto Y normal water surfacein the channel,meters (feet); D1 = distancein meters (feet) between water table depth (at beginning of irrigation season) and the barrier plus one-half y; = seepage under free draining conditions,ms/m/d (fts/ft/d); and 41 S = specific yield determinedfrom hydraulic conductivity in the K, zone, percentby volume. For example, if the distance between water table depth (at beginning of irrigation season) and the barrier is 6.1 meters (20 feet), K2 = 0.46 m/d (1.5 ft/d), v = 2.74 meters (9 feet), S = 12 percent, and q1 = 1.0 ms/m/d (10.71 fts/ft/d) as previouslycalculated.Find the time, t, as definedabove.
D1 = 6.1 +!$

= 7.45 meters (24.5 feet), and

t = (3.1416)(0.46)(2.74)2(7.45)(0.12) = 1o days (1.0)2 Theuse of q1 in formula (9) doesnot accountfor the fact that the seepage rate beginsto decrease when the water tablemoundreaches the bottom of the channel and will continueto decrease until the mound risesto the water surfaceelevation in the channel.At this point, the seepage rate becomesessentiallyconstantandis called the terminal seepage rate, q2. The seepage rate, q2 can be determinedby the formula:

q2 = 1.0

178

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Often, an aeratedroot zonemust be maintainedat the edgeof an irrigated area adjacentto an unlined channel.This situation may require a drain. The seepage from the channeland the additionalcapacityneededin the first drain because of the seepage can be determinedby the formula:
93 =

Wzh,
X

where: q3 = seepage in cubicmeters (feet) per linearmeter (foot) of channelper day when the selected root zonedepthat the edgeof the irrigated areais maintainedby a drain; K2 = weighted hydraulic conductivity between root zone depthand barrier, meters (feet) per day: D2 = one-half the sum of the distancesbetween: (1) barrier and water surface in channel,and (2) barrier and selectedroot zone depth at the edgeof the irrigated area; h, = difference in elevationbetweenselected root zonedepthat the edgeof the irrigated field and water surfacein channel;and X = distancefrom centerlineof channelto the edgeof the irrigated area. Example: If hs = 1.22meters (4 feet) andX = 18.3meters (60 feet), then D, = (6*1+ 2.74) + (6*1+ 2.74 - 1.22) = 8 23 meters(27 feet)9md 2 0.46 x 8.23 x 1.22 93 = = 0.252ms/m/d (2.70 fWft/d) 18.3 Step2: If the canalis on a sidehill where the ground-watermovement is in onedirection andwhereq3 is lessthan q2, useq3 as the seepage factor in estimatingthe distancefrom the canalcenterlineto fnst drain. If movement is in two directions or from a canal on a ridge with irrigation on both sides,when q3 is lessthan 5, useq3, The examplein this sectionhas the canalon a sidehill with all ground-water flow in one direction and q3 less than 42; therefore, use the q3 seepageof 0.252 cubic meters per linear meter (2.70 cubic feet per linear foot) of channel per &Y.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

179

Step3: Estimatethe distancefrom the canalcenterlineto first requireddrain by the formula:

R = K@--h*) + x

243

where: R = distancein meters(feet) from channelcenterlineto fust requireddrain; h = distance in meters(feet) betweendrain and barrier: and H = distance in meters (feet) between barrier and maintainedroot zone depthat edgeof irrigated area. K2, q3, andX am aspreviously defined. Example: If h = 6.1 meters(20 feet) andH = 6.1+ (2.74 - 1.22)= 7.62 meters (25 feet), then R = 0.46 [(7.62)2- (6.1)2] + 18.3= 37.4 meters (123 feet) 2 x 0.252 Someirrigation rechargebetweenthe drain and the edgeof the irrigated area abovethe drain hasnot beenconsidered in the calculations.This rechargeareais accountedfor by using the 37.4 meters (123 feet) as the first estimate of the distance from channel centerline to first required drain Irrigation recharge betweenthedrain andthechannelcanbeestimatedandaddedto the canalseepage asfollows: (a) Deeppercolationfrom irrigation during the peakperiod, 14daysbetween irrigations = 9.40 millimeters (0.37 inch). (b) Average daily rate of rechargeduring irrigation seasonwould then be 9.40 i == 0.67 millimeter (0.00067meter or 0.0022foot) per day. 14 (c) Irrigation rechargeto be drainedbetweenthe drain and edgeof irrigated area= i(R -X) = (0.00067 (37.4 - 18.3) = 0.0128 cubic meter per linear meter (0.14 cubic foot per linear foot) of drain per day. (d) Irrigationrechargepluscanalseepage q3, = 0.0128+ 0.252= 0.265mVn/d (2.84 ftVft/d). The secondestimateof the distancefrom channelcenterlineto the first drain using irrigation rechargeplus canalseepage would be: R = 0.46 [(7.62)2- (6.1)2] + 18.3= 36.4 meters (120 feet) 2 x 0.265 Irrigation rechargewill now be i(R - X) = (0.00067)(36.6- 18.3) = 0.0123 mVn/d (0.13 ftVft/d) and,if addedto the canalseepage, q3 would not changethe secondestimateof R.

180

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Any additional parallel drams required to keep the water table below the acceptable level canbe computedby the dram spacingmethodsdescribedin part A of this chapter. Thesemethods were developedfor level lands but give an acceptable spacingfor slopesup to about 10 percent. s16. Location of Fist Drain on Irrigated Sloping Land.-When an irrigated arealies on a slope,deeppercolationfrom irrigation may causeshallow water tablesandthe needfor spaced drams.When seepage from canalsor laterals is negligible, a strip along the upper edge of the irrigated areamay not require spaceddrainsbecauseof the downhill movement of the water. However, some distance down the slope the water table will become too shallow for crop production and farming operations.This sectiondescribesa method, basedon steady-state conditions,to determinethe location of the first drain downslope. When infiltration is steady,the water tablewill approachsteady-state configurations asshown in the profiles on figures 5-10 and 5-l 1. The water table canbe determinedfrom thesefigures for combinationsof surfaceand barrier slope.A samplesolution follows: (a) Assumeseepage loss from lined canalis negligible. (b) K = averagehydraulic conductivity of soil profile under irrigated land = 5.08 centimeters(2 inches)per hour or 1.22meters (4 feet) per day. (c) t = irrigation season = 135days. (d) L = lengthof irrigated slope= 457 meters (1,500 feet). (4 DP = deep percolation from irrigation and rainfall for 135 days = 0.091 meter (0.30 foot).

Figure 5-10.-Water 103-D-1657.

table profiles on sloping barriers for 0.05 s-&

b

I0.25.

Drawing

CHAPTER

V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

181

Figure 5-ll.-Water 103-D-1658.

table profiles on sloping barriers for 0.25 s--&

b

I 1.25. Drawing

cf> Averagedaily rate of rechargeduring irrigation season, i _ DP _ 0.091 = 0.00068m3/m2/d(0.00222fts/ftz/d). t 135 (g) Ss= 0.03 m/m (ft/ft), slopeof land surface. (h) S, = 0.027 m/m (ft/ft), slopeof barrier layer. (i) Dbl = depthto barrier at upperendof irrigatedarea= 7.32 meters(24 feet). (jJ Db2 = depth to barrier at lower end of irrigated area = 5.94 meters (19.5 feet>.
0.00068
tk) 6 = 1*22(()027)2 = o*76

(1) h = height abovebarrier. (m) Interpolate between the curves on figure 5-11 to plot the &
b

= 0.76

curve shown on figure 5-12. (n) Plot the ground surfaceusing the barrier asthe abscissa (fig. 5-12). When: = O,$L =
7.32 = 0.593, and (0.027)(457) 5.94 = (o.02i3(457) = 0.481

X h - = 1, G L

182 DRAINAGE MANUAL

9
0

1% Y

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

183

Plot thesetwo points and draw a line betweenthem to representthe ground surface.Where this line intersectsthe curve, readf = 0.31. The distancefrom the edgeof the irrigated areato the point where the ground water appearsat the groundsurfaceis: X = (457)(0.31) = 142meters (465 feet) (0) Find the point wherethe water tablewill be 2.44 meters(8 feet) below the groundsurfaceasfollows: When$ = 0, h = 7.32 - 2.44 = 4.88 meters(16 feet)

therefore,% h = to.027)t457) 4.88 = 0.395

When? = 1, h = 5.94 -2.44 = 3.50 meters(11.5 feet)

h 3.50 andG = (0.027)(457) = o'284

Plot thesepoints on figure 5-12 as shownand draw a line betweenthe points. Where the line intersects the curve, read $ = 0.058 on the abscissa.The distancefrom the edgeof the irrigated areato the point where the water table is

2.44 meters (8 feet) below the ground surfaceis: X = (457)(0.058) = 26.5 meters (87 feet)
(p) The shapeof the water table without dramscanbe determinedas follows: Make a table using the coordinatesof the curve on figure 5-12 using L = 457, and S& = 0.027 x 457 = 12.34meters (40.5 feet).
Coordinates I! L 0.00 .05 .06 .lO .15 .20 .25 .30 .31 h z 0.335 .380 .390 .425 .460 .496 .528 .555 .560 & (12.34) h meters 4.13 4.69 4.81 5.25 5.68 6.12 6.52 6.85 6.91 feet 13.6 15.4 15.8 17.2 18.6 20.1 21.4 22.4 22.1 meters 0 22.9 21.4 45.7 68.6 91.4 114.3 137.1 141.7 & (40.5) X feet 0 75 90 150 225 300 315 450 465 ; (1,500)

184

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Plot h and X as shown on figure 5-13, where h is the vertical height of the water table abovethe barrier andX is the distancefrom the edgeof the irrigated field. (q) The drain spacingfor the remainderof the areacanbe determinedusing methodsdescribedin part A of this chapter.The spacingcalculationsdo not take into account sloping barriers: however, the results are reasonablyreliable for slopesup to 10percent. The fmt 26.5 meters(87 feet) from theedgeof the irrigatedareawill bedmined by the downhill movement of water. This distancemust be accountedfor in the solution for drain spacing. The basic dmin spacing, L, is about 305 meters (1,000 feet). Then,L + 26.5 = 331.5meters (1,087 feet). To fmd depthsbetween drams, slopesSs,and &, must be used. For example: 331.5 Ss= 331.5 x 0.030 = 9.95 meters (32.61 feet) 331.5 &, = 331.5 x 0.027 = 8.95 meters (29.36 feet) The depth to the barrier at 331.5meters (1,087 feet) will then be: 7.32-(9.95 -8.95)= 6.32 meters (20.74 feet) The averagedepth to the barrier is:

7.32 +6.32 = 6.82 meters(22.37 feet) 2

Using Donnans steady-stateequation,the distancebetweendram depth and barrier, a, for a drain depth of 2.44 meters (8.0 feet) is:

a = 6.82 - 2.44 = 4.38 meters (14.37 feet)

Correcting a for convergence using Hooghoudtsmethods:

d= 4.0 meters (13 feet), and b = 4.0 + 1.22= 5.22 meters (17 feet).
Therefore:

L2 = (4)U.22)(5.222-4.@) = 807u md 9 9 0.00068 L = 284 meters(932 feet).

Transient flow methods should be used to check results of the steady-state analysis. (r) The fmt drain is located284 + 27 = 3 11meters(1,020feet) from the upper edgeof the irrigated field. The spacingis basedon dmwdown from two drains, but at 30 meters (97 feet) from the upper edgeof the irrigated field, natural flow down the slopekeepsthe water table at 2.4 meters (8 feet). Therefore, no water

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

185

186

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

would enter a dram at this point, and the effect is the sameas having a drain at this point. The downslope dmin will maintain a minimum 1.2-meter (4-foot) watertable depthalongthe slopeabovethe dram. The sizeof the fast drain should be designedto handleall deeppercolatingwater betweenthe upperedgeof the field plus normal flow from the downslopeside-or about 1.5 times as much as a normal spaceddmin. For fields whereonedramis not quiteadequate but two dramswould overdrain the area,the plannersand designersmust decideon what is best for the farmer and project-to install one or two drains. Generally, the decisionis basedon economics,but project or district policies may infhrence the decision.An economic studyof the areawould probablyshow that the useof only onedrain, which would place the lower end of the field in nonirrigable status, would be more economical. To determinethe distancedownslopefrom the last drain wherethe water table would be 1.2 meters(4 feet) from the land surface,the following procedurecan be used: (1) Measurethe distancefrom the last drain to a naturaldrain. In the example, this is 488 - 3 11 = 177meters (580 feet). Draw a line betweenthe centerlineof the drain and the water surfacein the natural channel. (2) At 5 or 89 meters (292 feet) downslopefrom the &am, determine the depth from the barrier to the line connectingthe drain to the water surfacein the natural channel. (a) Ground surfaceis (311 + 89) 0.03 = 12.0 meters (39.37 feet) below the top of the field. (b) Elevation of the barrier is 0.027 (400) + 7.3 = 18.10meters (59.38 feet) below the top of the field. (c) Elevation of the last dram is 0.03 (311) + 2.4 = 11.73meters(38.51 feet) below the top of the field. (d) Elevationof the water surfacein the natural drain is 14.6meters (48 feet) below the top of the field (fig. 5-13). (e) Elevation of the drain depthbetweenthe last drain andthe natural drain is L -= 14.8+ 11.73 = 13.17meters (43.25 feet). 2 2 cf) Distancefrom dram depth to barrier at 4 is: a = 18.1- 13.2= 4.9 meters (16.08 feet). (3) Compute the height of the water tablemidway betweendrains:

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

187

L = a = = ft: = Qd = Using Donnansequation:

178meters (583 feet) 4.9 meters(16.09 feet) 4.3 meters(14.0 feet) 1.22meters (4 feet) per day 0.00068rny/rnz/d(0.00222f@/f@/d)

L2 = 4K(bZa) Qd
or b2* = L2ed

4K = (178)2(0.00068) = 4 42 b2-ap2 (4)(1.22) j2 = 4.32 = 18.5 a b2 = 4.42 + 18.5 = 22.92 then, b = 4.79 meters (15.7 feet) and, therefore, y0 = b - a = 4.79 -4.3 = 0.49meter (1.61 feet), the height of the water table abovethe dram At a point 89 meters(292 feet) downslopefrom the last drain the water table will be 13.2- 0.49- 12= 0.71 meters(2.33feet) below the groundsurface,which is not adequate.By plotting a fourth degreeparabolaof the drawdown curve betweendrains when y0 = 0.49 meter (1.6 feet), the point where the water table will be 1.2 meters (4 feet) below the ground surfacecanbe estimatedas follows: x L 0 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 X meters 0 8.8 17.7 35.7 53.3 71.3 89.0 feet (0) (29) (58) (117) (175) (234) (292) Y meters feet 0.3439y, = 0.169 (0.553) 0.5904~~= 0.289 (0.949) 0.8704~~= 0.426 (1.399) 0.9744~~= 0.477 (1.566) 0.9984~~= 0.489 (1.605) V = 0.490 (1.608) Distance from groundsurfaceto v meters feet 2.44 (8.0) 2.16 (7.1) 1.92 (6.3) 1.52 (5.0) 1.22 (4.0) 0.98 (3.2) 0.73 (2.4)

* The pipe drain represents X = 0.

188

DRAINAGE MANUAL

To obtain the distancefrom groundsurfaceto y in the previoustabulation,the following calculationswere necessary: Elevation of ground surface (fig. 5-13) from the last drain downslopeto the natural drain is: YS = 9.30 + 0.03X meters= 30.51 + 0.03X feet whereX is measuredin meters andfeet, respectively. Elevationof drain level betweendrainsis: yd = 11 73 + (14.6-11.73)x = drain level elevationin meters. 178 )Jd= 38 51 + (48 -38.51)x = dram level elevationin feet. 583 Depth to
dm.h:

Dd = yd - ys = 2.44 - 0.01372X(in meters) or

= 8 - 0.01372X(in feet) Depth t0 Water: D, = Dd - y, D, = yd - ys -y, or D, = 2.44 - 0.01372X- y (in meters) below ground surfaceor 8 - 0.01372X- y (in feet) below ground surface. From the previoustabulation,the water table will be 1.2meters(4 feet) below the ground surfaceat about53 meters (175 feet) downslopefrom the drain. The areathat would be inadequately drainedfor deep-rooted crops, if only one drain is installed,would be at about 125meters(411feet) on the lower edgeof thefield. C. Open Drains

S17. Introduction.-Open drainsare ditcheswith an exposedwater surface and are widely used for surfaceand subsurface drainage.Shallowsurfacedrams are normally used for the removal of irrigation surfacewaste and storm water. This type of drain provides very little subsurfacedrainage and is considered simply a wastewaterditch or storm channel.Deep subsurfacedrainageditches are usedto provide subsurfacedrainageand ascollectorsfor surfaceand subsurface drainagesystems. Many hydraulicstextbooksthoroughly presentthe theory anddetails of open channeldesign; therefore,only thosecriteria that pertain to designof drainsare presentedhere.Figure 5-14 showsa typical plan and profile of an opendrain. 5-18. Open Channel Flow.-The area,A, of a drain sectionfor any flow, Q, v . The velocity, v, basedon Mannings formula, is found from the equation A = e can be found in the Bureau of ReclamationsHydraulic and Excavation Tables (Bureau of Reclamation, 1957). Thesetablesgive velocities in feet per second for various coefficients of roughness,it, for trapezoidalchannels.An it = 0.030 shouldbeusedfor openditches.When thesetablesarenot available,the Manning formula can be usedto determinethe velocity.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

189

PLAN zoo
0 6CILE oc 200 1 RET 400

366

365

364

STATIONS

PROFILE PROPERTIES
n=.030

IO

I5

HYDRAULIC
REACH

b
4.0

s
,001

NO4
. 5.5

ST RM 8
33

d
0.9 2.3.

O-38 to /3+20

4.82 0.66 1.14 /Z/5 1.40 L93

Normal Q in the hydraulic properties table is the estimated subsurface accretions plus the return flaw from irrigation. Storm 0 in the hydraulic properties table is the normal 0 plus the estimated surface run-off from a storm of approw.5 year frequency. Figure 5-14.-Typical plan and profile of an open drain. From drawing 103-D-663.

190

DRAINAGE MANUAL

1.486 2M l/2 Manning formula, v = II r s where: V = r = s = n = velocity in feet per second, hydraulic radiusin feet, slopeof the drain in feet per foot, and coefficient of roughness.

(13)

For velocitiesin metersper second,the Manning formula is v= y where: V = r = S = n = (metric form)

(134

velocity in metersper second, hydraulic radiusin meters, slopeof the drain in metersper meter, and coefficient of toughness.

As an approximation,the velocitiesin feet per secondas given in the Bureau of ReclamationsHydraulic andExcavationTables(1957) multiplied by 0.3 will give velocitiesin meters per second. ValuesofA andr for small, V-shapeddrainageditchesareshownin table5-6. 5-19. Drain Velocities.-Maximum permissiblevelocities for open drains accordingto soil texture are as follows:
Soil texture Velocity, meters (feet) per second

Clay sandy loam Fine sands

1.2 0.8 0.5

(4.0)
(2.5)

(1.5)

In some soils, a tractive force analysismay be necessaryto determine the stability of the drainagechannel.The objective is to construct a relatively stable channelwhich will neither erode nor be subject to depositionof objectionable amounts of sediment. The maximum permissiblegradient under given topographic and soil conditions shouldalways be used,provided the velocity is kept below that which would causesignificant erosion from a 5-year storm. Where surfaceslopesam steep,structuresmust be provided to control velocities.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTFWCTION

191

Table 56a.-Crowsectional area and hydraulic radius for small V-shaped ditches (metric units). Drawing 103-D&42.
14 : 1 SIDE SLOPES

2: 1 SIDE SLOPES

3: 1 SIDE SLOPES

192

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Table Mb.-Cross-sectional

area and hydraulic radius for small V-shaped ditches (U.S. customary units). Drawing 103-D-682.
11/z : 1 SIDE SLOPES

3 : 1 SIDE SLOPES

The ideal minimum gradientin a drain would have sufficient velocity at low flows to preventdepositionand growth of aquaticplants.This velocity would be in the range of 0.2 to 0.3 meter (0.75 to 1.0 foot) per secondfor preventionof silt and fme sand deposits, 0.5 to 0.6 meter (1.5 to 2.0 feet) per secondfor the preventionof weedsand grasses, and 0.8 meter (2.5 feet) per secondor more to inhibit growth of aquatic plants. In areas where ideal velocities cannot be obtained,drains shouldbe designedwith a minimum velocity of about 0.3 meter (1.0 foot) per secondfor the normal flow. In some collector drains, pumping plantsmight be requiredwherethe gradientmust bebuilt into the drain Pumping plants in drains have the disadvantages of constant maintenance,expensebf operation,and icing during the wintertime. They shouldbe usedonly when the velocitiesat normal flow are well below the minimum 0.3 meter (1.0 foot) per

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

193

second.Gradientsfor natural outlet drains usually are not altered except where the channelstmighteninggradientsallows increase. Minimum gradesrequire maximum maintenance:therefore, when gradients are used that result in velocities of 0.3 meter (1.0 foot) per secondor less for normal flows, provisions should be made for shorter periods of time between drain cleaning. 5-20. Depth of Drain.-The depthof an opendrain for carrying surfacewater is controlled by the quantity of water it carries. The depth of a deep, open subsurfacedrain is controlled by physical and hydraulic propertiesof the soils, permissiblewater table levels, constructionequipment,and quantity of water it must carry. The most difficult designcaseis that of a drain which receivesrunoff water from tributary drains, while picking up groundwater throughoutits reach. The drain must be deepenoughso that the normal water surfacewill be below the water table to allow the drain to pick up groundwater. Also, the drain must be large enoughto accept tributary dram discharge.The normal water surface elevationin the collector drain must not be higher than that in the tributary dram Designing the capacity for carrying floodflows is usually no problem in a completely open drain system. When the Fist two requirementsare satisfied, capacityis adequate to handlemost floodflows. A floodflow may raisethe water level temporarily in the dram to a point higher than the ground-waterelevation. This water level inhibits the drain from picking up groundwater, but crops would not be burnedif the condition did not last for more than 48 hours. Where flash floods occur frequently and the soils are highly erosive, separatedeepdrainage andfloodwater systemsmay be more economical. If the tributary drainsam closeddrains,the normal water surfaceelevationin the open collector drain shouldbe below the invert elevationof the closeddmin by a distancesufficient to allow for some floodwater flow down the open drain without affecting the closeddrain. This practicewill prevent water from backing up in the closed drain. The additional distance should be 450 millimeters (18 inches),if practical, but can be as low as 150millimeters (6 inches)if banks are stable or if the open drain depth would otherwise be unreasonable.An occasional,tempomry rise in water level over the closeddrain causedby floods is not detrimental. In general,subsurface drainsshouldbe from 2.4 to 3 meters(8 to 10feet) deep to provide the besteconomic balancebetweendrain cost and drain spacing.On occasion, local conditions may require deeper or shallower drams. The most important condition would be location of the permeableand impermeablestrata. S-21. Drain Section.-The most hydraulically efficient open channelhas maximum capacityfor a given slopeand cross-sectional area.Themost efficient crosssectionhas the smallestwetted perimeter.Basedon thesefacts, a semicircular section would be the most efficient. However, for channels excavated in earth, the semicircular shapeis impractical for various reasons, including constructiondifficulty. Trapezoidalcross sectionsam most often usedand have beenfound to be the most economicalsectionfor earthchannels.

194

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

In trapezoidal-shaped drains, stability of the side slopes dependson soil characteristics.The side slopesshould be less than the angle of reposeof the saturatedmaterial, at least as far up the slope as the maximum water table elevation. Side slopesmay vary from a 3:l slope or greater in a sandy soil to almost vertical side,slopes in a highly organic soil. In general,a berm betweenthe edgeof the cut and the roadway or spoil bank should not be provided becauseof the maintenanceproblems created. Berms, however,may be required where soils am unstableand the load of the fnl would be detrimental.The minimum bottom width of drains is influencedby the types of excavatingandmaintenance equipmentavailablefor use. If a draglineis to be used,the minimum width shouldbe about0.9 meter (3 feet). Figure 5-15 shows typical dram sectionsand the relationshipbetweenroadways, spoil banks, and bermsfor drainsof different sizes. 5-22. Drain Banks-Drain banks should be constructedby depositingthe excavatedmaterial in approximatelyhorizontal layersto a thicknessequalto the depth of the material as it is depositedby the excavatingequipment.Excavated material shouldbe placedover the full width of the bank to the prescribedslopes and not widened with loosematerial from the top. The crown of the banksshouldbe gradedto a reasonably uniform surface.The crown on at least one side shouldserve as a roadway. When excavatedmaterial is unstableandcannotbe depositedwithin the prescribedslopesandwidths, the material shouldbe allowed to dmin and dry before the banksam graded.Before the dram is acceptedas completed,all banksshouldpresenta neat appearance. 5-23. Tributary Drain Intersections.-Open tributary drains shouldenter the collector drain with their water surfacesat the sameelevation.If the tributary drain carriesmore than about0.4 ms/s(15 fts/s), the bottom grademust be curved downstreamto make the flow lines of the drainsmore nearly parallelat the point of juncture. This curve is not requitedfor tributarieswith flows lessthan this, but it would improve the flow characteristics andreducemaintenance costsif applied. S-24. Surface Iulets.-!hface water shouldnever be permitted to enter a deepdram by flowing down the side slopes.Spoil banks shouldbe constructed to prevent this, andpipe inlets shouldbeprovided to control the inflow of surface water.Figure 5-16 showssometypical culvertsanddraininlets andanacceptable method for installing a sutface water pipe inlet to an opendrain S-25. Transition Sectiom-Changes in the channeldepth or bottom width shouldnot be made abruptly, but over a distanceof 3 meters (10 feet) or more, depending upon the extent of the change.Where the depth changes, the slopeof the transition should be gentle enoughto prevent scouring.Transition sections shouldbe locatedabovethe entranceof any side drains. 5-26. Design Capacities.-Suhce dmin channelsshould be designedfor stormflow only with no allowancefor irrigation wastebecause the magnitudeof stormflow usually is so much greaterthan the magnitudeof irrigation wastethat

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

195

0 1 a. \ \ \ E \ \ I

Blend excavated materlal smoothly mto terrain or spread an raadwoy as dwected

EDitch

Blend excavated material s

Existmg ground surface TRAPEZOIDAL

Existing ground surface V-TYPE

TYPICAL
1.5m (5) Mm. from R.0.w. Line

SURFACE

DRAIN

AND COLLECTING

DITCH

SECTIONS
tJperatlng rood 1.5 m (5) min. from toe.

Sped bank as required ~ l/m ;I or as directed t-

Move back about I.6m (6) to for berm far stablkty. If dwected

Extsting ground surface

OPERATING

ROAD-ONE

SIDE ONLY

-Sped bank as required Existing ground surface

OPERATING Figure 5-15.-Typical

ROAD-BOTH

SIDES

drain and collecting ditch sections (sheet 2 of 2). Drawing 103-D-1661.

os shown

on profile.

/some

type

surfacing

0s

,/Station

and Invert

5 c

Dia. C.M.F--(

FLOW _

\ \

TYPE

I IN-LINE

CULVERT

NOTE: Pipe lengths shown on profiles ore hosed upa~ roodwoy widths,

METAL

CUTOFF

COLLAR

rI

Station ond Invert elevation os shown on profile. -Existing around surface , I

Stotlon

ond

Invert

elevation

Precast

concrete

pipe

TYPE 2 IN-LINE

CULVERT

Figure

5-16.-Typical

culverts

and drain inlets

(sheet 1 of 2). Drawing

103-D-1662.

Riprop or gravel blanket required only where field or other erosion is anticipated.

ure mamtenance. Centers bath

CONCRETE

CUTOFF

COL LAR Nominal t C&I& mm (in.) Reid.

DIAMETfiR mm 1 (in.)

f meters feet 460 1(18) 0.460 1.50 530 l(21) 0.460 1x1

65 2.50 #3 70 2.75 #3

NOTE:
II) For near soit free soil,heavy gTe galvanized C.M.P may be used (2) For soline or alkaline soils, golvonized pipe should not be used (3)Minimum pipe diameter is 0.45 m.

TYPICAL SECTlON OF DRAIN INLET

Top of

roadway

~*C.M.l?

or PC.P

TYPICAL SECTION OF SINGLE BARREL CULVERT

NOTE:

TYPICAL SECTION OF DOUBLE BARREL CULVERT

for storm

For protection details at ends of culverts,use depth flow to determine type and extent of protection.

Figure 5-16.-Typical

culverts and drain inlets (sheet 2 of 2). Drawing 103-D-1662.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONST!WCTlON

199

the impact of irrigation waste would be negligible.In general,stormflows should be estimatedfor 5-year frequency storms unlessavailableinformation justifies use of other flows. The minimum capacity of surfacedrains shouldbe 0.08 to 0.14 cubic meters (3 to 5 cubic feet) per second.Pondingfor stormflows in the field shouldbe consideredin surfacedrain capacity estimates.But ponding on arableland shouldnot be permitted for periodsexceeding48 hours.Most crops submerged over 48 hours suffer reduced production, and many crops are destroyedcompletely. Capacitiesof openinterceptorand relief drainsintendedprimarily for control of ground-waterlevels shouldbe sufficient to carry the estimatedground-water accretionplus the estimatedfarm waste, with the water surface elevationof the drain at or below the requiredeffective drainagedepth, Storm water from fields, which may enter thesedrainsthrough regular drain inlets, will not be considered in design unless stability is a problem, becauseneither the quantity nor the duration of flow would normally adverselyaffect the efficiency of the drain. Capacitiesfor open collector drains shouldbe sufficient to carry normal flow of ground-water accretions,irrigation surfacewaste, estimatedstormflow, and the quantitiesdeliveredto the collector drainsby relief and interceptor drains. Capacitiesfor open outlet and suboutletdrains shouldbe sufficient to carry the flows from the collector drains. Wastewatersin canalwastewaysare sometimesturnedinto opendrainsrather than being carriedseparatelyto a point of disposal.In this case,the capacity of the drain must be designedto include the expectedamount of waste, which is usually the capacityof the canal. S-27. Structures.--Open drain structumsconsistof inlets to the drain; drops and chutes; and road, railroad, and canal crossings. Actual stmcturaI design shouldbe made in accordance with Reclamationpolicy and standards. (a) Inlets.-Inlets should be made of corrugatedmetal pipe with a design coefficient of roughness, II, of 0.021.The pipe canbe galvanized, asphaltdipped, or polymer coated,dependingon the corrosivity of the soil. The corrosivity can be best determinedby experiencein the area with highway culverts, existing drainage stn~ctures,or similar means. The minimum pipe size should be 450 millimeters (18 inches)in diameterto minimize operationand maintenance costs.Velocity in the pipe shouldnot exceed3 meters (10 feet) per second,and the minimum pipe slopeshouldbe 0.01. The outlet end of the pipe shouldextend 300 millimeters (12 inches)beyondthe edgeof the normal water surfacein the drain so that water from the pipe will not drain onto and erode the bank of the drain. This end of the pipe should also be at least 450 millimeters (18 inches) abovenormal water surfaceelevationin the drain, seefigure 5-16. Multiple pipes may be used if required. Headwalls are not necessary,although riprap may be requiredon larger struchues.Earth backfill shouldbe compactedaroundthe pipe for its full length and for 300 millimeters (1 foot) above the pipe. One collar is requiredfor eachpipe, as shown on figure 5-16.

200

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

(!I) Drops and Chutes.-Conventional chute structuresmay be used where appropriate.Drop structuresshouldbe usedas follows: Differential drop in water surface

Structure

meters feet 0 to 0.6 0 to 2.0 No structurebut someripmp 0.3 to 1.5 1.0 to 5.0 Rock cascade drop with sheetpiling 1.5 and over 5.0 andover Baffled apron or rectangular-inclined (R.1.) drops
(c) Crossings.-Cmssing structures can be of either metal or concretepipe dependingon the importanceof the crossing,which is measuredby the capital loss that would result from its failure. In chemically active soils and waters that would be corrosive to the pipe, the pipe shouldbe protected with an asphaltor similar coating. Crossing structures for major highways, railroads, and canals shouldbe designed for flows from a 25-yearstorm; for lessmajor crossings, flows from a lo-year storm can be used;and flows from a 5-year storm can beusedfor roadswithin a field or for farm ditches.Circular pipe culverts canbe placedwith a maximum of 50 percentof their diameterbelow gradeline;however, 25 percent or 0.3 meter (1 foot) maximum is thepreferredlimit. Pipe-arch,corrugated-metal culverts, if justified, canbeplacedwith about20 percentof the rise valuebelow gradeline.The pipe shouldextend beyondthe toe of the fill, and collars should be placedon the pipe as required. h4aximumvelocity for a full pipe shouldbe about 1.5meters (5 feet) per second.A siphon-typestructureshouldnot be used for drainagecrossingsbecauseof the variation in flow. During low flows, any transported sediment will be depositedin the siphon, and without scheduled maintenance, the crossingwill becomeplugged. 5-28. Natural Channels.-In many instances, a natural channel(Kouns and Pemberton, 1963)is usedas an open drain for conveyanceof irrigation surface wastewaterand storm water. The addition of irrigation surfacewaste (or in some cases,subsurfacedrainageflow) will often changea normally dry streamto one with a continuousflow, at leastfor the irrigation season. This changecorresponds to a changefrom an ephemeralstreamto an intermittent or perennialstream.The continuous wetting of the natural channel banks may result in an unstable condition when a floodflow occurs. The stability of the natural channelusedas an open drain shouldbe checked by a tractive force analysisbasedon particle-sizeanalyses or plasticity indicesof soil textures.Stability shouldbe determinedfor 5-year frequencyfloodflow, plus irrigation waste flow. The tractive forces usedto check stability, in addition to being affected by wetted banks, am also adjusted for the type of sediment transportedby the channel.If instability is indicated, control structureswill be required.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

..._ :: :+: ._. I: --_1-j \ -l-l 1 --_ *:,,.; t.;: .o. .. k__ _-____ 2:: ..
201

TONGUE

AND

GROOVE

TYPE

FOR

CONCRETE

PIPE

BELL

AND

SPIGOT

TYPE
LUGS FOR

FOR

CLAY

OR

CONCRETE

PIPE

USE 4 WEDGES AND

CONCRETE

PIPE (CLAY

PIPE SHOWN)

PLAIN

END

TYPE

FOR

CLAY

OR CONCRETE

PIPE

Figure 5-17.Joint

design for @id pipe drains. Drawing 103-D-1663.

202 DRAINAGE MANUAL

;., .c ... ., i bO B ~ .S .~ ~ ~
., Q, .6. "0 .s bO j

0 ~
.~ ." ., Q, .6. .g ~ "a. ." ., ~ bO " ~ ..

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

203

S-29. Stage Construction.-Stage construction is sometimesused when an open drain must be excavatedin saturatedunstablematerial suchas fme sands, fine sandy loams, silts, and silt loams. In stageconstruction, the portion of the drain sectionthat will remainrelatively stableis excavated andthe banksallowed to drain and stabilizebefore the next stageof excavationis started.This process is continueduntil designgradeis reached.Drains requiring this type of construction can be readily anticipatedduring the initial investigationsof an area when casings must be installedto keephand-augered holes,below the water table,open. Estimating costs for stage construction presentsproblems for the engineer because of the difficulty in determininghow many stageswill berequiredandthe time requiredbetweenstages.If constructioncanbe scheduled for the noninigation season, drawdown canberelatively rapid andthe drain will stabilizequickly. If the nonirrigation seasonis short and the water table is constantly being recharged,the stageconstructionmight extendover a l- or 2-year period. For this situation, it would probably be more economicalto make eachstagea separate contractor schedulethe work to be doneby O&M (operationand maintenance) personnelwhen excavationconditionsam suitable. Stageconstructioncostsfor open drainsvary with many factors but could go as high as 50 percentover what the drain would cost if completedin one stage.

D.

Pipe Drains

5-30. Introduction.-No&y, pipe drainsareusedwhen they are lower in capitalandannualcoststhan opendrains.The computationof annualcostsshould include, in addition to the construction and maintenancecosts, values for the right-of-way costs and for the loss of project income from land in open drains. Comparisonof the environmental and esthetic valuesbetween open and pipe drainsshouldalso be made. In general,pipe drains shouldonly collect and remove ground water, but in specialinstances, they may haveto carry storm water or excessirrigation surface waste. When waters other than ground water are collected,larger pipe must be usedto carry the increased flow andto preventcloggingfrom surfacedebris.Pipes shouldbe designedto flow only half full when surfacewater is collected. S-31. Pipe for Drains.-Pipe drainsconsistof buried pipe with sometype of openingsin the pipe through which water can enter. The water is then carried in the pipe to a point of disposal. The pipe is usually manufactured from clay, concrete,plastic, or any of the suitablematerial that will not deterioraterapidly with time. Ordinarily, clay and concretedrainpipeis placedwith 3millimeter (l/%inch) openingsor cracksbetweenthe pipelengthsthroughwhich water entersthe drain. Somerigid pipes are manufactured with holes or similar specialprovision for water entry, but they are usually too expensivefor generaluse. Pipe joints ate sealed when pipe drains are laid under canals, railroads, highways, or near trees. Any one of the standardsealingmethodsusedin laying sewer pipe is appropriate.Sealingprevents piping soil into the drain that may

204

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

result in damageto the overlying structure, and keepsroots from entering and clogging the dram Concreteand clay drainpipeis manufacturedwith plain tongue-and-groove, or bell-and-spigotends. With the latter two end types, the adjoining sections interlock, making them easier to place and hold to grade and alignment than sectionswith plain ends.For all types of pipe ends,the openingsbetweenpipe sectionsmust be maintainedat about 3 millimeters (l/8 inch). To ensurethat the joint spacingwill be maintained,the bell and-spigotandtongue-and-groove pipe shouldbe provided with wedgesfor centering,andlugs for spacing.A suggested arrangement for placing thesewedgesandlugsis shownon figure 5-17, but other methodscan be usedif approvedby the ContractingOfficer. It is suggested that 3-millimeter (l/8-inch) spacerlugs beusedbecause smalleropenings may not be sufficient and larger openingscould allow entry of soil and envelopematerial. Corrugated plastic pipe is manufactured in long rolls, or 6-meter (20-foot) joints, the length dependent on the diameter.Water entersthe pipe through slots or holescut in the valley portion of the corrugations.The openingsare generally evenlyspaced aroundthe circumferenceof thepipe andmust provide aminimum of 2,120 squaremillimeters of openinlet areaper meter (1 squareinch per foot) of pipe. A seriousproblem occurs when the pipe is stretchedduring the laying process,causingthe slots or holesto widen, which allows the gravel envelopeto enter the pipe. Stretching the pipe also has the disadvantageof reducing its strength.Figure 5-18 showsa typical sectionof corrugatedplastic pipe. Nonperforated corrugatedplastic pipe is usedin those areaswhere sealed joints would be specifiedif concreteor clay pipe were used.Successive lengthsof plasticpipe are connectedby manufactured splicers or by splitting a length of the same diameterpipe and laying it around abutting ends of pipe, seefigure 5-18. The split pipe is then wrappedwith plastic tape or otherwisetied in place. Corrugatedplastic pipe is currently being manufacturedin sizesfrom 75 to 9OOmillimeter (3- to 36-inch) nominal diameter.This sizerangeis adequate for most agricultuml drainageapplications.The costsof constructionat the drainage site will usually determinethe type of material usedfor drainpipe. S-32. Pipe Specifications.-Unreinforced concretepipe specificationsfor closeddrainsmay be either ASTM C 14,C 412, C 118,or C 444, latestrevisions. In additionto therequirementsof thesespecifications, the following requirements must be met: (a) A minimum of 10 sacksof cementper cubic meter (7-l/2 sacksper cubic yard) of concretemust be used. A low-alkali cement is required for dminpipe except where it is positively known that the aggregatesto be used are not sufficiently reactive to require the low-alkali limitation. When concreteaggmgatesam reactive,a low-alkali cementshouldbeusedto protect againstdisruptive expansion. (b) All pipe shouldbe steamcuredfor a minimum of 48 hoursbetween38 and 60 C (100 and 140F) or shouldbe kept moist cured for not lessthan7 days.All surfacesof the pipe shallbe kept moist continuouslyfrom the time of completion

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

205

of molding to the completion of the curing period. The ambient temperature within the curing enclosureshall not exceed38 C (100 OF)within 2 hours after completion of molding: thereafter, the temperature shall be brought to the specifiedcuring temperatureand maintainedfor the specifiednumberof hours. The ambienttemperaturerise within the steamcuring enclosure shall not exceed 17 C (30 OF,) per hour. Pipe shall be protected from temperaturesbelow 5 C (40 P) before and during curing operations. (c) A maximum absorptionof not more than 6.5 percent,5-hour boiling test, in accordance with paragraph18, ASTM C 14, is required. (d) Pipeshall be air-dried for not less than 30 daysprior to placementin the groundunlessotherwisedirectedby the Contracting Officer. (e) Calcium chloride shall not be usedin the cementfor concretepipe. Theseadditionalrequirementsare considerednecessary to producepipe that will have a long, useful life. When concretepipe is usedfor manholesor when reinforcedconcretepipe is usedunderrailroadsor whereit is known that concrete pipe drains will be exposedto sulfate concentrationsamounting to more than 0.2 percent in soils or 1,000 partsper million dissolved in ground water, the concreteis to bemadewith type V cement.If the aggregates to be usedare known to be reactive,low-alkalitype V cementshouldbeused.In areaswhere the sulfate environmentis not severe,cementother than type V may be used. Clay pipe specificationsfor closeddrainsmay be either ASTM C 4, C 13, or c 200. Plasticpipe for usein Reclamationdrainagesystemsshall conform to Bureau of ReclamationStandardSpecificationsM-19 for CorrugatedPolyethyleneand Polyvinyl-Chloride Drainage Pipe, July 1992. Specialconsiderationmust be given to limiting the stretch of corrugatedpipe to 5 percentduring installation to preventfailure by collapse.Also, the slots or holesin the pipe shouldbe carefully inspected to ensurethey arefree of tagendsor othermaterial. Tagendsandpoorly cut slots or holes offer collection points for silts, clays, mineral deposits,and bacteriathat often sealoff water inlet areas. S-33. Collectors-Deep, opendrainsor naturaldminageways normally serve asthe collectordrain for pipedrain systems:however,pipedrainsmust sometimes be dischargedinto a sump and the drainagewater disposedby pumping into shallow surfacedrains. A thorough study of collector and suboutlet conditions andrequirements is M important consideration in planninga pipe drainagesystem which will function satisfactorily. 5-34. Depth of Pipe Drains.-The depth of pipe drains is always a major consideration,because the success or failure of the entire drainagesystemmay dependupon this factor. The depthwill usuallydependupon the outlet elevation, the generaltopographyof the ground surface, and the position of the aquifer or water-bearingstrata in the soil ptofil-all in relation to the required groundwater elevation. Becausethe primary function of a pipe drain is to collect and remove ground water, the pipe should be placed, if possible, in a relatively coarse-textured stratum.

206

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

In casesof deep, uniform profiles, depthsof drains can be determinedby analyzingcosts.To accuratelyapplythis method,drainageengineers shouldhave experiencedata to draw from regarding costs for excavation, gravel envelope, andfurnishingandlaying pipe. Anotherdatafactor needed, andprobablythemost important, is the travel speedof the drain-layingequipmentusedin the area. If drainshavebeen previously built in the area,analyses of the bid abstracts on those drains are a good starting point. Weighted average costs could be determinedandtabulatedto arrive at an estimatedcost per foot of dram. Thetabulationcould be simplified by combiningrelateditems andexpressing the costsasa percentof the total as in the following example:
Summary of cost by item Item Percent 42

Earth work Pipe Gravel envelope Total

2 100

Expressingthe costsas a percentageof the total may be useful in projecting coststo nearbyareaswheredrains havenot beenconstructed;however, estimating costsbasedon constructionestimatesis more reliable. Next, someideaof the rate of installingdrainsmust be developed. Figure5-19 shows the rates of installation by drain depth for three different trenchersas experienced on variousReclamationprojects. The information from this figure, along with the drainagerequirementper hectare (acre) drained,can be usedto determinethe cost per hectare(acre)relatedto the depth of drain. The following examplea illustmte typical procedures: Example 1: High-speedtrencher. Assume: (a) Averagetotal cost of a 2.4-meter @-foot) deepdrain is $11.52per linear meter ($3.51 per linear foot) and this cost is distributedas follows: (1) Excavation-42 percent (2) Pips-42 percent (3) Gravel envelope16 percent mhe given costsmay be different from current costs;however,the procedure in the examplesis still valid.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

207

FEET PER MINUTE IO

b 5 is

0 0 3 6 9 12 15 RATE OF INSTALLATION METERS PER MINUTE Figure 5-19.-Rate ofinstallation of drains by drain depth forthree different types of trenching machines. Drawing 103-D-1664.

(b) The drainagerequirementvaries with drain depthas shownbelow:

Length of drain per hectare, meters Length of drain per acre, feet

Drain depth, meters feet

Drain spacing meters feet

1.4 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4

4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 8.0

108 152 184 211 234 255 288

355 498 605 693 768 835 945

92.6 65.8 54.3 47.4 42.7 39.2 34.7

123.0 87.5 72.0 62.9 56.8 52.2 46.1

(c) Cost per minute based onbid abstracts of operating&high-speed trencher canbe calculatedas follows: Excavationcost = ($11.52/m)(O.42) = $4.84/m ($1.47/ft) Cost per hectare (acre) for excavation = (4.84/m)(34.7 m/hectare) = $167/hectare ($68/hectare) Rate of installation from figure 5-19 = 3 m/min (10 ft/min) Cost of excavationper minute = ($4.84/m)(3 m/min) = $14.7O/min
(d) Cost per meter (foot) of gravel envelope = ($11.52/m)(O.16) = $1.84/m

($0.56/ft) Cost per meter (foot) of pipe = ($11.52/m)(O.42) = $4.84/m ($1.47/ft) Using similar assumptions andmethodsfor eachdrain depth,table5-7 canbe made.

Table 5-7,Cost
Drain depth, meteni 1.4 1.5 1.7 1.8 2.0 2.1 2.4 Drain spacing. meters 108 152 184 211 234 255 288 Length per hectare, meters 92.6 65.8 54.3 47.4 427 39.2 34.7

relationships for drains installed with high-speed equipment.U

Time per hectare, minutes 9.22 7.22 6.60 6.47 7.02 7.59 11.39 cost, dollars per meter 8.16 8.33 8.46 8.70 9.16 9.51 11.53

Excavation 136 106 96 96 104 111 168

Cost in dollars per hectare Envelope Pipe 450 170 321 121 264 99 230 86 208 79 72 190 64 168

Total 756 548 459 412 391 373 400

Drain depth, feet 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 8.0

Drain SPacinp, feet 355 498 605 693 768 835 945

Length per acre, feet 123.0 87.5 72.0 62.9 56.8 52.2 46.1

Time per acre, minutes 3.73 2.92 2.67 2.62 2.84 3.07 4.61

Excavation 55 43 39 39 42 45 68

Cost in dollars uer acre Envelope Pipe 182 69 49 130 40 107 93 35 32 84 77 29 26 68

Total 306 222 186 167 158 151 162

cost, dollats per foot 2.49 2.54 2.58 2.66 2.78 2.89 3.51

l/ These costs and relationships may vary from correct values, but the procedures are similar.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

209

From table5-7, the drainagecost per hectare(acre)is at a minimum for drains placedabout 2.1 meters(7 feet) below groundsurface.The table also showsthat the cost per meter (foot) increases with depth but givesno indication as to what optimum depth to place the drains. Figure 5-20 shows thesecost relationships for a high-speedtrencher.
g a -I -I 8 g a 60C I/

800

i I K 4oc W a

I-

Icn 00 2oc 1.2

1.6

2.0

2.1

DEPTH

TO DRAIN, METERS

Figure 5-20a-Cost relationships by drain depth for drains installed with ahigh-speed tren&er (metric units). Drawing 103-D-1665.

DEPTH

TO

DRAIN,

FEET

Figure S-2Ob.-Cost relationships by drain depth for drains installed with a high-speed trencher (U.S. customary units). Dewing 103-D-1665.

210

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Four other analyseswere made using the same basic assumptionsused in example 1 with the following alternatives: Example2Xonventiona.l trencherwith variablespeeds. Example 3-Constant speedtrencher. Example4-Conventional trencherwithhalf the unit pipe costsof example1. Example SConventional trencher with half the unit excavation costs of example 1. Figm 5-21 showsthe relationshipsbetweencostper hectare(acre)anddepth to drain for examples1,2, and 3. This figure indicatesthat drainsinstalledwith DEPTH TO DRAIN,
6 8

FEET
IO 500

400

L$ 3 x li

300

> 7

b $

5 a l!OO g "

i
1.8
Figure 5-21.Aost 1666.

Least cost
2.4 3.0

100 i

DEPTH TO DRAIN,

METERS

relationships by drain depth for three different trenchers. Drawing 103-D-

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

211

high-speedtrenchersat depthsof about 2.1 meters (7 feet) will cost the least.If conventional trenchers are used, drains should be placed about 2.6 meters (8.5 feet) below ground level. Figure 5-22 showsefiects of reducingexcavationandpipe costsby one-half, based on drains installed with a conventional trencher, examples 4 and 5. Reducingexcavationcostsby 50 percentdoesnot affect selectionof dmin depth. However, reducingpipe costs by 50 percentchangesoptimum depth of drain to 2.4 meters(8.0 feet) insteadof 2.6 meters (8.5 feet). DEPTH
4 875 6

TO DRAIN, FEET
8 IO 12 150

750

150

250 1.2 1.8 2.4

Least cost
3.0 3.6

lo0

DEPTH TO DRAIN, METERS

Figure 5-22.-Cast effects by drain depth as a result of reducing excavation and pipe costs by onehalf for aconventional trencher. Drawing 103-D-1667.

212

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Resultsfrom the precedingexamplesindicatethat the rate of installing drains influencesdrain depthsandcostsmore thanany other singlefactor. Reducingthe unit costof excavationwould havegreatereffect on reducingthetotal per-hectare (acre)cost than reducingthe cost of pipe. S35. Grade and Alignment.-The proper installation and functioning of pipe drainsrequirerigid control of gradeandalignment.The minimum gradefor a closeddrain should be l/1,000; however, steepergradesare more desirable. With steepergrades,the control requiredduring constructioncanbe lessexacting andlesschanceof drain cloggingexists.With the low flows that occur at various times in many pipe drains, any departurefrom establishedgrade will result in solid material collecting in the lows which may eventually clog the drain. The maximum allowable departurefrom gradeshould not exceed 10 percent of the inside diameter of the drainpipe, and in no case should the departure exceed 0.03 meter (0.1 foot). Where departuresoccur, the rate of return to established grade shouldnot exceed2 percent of the pipe diameterper joint of concreteor clay pipe orper 0.9-meter(3-foot) lengthof plasticpipe. Indetemuning the grade of a proposeddrain, use a slopeeasyto work with in the field. For example,it is easierfor theContractor to establish andfor theinspectorto checkgradeif a slope of 0.002 is usedinsteadof 0.00213. Themaximum allowabledeparturefrom alignmentshouldnot exceed20 percent of the insidediameterof the drainpipewith a rate of return to the established line not to exceed5 percent per joint of concrete or clay pipe, or a 0.9-meter (3-foot) length of plastic pipe. 5-36. Envelope Material.-Because all closeddrains are pipe and may be located in all kinds of material, it is good practice to lay the pipe in a suitable envelope. Suchan envelope is usedto providea permeable path for water to move into the pipe openingsfrom the basematerial and to hold the basematerial in place.Thegradedenvelope materialalsoprovidesneeded supportfor the flexible plasticpipe. This supportin turn reducesthe chancesof excessdeflection of the pipe and possible crushing during backfilling operations. The top of joints betweenplain-endpipe sectionsshouldbe coveredwith asphaltbuilding paper or plastic strips to preventthe finer particlesof the envelope material from falling through the joint openings under the action of gravity. This covering is not recommended for bell-and-spigotor tongue-and-gmove pipe, or perforatedplastic pipe. An envelopelessthan 100millimeters (4 inches) thick aroundthe pipe probably would be sufficient, but becauseof the physical difficulty in placing envelope materialuniformly to a smallthiclmess,it is more economicalto specify a NO-millimeter (4-inch) thickness. Envelopegradationrequirementsfor basematerialsof silt loams, sandyclay loams, and loamscan usually be more flexible than for basematerialsthat have textures of fine or very fine sands.Basematerial is that zone of soil material in which the drainpipeis physically located.The velocity at the interfacebetween the finer textured base materials and the envelopematerial is so low that the fme-texturedbasematerial will not move into the envelopeevenunderexcessive

CHAPTER

V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

213

leachingconditions. It hasbeenobservedthat basematerialshaving a predominanceof particleswhich rangein sizefrom 0.05 to 0.4 millimeter tendto be easily moved.As a rule of thumb, this material will passthe No. 40 sieveandberetained by the No. 200 sieve. Velocities as low as 0.03 meter (0.1 foot) per secondwill movethis sizeof material.For thesesoils,it is critical thatplacementof a properly designed and installedgradedgravel envelopebe a part of the drain construction process. The gradationrequirementsshouldnot be changedevery time a different textured soil is encountered. From borings taken about every 180meters (600 feet) along the centerlineof a drain, the most permeable basematerial for significant lengths of the drain should be determinedand the envelopedesignedfor this material. Different gradation requirementscan be specified if there are long sections of drain where the gradation and hydraulic conductivity of the base material indicatethat a less expensiveor easierto obtain envelopematerial can beused.However, a properenvelope materialmust bedesigned andusedfor these sectionsor the overall effectivenessof the drain might be impaired. The envelopeshouldbe well graded,free of vegetable matter, clays, andother deleterioussubstances which could, in time, changethe hydraulic conductivity of the envelope.For sieveanalysisof the envelopematerial, 100percent should passthe 38.l-millimeter (l- l/Xnch) clear, squarescreenopenings,andnot more than 5 percent shouldpassthe 0.297-millimeter (No. 50 United StatesStandard Series)sieve. Becausefew pit-run sandsand gravels meet theserequirements, most envelopematerial must be machinesorted.Washingis required only when cleansandandgravel arenot plentiful andthe only sourceis from pits containing silt- or clay-coatedmaterial. An envelopematerial is considered to be well gradedwhen all particle sizes from the largestto the smallestare present.To determinewhether a material is well graded,coefficients describingthe slope and shapeof the gradationcurve havebeendefined as follows: Coefficient of uniformity, C, = 2 and Coefficient of curvature,C, =
P3012 (4owd

where: D~o,&o, and060 = diameter of particles in millimeters (mm) passing the lo-, 30-, and 60-percent points on the envelope material gradationcurve. To be well graded,the coefficient of uniformity must be greater than 4 for gravelsand greaterthan 6 for sandsand, in addition, the coefficient of curvature must be between 1 and 3 for both gravelsand sands.

214

DRAINAGEMANUAL

In somelocations,availablesourcesof envelopematerial make the previous gradationlimits uneconomicalbecause the majority of the pit run material would passthe No. 30 sieve. For these locations,material passingthe No. 200 sieve shouldberemovedand ahydraulicconductivity testrun on theremainingsample. Table5-8 showsthe gradationrelationshipbetweenthe basematerial and gravel envelopefor most soils. Theserelationshipsare basedon both field observations and laboratory work and have been found to work satisfactorily under the low-headconditionsfound nearagricultural drains. TableS-k-Gradation
relationship between base material and diameters of graded envelope material.

Base material, 40 percent retained (diameter of particles, mm) 0.02-0.05 0.05-0.10 0.10-0.25 0.25-1.00 0 9.52 9.52 9.52 9.52

Gradation limitations for envelope (diameter of particles, mm) Lower limits, Upper limits, percent retained percent retained 40 70 90 95 100 0 40 70 90 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 0.81 1.07 1.30 1.45 0.33 0.38 0.40 0.42 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.3 0.074 0.074 0.074 0.074 38.1 10.0 38.1 12.0 38.1 15.0 38.1 20.0 8.7 10.4 13.1 17.3 2.5 3.0 3.8 5.0

100 0.59 0.59 0.59 0.59

Figures5-23a, 5-23b, and 5-24 show excavationamountsfor variouswidths and depthsof trenchesand the lOO-millimeter(4-inch) gravel envelopeamounts for variouspipe sixes. 5-37. Determining Hydraulic Conductivity of Envelope Material.-In most cases,the hydraulic conductivity of the envelopematerial will be adequate when all the material is retainedon the No. 30 screen. However, the presence and effect on hydraulic conductivity of any deleterioussubstances not readily visible can be determinedby the following hydraulic conductivity test:
(a) Equipment.-Equipment required is as follows:

(1) 300millimeter (1Zinch) lengthof 200-millimeter (g-inch) irrigation pipe. (2) Standard No. 30 screen. (3) Four small metal screws. (4) Siliconecaulking. (5) Constant head device such as an overflow pipe inserted 50 millimeters (2 inches)below the top of the itrigation pipe. The irrigation pipe shouldfit easilyinto the standardscreen.Fastenit in place with screwsandsealwith siliconecaulk.Etch a line on the insideof the irrigation pipe 180millimeters (7 inches) abovethe screen.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

215

DRAIN TRENCH IEPTH meters) 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.40 0.50 E 0:80 0.90 1.00 1.50 2.00 2.50 3.00 3.50 4.00 4.50 L500

EXCAVATION

CUBIC METERS

FOR VARIOUS DEPTHS AND WIDTHS

40 cm 0.020 0.040 0.060 0.080 0.100 0.120 0.160 0.200 0.240 0.280 0.320 0.360 0.400 0.600 0.800 1.000 1.200 1.400 1.600 1.800 L2000

50 cm 0.025 0.050 0.075 0.100 0.125 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300 0.350 0.400 0.450 0.500 0.750 1.000 1.250 1.500 1.750 E 2:500

6Ocm 0.030 0.060 0.090 0.120 0.150 0.180 0.240 0.300 0.360 0.420 0.480 Kz 0:900 1.200 1.500 1.800 2.100 2.400 2.700 3000 L

70 cm 0.035 0.070 0.105 0.140 0.175 0.210 0.280 0.350 0.420 0.490 0.560 0.630 0.700 1.050 1.400 1.750 2.100 2.450 2.800 3.150 3.500

80 cm 0.040 0.080 0.120 0.160 0.200 0.240 0.320 0.400 0.480 0.560 0.640 0.720 0.800 1.200 1.600 GE 2:800 3.200 3.600 4000 L

90 cm 0.045 0.090 0.135 0.780 0.225 0.270 0.360 0.450 0.540 0.630 0.720 0.810 0.900 1.350 1.800 2.250 2.700 3.150 3.600 4.050 4500 L

100 cm 0.050 0.100 0.150 0.200 0.250 0.300 ::2 %i 0:800 0.900 ::%i ;Ez 3:OOo 3.500 tii 5000 L

GRAVEL ENVELOPE CUBIC METERS 1 CUBIC METERS PER LINEAR METER FOR VARIOUS PIPE SIZES 1 10cm 15 cm 20cm 25cm 30cm 37.5cm 45cm 52.5cm 60cm 0.376 0.439 0.095 0~123 0.153 0.181 0.213 0.264 0.319

BASIS OF GRAVEL

-pdpmpl## clENVELOPE COMPUTATIONS

10 cm Of 1Ocm

Figure 5-23a.-Excavation amounts forvarious trench widths and depths and lOO-millimeter gravel envelope amounts for various pipe sizes (metric units). Drawing 103-D-684.

216

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

DRAIN

TRENCH
FOR VARIOUS

EXCAVATION
DEPTHS AND

YARDAGE
WIDTHS

GRAVEL 4in.
0.030

ENVELOPE

YARDAGE

CUBIC YARDS PER LINEAR FOOT FOR VARIOUS PIPE SIZES 6in. 1 Bin. 1 loin. 1 l2in. I l5in. I IBin. 1 21/n. 24in.
1 0.061 1 0.072 1 0.085 1 0.105 1 0.127 1 0.150 0.175

1 0.049

* Yardages

are approximate

but satisfactory

for

estimating

purposes.

BASIS

OF

GRAVEL
i

YARDAGE
r&+ 0, ;. , .., 0 :.o . . . . : .. ,: . :@I :. 0 ;i;; : : .,. .o. . Eb I IT

COMPUTATIONS

Figure 5-23b.Gxcavation amounts forvarious trench widths and depths and 4-inch gravel envelope amounts for various pipe sizes (U.S. customary units). Drawing 103-D-684.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

217

Q = Rate of inflow through one longitudinal gop (ft. /d) K = Hydraulic conductivity of gravel envelope (ft. Id) fl=Average potential difference (ft.) n-e/b Gap width m-Proportionality constant-7 brave1 envelope

m
Figure 5-24.-How entering a spaced drain from a gravel envelope for concrete or clay pipe. Drawing 103-D-1668.

(b) Procedure.-

(1) Fill the irrigation pipe to the etchedline with the envelopematerial. Drop it on a hard rubber pad 10 times from a height of about 25 millimeters (1 inch). Refdl to the line with envelope. (2) Slowly immersethe apparatus into a larger containerof water until water risesabovethe envelopematerial and all air has beenremovedfrom the sample.

218

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

(3) Apply water to the top to maintain a constanthead above the envelope material while the water outsidethe apparatusis removed. (4) Maintain the constant head under free-flow conditions for a 5-minute interval. (5) Catch, measure,and record the effluent for a l-minute interval. Hold a constanthead for another25 minutes and again catch, measure,and record the effluent for 1 minute. Repeatthis procedureafter another30 minutes of constant head. By the end of an hour, the presenceof any material that might causea reduction in hydraulic conductivity should be evident. In some of the less permeableenvelopematerials, a reduction in hydraulic conductivity may not becomeevidentfor 24 hours or more. Therefore,the test on any material that has a hydraulic conductivity of lessthan about 750 millimeters (30 inches)per hour at the end of 1 hour should be continuedand measurements taken at the end of 12 and 24 hours. If a substantialreduction occurs in the hydraulic conductivity betweenthe 12thand 24th hour, the test shouldbe continuedanda measurement taken at the end of 36 hours. If another substantialreduction in the hydraulic conductivity occurs between the 24th and 36th hour and the causecannot be readily determined,the material should not be used for envelopematerial. To avoid difficulties from air bubbles,the water shouldbe deaerated,especiallyif test is for extendedperiods. (c) Calculations.-Use the Darcy flow equationin the form: K=$ (14)

where: K = hydraulic conductivity in centimeters(inches)per hour; Q = volume of water passingthrough the material in cubic centimeters (inches); A = cross-sectional areain squarecentimeters(inches); t = time in hours for which sampleis collected(1/6Othof anhour for most cases); L = length of material column in centimeters(inches);and h = height of water level abovebaseof cylinder in centimeters(inches). As a generalguideline,a hydraulic conductivity rate of an envelopematerial which is 10 times the rate of the basematerial is adequate.It has also been observed that envelope materials which have hydraulic conductivity rates in excessof 150meters (500 feet) per day [635 centimeters(250 inches)per hour] are difficult to placewithout segregation. If segregation occurs,voids developin the envelopewhich allow fines from the basematerial to move into the drain. 5-38. Gap Width, Length of Pipe Sections,and Hydraulic Conductivity of Envelope.-In designinga closeddrain, it is assumed that: (a) the pipe will accept the drainagewater when it arrives at the dminline, and (b) the pipe will carry away the water without a buildup of pressurewithin the pipe. Unless these

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

219

assumptions am met, the drain will not function as intended,and the land may not be effectively drained.To meet the first assumption requiresconsiderationof the relationship among the hydraulic conductivity of the gravel envelope,the length of pipe sections,and the gap width betweenpipe sections.To meet the second assumption requiresthat the pipesizeanddrain slopebe sufficient to carry the water away after it entersthe pipe. The designfor the secondassumptionis explainedin sections5-46 and 547. The theoreticalrelationshipbetween rate of flow, hydraulic conductivity of the gravel envelope,and the head loss due to convergenceof flow to the gap openingsbetween lengthsof pipe has beendeterminedby W. T. Moody of the Bureauof Reclamation(Moody, 1960).His relationshipis valid for all conditions of thecloseddrain, from empty to flowing full, but is not valid if the drain is under pressure.Moody concluded that increasing the hydraulic conductivity of the gravel envelopewas a more effective method for increasingthe rate of inflow than increasingthe gapwidth. The curvesand equationson figure 5-24 provide a meansof analyzingthe aboverelationships. For corrugatedplastic pipe having close, uniformly spacedslots or perforations throughout the length of the dram, figure 5-25 can be usedto analyzethe relationshipsdevelopedby Moody. The curveson this figure were derived from electricanalogstudiesperformedby Reclamationpersonnel(Mantei, C. L., 1971, 1974). The designcurves in this sectionCM be used in severalways. Generally, the rate of designinflow will be known before using thesecurves.If a certain length of pipe is more readily availablethan others, the minimum required hydraulic conductivity of the envelopecan be determined.If the envelopematerial to be usedis known and its hydraulic conductivity determined,the maximum permissiblepipe lengthcanbe determined.Wherethe basematerialis highly permeable, it should be testedto determineif its hydraulic conductivity meets the requimments. If it does, there is no need to import envelope material becausethe excavated material will servethe purpose.Drams constructedof plasticdrainpipe with a trencherrequire envelopematerial to be installedwith the pipe to provide supportfor it during backfilling operations.For theseconditions, it may be less costly to provide a gradedenvelopethan to use excavatedmaterials. As anexample,assume that a RIO-millimeter(4-inch), corrugatedplastic drain is to be installed and that it will run three-fourths full. The design inflow is 0.000013cubic meter per secondper meter (0.00014cubic foot per secondper foot) of dram. Assuminga 100~millimeter (4-inch) gravelenvelope,thehydraulic conductivity neededfor the drain can be determinedand the suitability of the availableenvelopematerial canbe checkedin the laboratory.

220

DRAINAGE MANUAL

0 sRate of inflow per meter (ft.) of pipe,m/d K = Hydraulic conductivity m/d (ft./d) H = Average n = e/b potentiol of gravel difference, envelope meter (ft.)

(ft?/d) in

IO.5

3.2

5 E J 2 c

10.0

9.5

\,

2.6

a
6.0 - I.6

5.5 - 1.6 5.0

Figure 5-25.440~ 103-D-1669.

entering a spaced drain from a gravel envelope for plastic pipe. Drawing

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

221

Using the relationshipsshown on figure 5-25: b = 57.2 millimeters (2.25 inches) = 0.0572meter (0.1875foot) e = 102millimeters (4.00 inches) = 5 1 millimeters (2.00 inches) i = 0.75 (102) = 76 millimeters (3.00 inches) H =b+e= 159millimeters (6.25 inches) & (22 + 29 $ I

Q = 0.000013ms/s/m (0.00014fts/s/ft) = 1.12ms/d/m (12.1 ftW/ft)

= 127millimeters (5.02 inches) = 0.127meter (0.418 foot),

n = ; = 1.78 cp= (9.5) [from lOO-millimeter(4-inch) pipe curve on figure 5-251, and

K=-e=

bjjq

1.12 = 16.2meters (53.2 feet) per day = (0.0572)(0.127)(9.5) 67.6 centimeters(26.6 inches)per hour.

The gravel envelopematerial requiresa hydraulic conductivity of 67.6 centimeters(26.6 inches)per hour [ 16.2meters(53.2 feet) per day] if a lOO-millimeter (4-inch) envelopeis used.The smallestdiameterpipe usedin a drainagesystem will alwaysrequire the greatesthydraulic conductivity for the envelopematerial. If the pit run material had a hydraulic conductivity of only 51 centimeters (20 inches)per hour [12.2 meters (40 feet per day)], the material shouldhave to be processed to remove someof the fines to increasethe hydraulic conductivity or elsethe thiclmessof the envelopewould haveto be increased. This increased thicknesscanbe determinedby substitutingthe measured hydraulic conductivity into the previousequation:

HdL
-

Kbq

1.12 = 0.169 meter (0.556 foot) = 169milli(12.2)(0.0572)(9.5) meters (6.7 inches).

andH = 201 millimeters (7.9 inches).

222

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Assumingthe water level canbe allowedto standjust at the top of the envelope with the pipe running full:

H = b+e = 57.2+e = 201,and

e = 143.8.Use an envelopethickness,e, of 150millimeters (6 inches). Thedesigner shouldcompare thecostof usingthisextraenvelope materialagainst thecost of processing the pit run materialbeforemakinghis recommendations, Many possiblecombinationsof pipe diameter,pipe length, envelopethickness,and envelopehydraulic conductivity will satisfy the inflow requirements. All reasonable possibilitiesshould be investigatedto determinethe most satisfactory and least expensive combination. However, compensatingfor low hydraulic conductivity by increasing the envelope thickness should be done cautiously.Never use envelopematerial having lesshydraulic conductivity than the basematerial. In the previous example,if the lOO-millimeter (4-inch) diameter pipe were selected, it would be necessaryto process the envelope material so that a lOOmillimeter (4-inch) envelopecould be used,and a 250-millimeter (lo-inch) envelopewould be requiredif the material was not processed. Also, a 150-millimeter (6-inch) diameterpipe could be usedwith a lOO-millimeter(4-inch) gravel envelopeof pit run material. Cost comparisonscan be made on these different combinationsas follows: Furnishingand laying lOO-millimeter (4-inch) pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $1.57 per meter ($0.48 per foot) Furnishingand laying 150-millimeter (6-inch) pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . $2.13per meter ($0.65 per foot) Furnishingandplacing pit run material . . . . . . . $5.56 per cubic meter ($4.25 per cubic yard) Fumishing and placingprocessedmaterial . . . . . $7.65 per cubic meter ($5.85 per cubic yard) The gravel envelopeyardagewould be: lOOmillimeter (4-inch) pipe, lOO-millimeter (4-inch) processed envelope . . . . . . . . . . . 0.095 ms/m (0.038yds/ft) lOOmillimeter (4-inch) pipe, 250-millimeter (lo-inch) pit run envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.376 ms/m (0.15 yds/ft) 15Omillimeter (6-inch) pipe, lOO-millimeter (4-inch) pit run envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . 0.123 ms/m (0.049 yds/ft)

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

223

CosWfor 100meters(328 feet) and 100feet (30 meters)of drainline are:

100 meters 100 feet

lOOmillimeter (4-inch) pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . lOOmillimeter (4-&h) processed envelope . . . Total lOOmillimeter (4-inch) pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . 250millimeter (lo-inch) pit run envelope . . . . Total 15Omillimeter (6-&h) pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . lOOmillimeter (4-inch) pit runenvelope . . . . . Total

$157.00 72.(i8 $229.68 $157.00 209.06 $356.06 $213.00 68.38 $281.38

$48.00 LZ.2.3 $70.23 $48.00 63.75 $111.75 $65.OO 20.82 $85.82

Kurrent costsmay be different but the procedureof comparisonis the same. For this example,the most economicalselectionwould be the lOO-millimeter (4-inch) diameterpipe witha lOOmillimeter (4-inch) processed gravelenvelope. S-39. Stability of a Pipe Drain Bed.-For a pipe drain to be as effective as predictedby the designdata,it shouldbe placedon a stable,undisturbedbed.This placementcan be accomplished by installing the pipe in a dry trench where the basematerialremainsundisturbed.However, pipe drainsusuallyarenot installed until after the ground-watertablehasrisenhigher thanthe bottom of the proposed drain, and many of the drainableagricultural soils becomeunstablewhen saturated. There are a number of ways to stabilize a pipe drain bed, but only by dewateringthe basematerial andinstalling the drainsin stablesoil conditionswill the drain function at maxims effectiveness.When the base material in the vicinity of the pipe drain is disturbed,it usually becomeslesspermeable.Since most of the water enteringthe drain entersthroughthe bottom portion of the pipe, any lossof hydraulic conductivity in this region increases headlossesaroundthe drain. This headloss causesa higher water table midway betweenspaceddrains or upslopefor interceptordrains.Unstablesoils in the vicinity of the drain can be dewateredusing well points. This method is expensive,but may be necessary for an effective concreteor clay drain. Using a modem trenchingmachine,lightweight plastic pipe, and backfilling behind the trencher, there is seldom a need for dewatering the basematerial. However, when the basematerial is highly unstable,the shield may not prevent the base material from mixing with the envelope. This mixing results in an envelopewith an indetetminatehydraulic conductivity andmay causethe drain to malfunction. When necessary, stabilizationof drain bedscan be accomplished with coarse gravel. In someinstances, this method will requireoverexcavation;in others,the coarsegravel will work itself down into unstablematerial. Usually, the mixed material will have a lower hydraulic conductivity than the undisturbed base

224

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

material, and the drain efficiency will be reduced.As a result, stabilizationwith coarsegravel couldbe lessdesirablethan usingwell points when consideringthe life of the drainagesystem. Stabilizingmaterialsshouldconform to the following gradation: Gradation of stabilizing material Retainedon 127millimeter (Sinch) screen Retainedon 102~millimeter(4-inch) screen Retainedon 76.2~millimeter(3-&h) screen Retainedon 50.8~millimeter(2~inch)screen Retainedon 19.1~millimeter(3/4-inch) screen Passing 4.76-millimeter (No. 4) screen Percent 0 oto20 oto30 20 to 50 20 to 50 Lessthan

S-40. Laying Pipe Drains-The ftished bed for all pipe should be made smooth, including removal of material underthe bell end of the bell-and-spigottype joint, to ensurethat the full length of pipe will be evenly and uniformly supported.Whenthe bell-and-spigot-type joint is used,the bell endshouldalways beupgrade.Thepipe shouldbe laid with the adjacentendscloselyabuttedagainst the spacinglugs. A drainpipelengthshouldalwaysbeheldinplace by mechanical or other meansuntil the next length of pipe is readyto be placed.Any pipe which is broken, cracked, or objectionablein any way should be discarded.Trenches that have been inadvertently overexcavatedshould be refilled with selected material and carefully compactedto original density or brought to grade with envelopematerial. During placementof the pipe, the water level in the trench shouldnot exceed50 percent of the pipe diameterabove the invert of the pipe. Water may beremovedfrom thetrenchby permitting it to flow throughpreviously installedpipe. A screencover shouldbe placedover the exposedend of the pipe until the next length of pipe is placed.This screenshouldhavea maximum mesh openingof 3.2 millimeters (l/8 inch). Corrugatedplastic pipe requiresspecialprecautionsduring laying operations. Theplasticpipe must be well beddedandthe beddingmaterial shouldcompletely surroundthe pipe. The strengthof the pipe depends upon the beddingmaterial in addition to the designof the pipe corrugations.Care must be taken when laying the pipe to keepfrom stretchingit more than 5 percent.Any greaterstretch could causedeformation of the corrugations and permit collapseof the pipe during backfilling of the trench. Plasticpipe tendsto float in water, so the trench should bebackfilled assoonaspossibleafter pipe installation.At siteswhereplasticpipe is being installed 0.6 meter (2 feet) or more below the water table, it may be necessary to addblinding material at the rear of the trenchersto prevent floating of the drainline. When a portion of a pipe drain is not neededas a subsurfacedram, such,as under roads,laterals,and surfacedrains, or where roots could enter dram op/nings, the drams should be constructedwith sealedjoints. All joints should be sealed by hot-pouredjoint compounds, factory-fabricatedjoining connections, or rubber gaskets.Trenchesmust be kept free of water whenjoints arebeing sealed

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

225

with the hot-pouredcompound.Whenplastic pipe is used,unperforatedpipe with tapedjoints shouldbe specifiedwhen sealed joints am required. The upper end of pipe drains requires protection. Pipe drains can end in a manholewhen the drain might be extended.If the drain will not be extendedor if a manholewould be poorly located,a standardpipe plug packedwith oakum should be used for terminating concrete or clay drains. Specialend plugs are availablefor plastic pipe. 5-41. Inspecting and Testing Pipe Drains.-More pipe drains haveproven to be ineffective because of poor inspectionduring constructionthan from poor location or design. The drain should be inspectedfor proper elevation below ground surface, grade, alignment,joint spacing, collapsing,broken or cracked pipe, and thiclmessof gravel envelopebefore backfilling. The inspector should ensurethat the pipe drains and all manholes(including existing manholesused for outlets for new drains) are free of depositsof mud, sand, gravel, or other foreign matter, and are in good working condition. Unstable soils may preclude all but spot checksbefore backfilling. Before being acceptedas completed,eachdrain shouldbe testedfor obstmctions. If a cleanandunobstructed view of the completeboreof the pipe cannotbe obtainedbetweenmanholesby use of a high-poweredlight, a test plug having a diameterabout 25 millimeters (1 inch) less than the drainpipeshouldbe drawn throughthe drain. When a test plug is used,it shouldbe rigid andtaperedat both ends.The lengthof the plug, excludingtaperedends,shouldbe twice the diameter of the pipe. The plug shouldbe pulledby handwith a steadypull. A rope should be tied to both endsof the plug so that the plug can be backed out if necessary because of an obstruction. The rope also servesas a meansfor determiningthe location of the plug and obstruction if one is encountered. Pipe 380~millimeter (15inch) diameterand larger shouldbe inspected with a plug having a diameter which is 90 percentof tbe pipe diameter.For pipe 610millimeters (24 inches)and larger, the useof a plug for inspectionbecomesdifficult. This sizepipe is seldom usedfor agriculturaldrainagesystems.Visual inspectionof large diameterpipe is recommendedwhen practical. If not practical, then other meansof ensuringno crushed,broken, separated joints or other obstructionsexist will have to be used. When concreteor clay pipe are used,an airfilled ball may be flushed through the drain in lieu of a rigid plug. Normally, the ball is usedto locateobstructions, but dueto thejetting actionaroundthe ball, smallquantitiesof sandcanbeflushed out of the pipe. A waterheadof no more than 0.6 meter (2 feet) shouldbe used when using this flushing method. The ball shouldfloat through the pipe and not be pulled. If pulled, the ball can passthrough areasof pulledjoints andpartially filled pipe without being detected. The ball method does not work well on perforatedplastic pipe. S-42. Backfilling Pipe Drain Trench.-During backfilling, care shouldbe takento ensurethat the drain is not disturbedeithervertically or horizontally. The earth backfilling of the trenchesshould be done with material from the trench excavation.Backfill should be pusheddiagonally into the trench and placed in concurrenthorizontal lifts on both sidesof the trench.

226

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

About 0.3 meter (1 foot) of fill shouldbe carefully placedover the envelope before starting the generalbackfiiing operations.This procedureensuresthat backfill material doesnot drop directly onto the gravel envelopecausingpipe displacementor failure. No more than about 300 meters (1,000 feet) of trench shouldbe openat any one time. In unstablesoils, this opentrench length should be reduced to 8 meters (25 feet) or less. Rocks larger than 130 millimeters (5 inches)in diametershouldnot bepermitted within 0.3 meter (1 foot) abovethe pipe, and frozen earth clods shouldnot be permitted within 1.2 meters (4 feet) abovethe pipe. Specialcompactionof the backfill is not requiredexcept where pipe drainscross below irrigation or surfacewater drainageditchesor roads. At theselocations,earth backfill shouldbe compactedto a depthof 1meter (3 feet) below the bottom of the ditch or roadbedbeing crossed.The compactionshould be carried for such lengthsalong the trench that settlementor erosionunder the road or ditch will not occur. The top 0.6 meter (2 feet) of a trenchina field shouldbebackfilled with topsoil that has been laid aside during the excavation of the trench. Excess backfill material, with all rocks, caliche, and other such material removed, should be depositedin a uniform windrow over the trench. Puddlingthe trench to restore the windrow to normal ground surfaceis permitted when carefully done.Under certainsoil conditions,puddlingcancausechanneling of thewater andmovement of fine soils into the drain. Upon completionof the drain all canal,lateral,andfarm ditch linings; fences; and concreteor asphaltroads should be restored to their original or improved condition. -3. Manholes.-Manholes are located in pipe drains to serveas junction boxes, silt and sandtraps, observationwells, dischargemeasurementfacilities, entrances to the drain for maintenance, and to permit easy location of the drain Theream no setcriteria for the spacingof manholes. In general,a manholeshould beusedat junction points on a drain or at major changes in alignmenton collector and suboutlet drains. Manholes are not required at every junction of closely spaced[less than 210 meters (700 feet)] relief or interceptor drainsor collector drains.Manholesare usuallynot requiredat gradechanges if the gradebecomes steeper.Specialeffort should be made to locate manholeswhere they will not interfere with fanning operations. If a manhole cannot be justified for the purposesdescribedabove,a simple Y-section, T-section, or holes made in the collector pipe can be used to tie the relief or interceptordrainsto the collector drain Changes in pipe diametershould be madeat a manhole,if convenient. Manholes should extend a minimum of 300 millimeters (12 inches) and a maximum of 600 millimeters (24 inches) abovethe natural ground surfacefor easyrecognition.They shouldbe placedin fencerows or at other out-of-the-way locations if at all possible. Neither a manholenor a cleanoutis required at the upper endof a line, but this end of the line must be plugged.The location of the plugged end should be recorded both in fieldbooks and on as-built drawings.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

227

When cleanoutrisersareusedat the endof the line, they shouldbe on a sufficient angleto permit entranceof cleaningequipment. To compensate for the headlosseswithin a manhole,the generalpractice has beento provide a drop at the invert elevationbetweenthe inlet and outlet pipes. This practice is satisfactorybut not absolutelynecessary and sometimescreates problemson level landswherethe gradelines haveto begreaterthan thegradients of the land surface.For this condition, the top of the inlet and outlet pipescan be placedat the sameelevation.If designdata show the inlet pipe to be at capacity at the manhole,the outlet pipe size will be increased andthe necessary drop will be availablein the larger pipe. If a size changeis not required at the manhole, neither pipe will be at capacityandthe slight headlossrequiredwill be available in the unusedcapacity of the pipes. The baseof the manholeshould be about 450 millimeters (18 inches)below the bottom of the effluent pipe to form a trap that will catch any debristhat may enter the line. Upon completion of a new drain, all traps should be cleanedout and the manhole covers set. Traps should also be cleanedperiodically as a maintenance item. Figure 5-26 shows a standarddesignfor a manhole.Manholesmay also be constructedof asphalt-dippedor polymer-coatedcorrugatedmetal pipe (CMP) where salinity of the soil and water is low and stability is a problem for heavy concretepipe. Plasticmanholeshavealso beensuccessfullyused. S-44. Surface Inlets-In general, surface water should not be allowed to enter a closeddrain In someinstances, however, it may be necessary to dispose of small amountsof surfacewater in this manner.Even then, specialprecautions shouldbe taken to remove weedand silt load from the surfacewater. Topographymay be such that an open drain can dischargedirectly into the closeddrain,but more often the opendrainwill discharge into a manhole.Ineither case,every possibleprecaution shouldbe taken to keep material from entering thecloseddrain which might clog it. The minimum precautionshouldbe to install a self-cleaningtrashrackin the opendrain, which will prevententry of largerocks, brush, and debris. A desilting pond should be provided if the water contains significant amountsof sediment. S-45. Outlet Structures.-The outlet end of a closeddrain, if not properly protected,will be undercutby the action of dischargingwater. This undercutting will causethe drain to shift out of proper gradeand alignmentand createcostly maintenanceproblems. Complete blockage of the outlet may also occur. To preventmisalignment,3.6 to 4.6 meters (12 to 15feet) of heavy-gauge, asphaltdipped, or polymer-coated CMP should be placed at the outlet end of closed drains.Corrugated,high-density polyethylenepipe is alsousedfor drain system outlets.A screenshouldbeplacedon thepipe to keeprodentsfrom entering.Some drain outletsrequire flap valvesto keephigh flows in the opendrain from entering the pipe drain. All drain outlets shouldhavea rodent screeninstalledover the end of the pipe. Figure 5-15 showsa typical closeddrain outlet.

228

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Handle - a4 bar-, Note: Use chain or other locking device between hondles. PLAN COVER
60 cm 124) max.

..- .

cm (36)

min. for droin

ee or more large size pipe an boxes receiving larger thon cm pipe should hove a ens/on of 107cm W). Stondord reinforced precast concrete pipe.

BASE Concrete bose, precast cost in place, square or or

fieM so tit myh circular fwmc?d to recite pipe. After s fitt8d h ptoce, gwt carefaWy t0 Mngpip to Fade tnd pbce mkiq aroaimip& as directed VERTICAL SECTION

Figure 5-26.-Typical

manhole design for a closed drain. Drawing 103-D-686.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

229

546. Strength of Drainpipe.--(u) General.-Since closed drains in irrigatedareasare usually placedat considerable depth below the ground surface, the ability of the pipeto carry the backfill loadis an important consideration. Both concreteand clay pipe are madein severaldifferent strengths,so designsfor the properstrengthpipe arenot only necessary to ensurethepermanence of the drain but also to permit use of the most economicalpipe. Figure 5-27 shows the load per linear meter (foot) on pipe from different backfilling materials for varying backfill depths and trench widths. The loads shownwill vary slightly with the diameterof the pipe, so they am not exact,but they are within the limits of accuracyof other factors that affect the load and are satisfactoryfor usein design.The loadsarebasedon Marstons formula asshown on figure 5-29. Note that trench widths are measuredat the top of the pipe, and thesevaluesare used whether the trench sidesare vertical or sloping. A nomograph for solving the Marston formula for rigid pipe is given on figure 5-28. A safety factor of 1.5 shouldbe usedto determinethe strength of concreteor clay pipe requiredwhen strengthsare determinedby physicaltesting. (b} Rigid&e.-Table 5-9 showsthe allowable crushingstrengthof various pipe laid in a gravel envelope.For pipe not laid in a gravel envelope, only 75 percentof thesevaluesshouldbe used.The tabular valuesshown in table 5-9 assume that a classC beddingwill result whenusinga gravelenvelope.A classC beddingdesignates a shaped bed fitted to the lower part of the pipe. If a different classof beddingis provided, the tabular valuescanbe adjustedaccordingly.For more information on beddingclassifications,seeASTM C 12. Thefollowing procedurecanbeusedto determinethe strengthof piperequired for a particular installation: (1) Knowing the unit weight of soil, depth of trench, and width of trench at top of pipe, usefigure 5-27 or 5-28 to determinethe loadper linear meter (foot) on the pipe. (2) Knowing the diameter and type of pipe, use table 5-9 to determine the quality of pipe requiredto supportthe load. Example: Assume the preliminary design indicates a 250-millimeter (lo-inch) diameter concrete pipe is required and the depth of backfill over the pipe will be 2.6 meters (8.6 feet). For a 25Omillimeter (lo-inch) pipe with a lOO-millimeter (4-inch) gravel envelope,a 610-millimeter (24-inch) wide ditch should be satisfactory;however,this groundis not expectedto be stable, so a ditch width of 0.8 meter (2.5 feet) at top of the pipe is estimated.The backfill material will be saturatedtopsoil weighing 1,760kilogmms per cubicmeter (110 poundsper cubic foot). From figure 5-27, for a 2.6-meter(8.5-foot) cover, the load is: (1990)(1.1) = 2,189kilogramsperlinearmeter(l,472poundsperlinearfoot)

WEIGHING
4Scm 525cm 9440 10560 11520 12320 12960 13520 14000 14400 14720 14960 15200

SATURATED TOPSOIL 1600 KILOGRAMS PER CUBIC METER * Trench Width at Top of Pipe
6Ocm 11360 12720 13920 15040 15920 16720 17440 18ooO 18560 18880 19280 62.Scm7Scm 13280 14880 16480 17760 19040 20080 20880 21680 22400 22960 23520 15120 17200 19040 20720 21760 23520 24720 25760 26640 27360 28160 82.Scm9Ocm 16960 19360 21680 23600 25280 26%0 284CO 29760 30880 21840 32800 18720 21760 24160 26400 28640 30560 32320 33920 35280 36560 37600 1OSm 22720 26240 29WO 32560 35280 37600 4OWO 42320 44320 46080 47680 120 cn 264GU 30880 34880 38720 42000 452RO 481~ 509~1 5344~ 55840 57~?4O S 6 7 8 9 10 12 13 14 1s

/EIGHING
18in 475 530 570 605 635 655 675 690 705 715 720 21 in 590 660 720 770 810 845 875 900 920 935 950

SATURATED TOPSOIL 100 POUNDS PER CUBIC FOOT * Trench Width at Top of Pipe
24in 710 795 870 940 995 1045 1090 1125 1160 1180 1205 27iin 830 930 1030 1110 1190 1255 1305 1355 1400 1435 1470 3Obt 945 1075 1190 1295 1380 1470 1545 1610 1665 1710 1760 33b1 1060 1210 1355 1475 1580 1685 1775 1860 1930 1990 2050 Mht 1170 1360 1510 1650 1790 1910 2020 2120 2205 2285 2350 42in 1420 1640 1850 2035 2205 2350 2500 2645 2770 2880 2980 48 in 1650 1930 2180 2420 2625 2830 3010 3185 3340 3490 3615

1.5
1.8

3 2.1
j 2.4 4 , L : : . i i ] 1s 1.8 2; 21 2.1 3.0 3.4 3.7 4.0 4.3 4.6

; 3.0
3.4 3.1 4.0 4.3 4.6

2.7

7600 8480 9120 9680 10160 10480 10800 11040 11280 11440 11520

= 8 ti .$ 0 8 P b b

u 12

WET CLAY
8480 9520 10480 11280 11920 12560 13040 13440 13840 14160 14480 weighing weighing 10320 11760 12960 14080 15040 15920 16880 17280 17760 18320 18720 12240 14CGO 15600 16960 18240 19360 204lM 21280 22LWO 22720 23360 14080 16240 18160 19420 21440 22880 24160 25440 26320 27280 28080 16240 18560 20800 22960 24800 26560 28080 29600 30880 32180 33200 18ooO 22240 23440 25760 23080 30240 32080 33760 35440 36880 38320 19760 23360 26080 28460 31520 33680 35300 38160 40240 41920 43520 23920 276CG 31760 34480 38240 41360 44320 47200 49760 52000 54320 27680 32480 36560 41440 44800 48960 52240 56080 59200 62240 65280 0.94. 1.06 etc.

WET CLAY

!
1 j j $ 1

2 3 m 0 9 8 n

6 S
I 8 9 10 11

12
13 14 1s

530 595 655 705 745 785 515 MO 865 885 905

645 735 810 880 940 995 1055 1080 1110 1145 1170

765 875 975 1060 1140 1210 1275 1330 1375 1420 14@l

880 1015 1135 1245 1340 1430 1510 1590 1645 1705 1755

1015 1160 1300 1435 1550 1660 1755 1850 1930 2010 2075

1125 1290 1465 1610 1755 1890 2005 2110 2215 2305 23%

1235 1460 1630 1790 1970 2105 2260 2385 2515 2620 2720

1495 1725 1985 2155 2390 2585 2770 2950 3110 3250 3395 0.9,

1730 2030 2285 2590 2800 3060 3265 3505 3700 3890 4080 for backfill

* For backtill for backfiil

1500 kilograms 1700 kilograms

per cubic metw multiply per cubic meter. multiply

load sbownby load shownby

For backfill weighing weighing 110 pounds

90 pounds per cubic fcc& multiply load shownby per cubic fmr multiply load sbownby 1.1 etc.

Basedon the h4arstmformula for loadsin treches: W = CwL? where.: W = Load on pipe in kilogramsper linearmeter(poondsper linearfoot), C = Coefficient of load on pipe, P = Weight of fill in kilogramsper cubic meter(poundsper cubicfoot), B = Width of ditch at top of pipe in meters(feet),and H = Height of till abovetop of pipe in feet Figure 5-27.-Loads on concrete or clay pipe per linear meter (foot) for various backfill materials. Drawing 103D689.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

231

Table S-9a.-Allowable for rigid pipe drains in a

fipe Diameter (3 100 (4) Clay d jtrengtl 26.2 _____ 26.2 30.6 35.1 39.4 _---43.8 -_--_ 48.1 _-_-_ 52.5 56.8 61.3 72.3 78.3 87.6 ye
Extra w

crushing strength in kilograms per linear meter avel envelope (Getric units). Drawin 103-D-1670.
.3

ZiiG F
Clas! 2 33.0

Sewe

class

Clav Drain Tile4 A i&UK&t ala itrengtl ggil

24.0 17.5 17.5 24.0 :;; g 33.0 17.5 24.0 33.0 17.5 24.0 200 (8) 250 (10) 35.2 17.5 24.0 39.0 24.0 17.5 ----_ z?i iif{ 18.4 24.0 375(15) 43.5 19.0 25.0 ----_ _--_26.2 -____ 28.5 % I::{ 48.0 -____ _-------_ 500(20) ---_525(21) 52.5 31.6 _____ 34.9 57.0 600 (W -_--675 (27) 39.3 61.5 _---750(30) 43.6 -----____ 825(33) z-z _-------!WO(36) 72'0 A io Pertorated c0ncrete Qe *i ** I 0 Special Quality I The valueslisted in this table are 1.5 times the valuesgiven in the respective ASTM Specitiitions listed below which we minimum 3 edge bearing s&qths. CurrentASTh4SpecifmionNo.

43.8 ----43.8 48.9 52.5 56.8 _____ 63.4 _____ 72.3 _____ 84.3 96.3 102.9 .09.5 .20.4 .31.4

-_-__

43.5 _-__43.5 43.5 43.5 49.5 ----57.0 ----_ 66.0 _____ 72.0 78.7 86.2 94.5 96.0 98.2

n Concrete6Drainagc 2c 3 Heavy Duty 24.0 30.7 26.2 24.0 27.0 30.7 24.0 28.5 30.7 24.0 29.2 33.0 33.7 24.0 30.7 24.0 37.5 33.0 24.0 35.2 2 24.0 36.0 4517 24.0 37.5 26.2 51.0 39.7 29.2 54.7 32.2 2; 58.5 35.2 43:5 66.0 _____ -__-------___ 43.5 -_--_ _--_-____

2 c700-91
3 C14M-90 4 a-62 (Reapproved 1986)

5 C412M-90 6 C118M-90 C444M-90

NOTE :

When the crushing strength of the pipes listed will not meet an unusual load condition, reinforced concrete sewer or culvert pipe should be considered. See Federal Specifications No. SS-P-371, Type II, and ASTM C76-90.

Table S-9b.-Allowable crushing strength in pounds per linear foot for rigidpipe drains in a gravel envelope (U.S. customary units}. Drawing 103-D-1670.
Pipa dieter. inches Standard St remth I.800

CLAY SE :R PIPE Ext ro

St renMh 3.000

:ONCRETE SEWER PIPE

T
Standard Strm6th

CLAY DRAIN TILE

Ext ro Qwlity

XNCRETE
Standard guality

RAN TILE
stra blity 1.660 I.650 I% l:6Yl 1.660 1.s p5& **

3NCRETE 1 NNAGEPIR
Standard I.600 I.676 I.950 i:El I:% 2:660 2.ll6

6 6 IO I2 I4 I6 IX 20 x: z 33 36

Ys
2.260 2.260 2.260 X:% 3.m 3.300 3.600 3.600 4.200 4.600 4.125 4.660

Gloss

Hw out:
2.100 xz 2:260 2,326

3.000 3.ooo 3.ooo 3:E 3.600 4.500 4.950 x*z 6:460

::Ei t:%l
3.m 3.300

x%i
3:600 3.900 4.360 4.950

21:
2: 100 2.260 tsl 2115 2:970 3. I60 3.610

1.m I.200 I.200 I.200 I.200 I.200

2.700
%:Efl

6.600

6.115

:Gi
6:260 g.oa

tfiz
4.020 6:366 Perforotad Special Chml Concrate i ty Pipe will not maat sonar or Specifications

:%i 2:400 a.ooo a.606

6.600
6.760 *Also **Also NOTES:

When tb crushing strength of the Dips listed an unusual Iced condition, rainforced concmte culvert pipa should be considwed. Sea Fader01 No. SS-P-371. Type II and ASlU C76-74. The thru-w o Iood factor bowing of I.5 strength orsuing values Class how bwn C baddirm.

ultipliod

by

234

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Using table 5-9, the allowable crushing strength of all pipes listed, except standardclay and standardconcretedraintile, will exceedthe requiredstrength. (c) Plastic pipe.-For corrugatedplastic pipe, the strengthdepends upon the bedding material. All plastic pipe drains should be surroundedby at least a lOOmillimeter (4-inch) gravel envelope.The loading capacity shouldbe determinedby Marstons methodfor flexible pipe.Figure5-29 showsloadcoefficients for various soils basedon the ratio of the depthof fill to the trench width. Flexible pipe deflects when loaded,which results in a transfer of the load to thebeddingmaterial. Safeloadsfor corrugated plasticpipethat meetReclamation materialsspecificationsam thoseloads that will cause10 percentor lessdeflection as determinedby: A= where: A = D = c = WC= = L = E = I
DC W$ EI + 0.061Er3 (16)

Ripe deflection in millimeters (inches), Deflection lag factor of 1.5, Beddingconstantof 0.10, Vertical load on pipe as determinedfrom figure 5-3 1, Mean radius of pipe in millimeters (inches), Modulus of elasticity of pipe in kilospascals (Roundsper squareinch), Modulus of soil reaction [4,826 kilopascals(700 pounds per square inch) for drams in gravelpack)], and = Moment of inertiaof pipecorrugationsinmilluneters (inches)per linear millimeter (inch).

The product for El is calculatedusing the equation:

El = 0.14&

AY

where: F = Load per linear inch on a parallel plate test apparatus(sand-bearing strengthis 1SF) Ay = Vertical deflection of pipe in millimeters (inches) Figure 5-30 showsthe backfill loadingson flexible and rigid pipe according to depth to top of pipe for a 450-millimeter (l&inch) wide trench. This figure shows loadings by pipe size and backfill material. The following tabulation shows the weight of backfill causinga lo-percent deflection on pipe meeting Reclamation specificationsfor corrugatedpolyethylene pipe, with a stiffness equalto 275 kilopascals(40 poundsper squareinch) (sandbearing):

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

235

1 w,=CdwBt

(Fir rigid pipe)

w,=Lood on pipe, kg/m

C,j=LOOd coefficient

(Ib/ft)

w=Unit weight of fill, kg/m (Ib/ft3) B,= Outside diameter of pipe. m tft) G=Width of ditch at top of pipe, m (ft)
0 0 I 2 3 4 5 6 7 6 9 IO II 12 I3 I4 15

Figure 5-29.-Load coefficients for computing weight of backfill, based on Marston formula. Drawing 103-D-1671.

236

DRAINAGE MANUAL
(FEET) (5) (101 (15) (20) (25) (30) 1000)

1900) 1300

iSO0)

1100 (700) 8 g fi P f g Y = 700 a .i 1400) 3 500 (300) Q v500) g 5 2 900

(600)

i= &

300

(200)

(100)

3 HEIGHT OF FILL

5 ABOVE TOP OF PIPE

7 IN METERS

Figure 5-30.-Backfill loads on pipe in a 450-millimeter @-inch) wide trench, based on Marston formula. Drawing 103-D-1672.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

237

Inside diameter ofpipe millimeters inches

Deflection A inches millimeters

Vertical load W,, lblin WC,lblft

100 125 150 200

4 5 6 8

10.2 12.7 15.2 20.3

0.4 0.5 0.6 0.8

125 156 188 250

1,500 1,872 2,256 3,000

The aboveloadingsassume that the pipe is laid without any stretchingof the corrugations.Fifteen percent stretch has beenobservedto causecollapseof the pipe when the stiffness was more than double that specified by Reclamation specifications. Reclamationspecificationslimit stretchingof pipe upon installation to lessthan 5 percent. -7. Size of Pipe.-Using the formulas for ground-water accretion given in sections 5-12 and 5-13, the pipe drain is designedto run full. Pipe with less than a lOO-millimeter (4-inch) inside diameter is not recommended.The lOOmillimeter (4&h) size shouldbe usedonly in the upperreachesof a drain that will not have future requirementsfor extensionsor branches. Pipe sizesare determinedfrom calculationsinvolving the required discharge and the hydraulic gradient of the pipe drain Using the required dischargeand knowing the gradientof the line, the pipe sizecan be determinedfrom the curves shown on figure 5-3 1. Thesecurves are basedon Mannings formula, equation (14) in section5-18, using n = 0.015. This valuehasbeenfound satisfactoryfor drams constructedwith concrete,clay, and corrugatedplastic pipe up to about 300~millimeter(1Zinch) diameter.Mannings it valuesshouldbe increasedfor larger diameter corrugatedplastic pipe. An 12 value of 0.018 is recommended for 300- and 375millimeter (12- and 15-inch) pipe and an n value of 0.020 for 450- and 600-millimeter (18- and 24inch) pipe. Table 5-10 shows a sample pipe-sizingcomputation.Figure5-32 showsa plan andprofile of a typical closed drain.

238

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Table 5-IO.--Sample pipe-sizing computation.

Project Upper John Day -Dram System Member 26- 13-34 D Date May 11.1992 - Computed by GDS Cal. 1 Cal. 2 Cal. 3 Cal. 4 Cal. 5 Col. 6 sta. to sta. Length OT Sloue 4 0 19+00-14.90 410 .000379 .155 .155 .OOl 14+90-lO+lOO 490 .000095 .047 .202 .002 (Right subdrain entering the main at Sta. lO+OO) Dr. 26-13-30-D-l.ORT 7+50-0+00 750 .000189 .142 .142 .OOl (Left subdrain entering the main at Sta. lO+OO) Dr. 26-13-34-D-1.067 enters at Sta. lO+OO 5+25-0+00 525 .OOQ189 .099 .099 .OOl lO+OO-5+00 500 .ocQo95 .048 .49 1 .003 5+oo-o+00 500 .OcOO95 ,048 .539 .002 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Cal. 1 Pipe size 6 6

6 8 10

Stations that define the section of pipe to be sized from upstream down. Length of pipe defined. Accretion rate usually in f?/s per foot. Accmtions to the defined length of pipe col. 2 x col. 3. Total accretions to downstream end of defined length of pipe, including all upstream contributions. Slope of the defined length of pipe. Pipe size in inches based on figure 5-31b.

5-48. Capacity of Pipe Drains.-The capacityof pipe drainsusually has to be sufficient to carry ground-wateraccretiononly. Collectorandoutletpipedrains must, of course,alsocarry the flows deliveredto them by other drains.In the rare case where open drains dischargeinto pipe drains, the pipe drains should be designed to run only haIf full, including the flow from the opendrains.In studies involving capacities,areas,andvelocities,the information shownon figure 5-33 is useful for designingpipe drainsflowing partially full. 5-49. Design of a Drainage Sump and Pumping Plant.-Many areas requiring drainagedo not have a gravity outlet; theseareascan be drainedusing pumping plants at reasonable cost. Pumping plants are also usedto provide an adequategrade in pipe systems.Drains can be excavated2.7 to 3 meters (9 to 10 feet) deep at an economicalcost, but the cost increasesrapidly for greater depths.By excavatingdrains to about 3 meters (10 feet) and then pumping the water up 1.2 or 1.5 meters(4 or 5 feet), adequate gradescanbe obtainedin large, flat areas.The main stepsin the designof a drainagesump and pumping plant are: (a) determiningmaximum inflow into the sump; (b) determiningamount of storagerequired; (c) determiningpumping rate; (d) determining start, stop, anddischargelevels; (e) determiningtype of storagerequired; and(j) selecting the pump andpower unit.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

,e,e~

lad s,e,ay(

U! ed!d

IO adois

Figure 5-31a.-Flow 103-D-666.

in drains ofvarious diameterbasedon slop (metric units). Drawing

0.01

0.03

0.03 0.07 a09

a?

a3

0.7 09 I

3 3 7 SK) DISCHARGE 101 IN CUBIC FEET

30 PER SECOND

30

7osomo

300

3007009m

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

241

Figure 5-32.-Plan

and profile of a typical closed drain. Drawing 103-D-667.

242

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

IO

IO

20

30

40

80

60

70

a0

90

100

110

I20

I30

RATIO OF HYDRAULIC

ELEMENTS

(PERCENT)

Figure. 5-33.-Hydraulic

pmpxties of drainpipe. Drawing 103-D-687.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

243

The maximum inflow into the sumpmust be determinedfor the total drainage requirementof the areato be drainedby the sump.For example,if the pumping plant must relift water from a drainagesystemwith a total area of 259 hectares (640 acres),the following data must be known and computationsmade:

Drainagearea= 259 hectares(640 acres) Drain spacing,L = 183meters (600 feet) Hydraulic conductivity, K = 0.37 meter (1.2 feet) per day Hooghoudtsequivalentdepth,d = 5.5 meters (18 feet) Maximum distancebetweendram and root zone,y0 = 1.5 meters (5 feet) Averageflow depth,D = d +F = 6.25 meters (20.5 feet) Find: Maximum flow q into the sump in liters per second (gallons per minute). Using equation(6) from section5-13:

q = 0.6

2x(0.37)(1.52)(6.25) (254)(10,000) = 0.01186m3/s(0.415ft%) (86,400)(183)

I[ 183 I

q = 11.86liters per second(188 gallonsper minute) The cycling operation of the pump and motor to determine the amount of storagerequired is the next considerationin the sump design.The length of a completecycleinminutes is equalto the standingtime plus the running time. The pump and motor aremost efficient if operatedcontinuously,but 8- to 12-minute cyclesare almostasefficient. For generaldesign,a 12-minutecycle or five cycles per hour is consideredsatisfactory. Using five cyclesper hour meansthere will be five starts per hour with even on-and-off times of 6 minutes eachfor maximum inflow. During low flows, the off-time will be much longer than the running time, but as long as the running time doesnot drop below about3 minutes,the plant efficiency is satisfactoryand motor breakdownsam kept to a minimum. For the motor to have equalon-and-off times, the storagemust be equalto the amountthat would run into the sump in one-half the cycling time, which would be 6 minutes when 1Zminute cycles areused.Therefore, the sumpmust have a storagecapacity, V, of:

244

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

V = 6 x 60 x 9 = 6 x 60 x 11.86= 4,270 liters (1,128 gallons)= 4.27 cubic meters (151 cubic feet) The pumping mte cannow be determinedfrom the equation:

p=s+lt t
where: P = Pumping rate at maximum inflow in liters per second (gallons per minute) t = Runningtime of pump andmotor in minutesfor maximum inflow based on the selectedcompletecycling time with equalon-and-off times S = Sumpstoragevolume in liters (gallons) I = Inflow rate in liters per second(gallonsper minute) Then p = 4,270 + 11.86x 60) = 23.7 L/s (376 gal/min) 7 6x60 The minimum andmaximum water levelsin the sumpmust be determinedfor individual outlet conditions.In general,the maximum water level for startingthe pump shouldbeat aboutthe top of thepipe draindischarginginto the sump.Never should it exceed one-half the pipe diameter over the top of the drain. The minimum elevationshouldbe from 0.6 to 1.2 meters (2 to 4 feet) abovethe base of the sump.Rumplifts are the differencein elevationbetweenwater level in the sumpand the dischargeelevation,seefigure 5-34. The volume of requiredstorageplus the criteria that the minimum water level shouldbe 0.6 to 1.2meters (2 to 4 feet) abovethe bottom of the sumpdetermines the sizeof the sump.Generally,the sumpwill becylindrical andplacedvertically, but can also be placed horizontally. Assuming the pipe drain enters 3 meters (10 feet) below the ground surfaceand that the sump will be bothcylindrical and vertical, the distancebetweenthe start and stop elevations, D, shouldbe small to keep the depth of the sump reasonable.For example, assumeD = 0.6 meter (2 feet). Knowing the volume of required storage, V, to be 4.27 cubic meters (151 cubic feet), the diameterof the sump, d, is computedfrom: V dz = 0.78540 dz = (0.7$(0.6) = 97.5 m2 (9.06 ftz), and

d = 3.01 meters (9.9 feet) [use a 3-meter (lo-foot) diametersump]

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

245

Meter
Chsl tar

J F-~
El.396m

(1300)

Pipe collector

Plug

-Round sump - Stilling chamber

Concrete hose>
Figure 5-34.-Typical 103-D-1673. arrangement of an automatic drainage relift pumping plant. Drawing

Figure 5-34 shows the required designelevationsand arrangementof equipment for an automatic drainagepumping plant. For planningestimates,thepump andpowerunits canbe selected from reliable pump andmotor manufacturers,using their literature andchartsto determinethe most efficient pump and motor. For constructionspecificationson small units, seethe Bureauof Reclamations Ground Water Manual (1977). Multiple pumps can be used for large areas.When pumps of equal size are used, they can be operated to cycle only one pump at a time. The storage requirementis computedusing the capacityof only one pump. If the pumps are not of equalcapacity,the storageshouldbedesigned for the capacityof the largest pump. E. Special Drain Types

S-SO.Introduction.-Certain conditions require special types of drainage methods.Thesemethodsincluderelief wells, inverted wells, and pumpedwells. Detailedinstructionsfor investigating,planning,andinstallingwells are given in ReclamationsGround WaterManual (1977).

246

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

S-51. Relief Wells.-In someareas,confininglayersof a deepartesianaquifer may be sufficiently permeableto allow water to move upward and causea high water table.Removalof this water by a normal drainagesystemusually requires very closely spaceddrains and is generallyuneconomical In somecases,relief wells drilled into the artesianaquifer andoutletting in the bottom of a deepdrain will relieve the artesianpressuresufficiently to lower the ground-watertable to safelevels.Ordinarily, a single well of this type doesnot relieve enoughheadon the system to be effective over a large area. The investigation for relief well systemsmust be thorough to ensuresuccess. Artesianpressures must be located and identified, and pressurereductions must be estimatedand verified before undertakinga relief well program. S-52. Pumped Wells.Under certain conditions,pumpedwells in anunconfmed water tableoffer an efficient solutionfor a drainage problem.In somecases, the pumped wells may provide all the drainagenecessary,while in others the wells may furnish only supplementaldrainagefor critical areas.Pumpedwells may be locatedto dischargewater directly into an irrigation systemfor reuse,or they may dischargeinto a drainage channel.Drainageby pumpingis feasibleonly in localitieshaving extensiveunderlying aquifersof amplethickness.The wells must have large areasof influence with nominal drawdown to be effective and economical. Pumped wells in artesian areasmay prove especially effective. Artesian pressures canbe lowered over a widespread areaby pumping. Power costs are a critical factor in determiningthe feasibility of drainageby pumping, and the possibility of obtaining more favorablerates by using power only during low demandperiodsshouldbe investigated. 5-53. Inverted or Recharge Wells and Infiltration Galleries.-In an inverted or rechargewell, water flows into the earth insteadof flowing from it. When usedfor drainage,the inverted well is the outlet for the drainagesystem. The inverted wells must penetratea permeablezonecapableof acceptingthe quantitiesof drainagewater either by storageor by carrying it away by natural flow. Extensivelyfractured basaltsor cavernous limestonesare typical examples of suchpermeablezones.Coarsesandsand gravelsmay be suitableif they have good hydraulic properties. Typical well construction is used for inverted wells, but sedimentmust be removed from the drainagewater before it enters the inverted well. Sediments will clog the aquifer in the vicinity of the well and will gradually reduce the effectivenessof the well. Dissolved gas causedby turbulent flow or chemical reactionsbetween the aquifer and the rechargewater can also clog the aquifer and reducewell efficiency. Studiesto determinemethodsof prolonging the life of rechargewells are being made with increasingfrequency because the subject of artificial rechargein restoringwater levelsin overpumped basinsor in stopping the encroachment of seawateris becomingmore important. Care must be taken to ensurethat existing aquifersam not pollutedby the invertedwell systems. Infiltration galleriescanbe usedfor the samepurposes asrechargewells. They are most often used to restore ground-waterlevels for pumping at a later time.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

247

They are constructedsimilarly to agriculturaldrainsusingperforatedplasticpipe installed in a gradedgravel envelope.Depth and spacingof the system depend on the physicalcharacteristicsof the site. As with rechargewells, sedimentmust be removedfrom the water to prevent cloggingof the galleries.All local, State,and Federalwater-quality criteria must be met to preventpollution of the ground-watersystem.

F. Investigation and Layout for Drains

S54. Introduction.-Ananalysis of a samplefarm will beusedto illustrate the methods and proceduresused in drainageinvestigations.The samplefarm developed waterloggedconditions after about 3 yearsof irrigation. Figure 5-35 shows the layout, surface topography, and irrigation facilities of the farm. Although this illustration uses a kunple farm, a more typical Reclamation drainagesystemwould include severalfarm units or ownerships. S-55. Investigation Procedure.-The first stepin investigationis to lay out a grid system covering the waterlogged area. A 120- to MO-meter (400- to 600-foot) grid is generallysufficient to provide a detailedground-watercontour map and adequatehydraulic conductivity data. The grid should be designedto includeany suspected sourceof seepage from canalsand adjacentareas. On the sample farm, ground surface elevations were determined at each 120-meter(400-foot) grid point, and elevationswere taken at the bottom and at the indicatedwater surfacesof the wasteway,irrigation canals,andfarm laterals. Holes were augeredat each of the grid points to a depth of at least 3 meters (10 feet) and to a depth of 6 meters (20 feet) at the 240-meter (800-foot) grid points. The depthof the water tablewas measured at eachgrid point. Figure 5-36 showsthe water table conditions at the time of the investigation.Each hole was loggedfor texture, structure, and any other pertinent information such as color changes, mottling, plasticity, stickiness,visible salt crystals,andunstableconditiOlK

Basedupon water table location and soil profile data, three generaltypes of conditionswere recognized,eachrequiring a different combinationof hydraulic conductivity test methods.Figure 5-37 shows the location of the test sites and the combinationof hydraulic conductivity methodsrequiredat eachsite. Typical soil profiles of subareas A, B, and C are shown on figure 5-38. The water tablein subarea A was about2.1 meters (7 feet) from the surfaceat the time of the investigation,but the farmer reportedthat it roseto within 0.3 to 0.6 meter (1 or 2 feet) of the surfaceduring theperiodof heaviestirrigation. These high water table conditions indicatedthe needfor horizontal hydraulic conductivities under saturated conditions in the 0.6- to 2.1-meter (2- to 7-foot), sandy-clayloam zone. Becausethis zone was dry, a shallow well pump-in test would be used.Below 2.1 meters (7 feet), in the sandyloam layer, the horizontal hydraulic conductivitiesunder saturatedconditions could be determinedby the auger-holetest. For the pump-in tests, three additional l&meter (6-foot) deep holeswere augeredat grid points D- 1, C-3, and B-4. For the auger-holetest, the original 3-meter (lo-foot) deepholes at theselocationswere used.

248

DRAINAGE MANUAL

CHAPTER 249

V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

SURAREAc

Figure 5-37.Samplefarm

grid system and location of test sites. Drawing 103-D-672.

SUI m

SCL

Wotrr

tobl.

1.46m(4.6) SL = Sandy loam LS = bxny sand SCL = Sandy cloy loam S = Sand ,Lz=2iy L = Loam loam

SL

LS S C L CL

3.66 I In (121 WA 3.96 I (13) 03)

4.87 m IIS1 4.67 II57 4.06 m IIS) 4.66 6.42 m ll7.6)

6. I 111(261

-I 4 -1
SL 3.90m (1281 CL CL S.IBm (17)

2.74m#) 3.0Sm(idl

4.11m(13.5) 4.37m (IS1

-I,.,rn

(2dl

Figure 5-38.-Typical

soil profiles pm of sample farm subareas. Drawing 103-D-673.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

251

The water table in subarea B was at about 1.46meters (4.8 feet); the clay layer from the 1.2- to 2.0-meter (4- to 6.5foot) level could causea perchedwater table during the irrigation season.To check this possibility, the vertical hydraulic conductivity of the clay layer was measured.This measurement requireduse of the ring permeametertest, and tests were run at grid points D-2 and E-3. During the tests,the water tableat E-3 roseinto the 15Omillimeter (6-inch) test zoneand the test had to be abandoned. Because the clay layer appeared homogeneous and isotropic at E-2, the piezometertest was substitutedfor the ring penneameter test. This test gave a value for horizontal hydraulic conductivity, and in view of the homogeneity of the clay, the vertical hydraulic conductivity could then be assumed to be about the same. Because the 1.2- to 2.7-meter (4- to g-foot) profile in subarea C was homogeneousand the water table was at 1.46 meters (4.8 feet), the auger-holetest was usedfor determiningthe hydraulic conductivity in this zone, andthe piezometer test wasusedfor determiningthe hydraulicconductivity of the clay loam andclay zonesbelow 4.1 meters (13.5 feet). Pointson the 240-meter(800-foot) grid were usedto determinethe probable barrier layer. This determinationrequiredmeasuringthe hydraulic conductivity of the various layers below the prospective dmin depth. At these depths, the auger-hole test was not practical becauseof the depth of the layers, so the piezometer test was used and tests were run at C-2, C-4, E-O, E-2, and G-4. Figure 5-39 shows the location of all test sites and the hydraulic conductivity data. S-56. Moisture Holding Capacity in the Root Zone.-The three subareas of the samplefamr were examinedfor themost critical moisture-holdingcapacity within a 1.Zmeter (4-foot) root zone.Subarea C wasfound to be the most critical. In this subarea,the availablemoisture was 29.5 millimeters (1.16 inches) in the first 0.3 meter (1.Ofoot), 31.75millimeters (1.25 inches)in the second0.3 meter (1.0 foot), 36.83 millimeters (1.45 inches)in the third 0.3 meter (1.0 foot), and 36.83 (1.45 inches)in the fourth 0.3 meter (1.0 foot). The total readily availablemoisture (TRAM) in the 1.2-meter (4-foot) root zonewas calculatedasoutlinedin section26 of this manual.The critical quarter in this caseis the first 0.3 meter (1.Ofoot), and the TRAM in the sampleprofile is: TRAM = (29.5 x 0.70)/0.40 = 51.6 millimeters (2.03 inches) S-57. Annual Irrigation Schedule.-The irrigation schedulefor the sample farm, as for any fame, variesfrom year to year becauseof crop rotation, size of farm, weather,andplanting dates.However, for a specificclimate, irrigation and cropping practices usually follow a pattern. Over the long term, the features determiningirrigation schedules tend to be about the sameeachyear. Therefore, anaverageirrigation schedule often is usedindraindesign. Aninigation schedule for the crop most generallygrown andhaving the greatestdrainagerequirement is usedin the drain design.On the samplefarm, that crop is alfalfa.

T_rsle7

-*(7.3,9.01=l.95~(a~

-*- 9.Ol=l.40

(6.3,10.9r1.25

--6

-x324-Surface ~7.~1O.OHkpth tatap and bottom of me tested = I .90- Hydraulic conductivity of zone tested inillchFsperhalr OF FEET E

...-...-.- ..@%2~(6&,11.5):2.20 (7.~~i%J,/

SCALE

I3

,O A

Figure S-39.~In-place

hydraulic conductivity data for sample fanu. Drawing 103-D-674.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

253

Usingmethodsshownin section2-6 of this manual,the consumptiveuse (CU) and irrigation schedulefor various crops grown on the farm are shown in the following tabulations:
Calculations for average consumptive use and irrigation requirement for sample farm

crops Alfalfa Corn Beans Small grains

Average percent Brown per year 40 20 20 20

Growing season May 15 to Sept. 21 May 15 to Sept. 15 May 15to Aug. 15 Mav 15 to Aug. 15

Percentof moisture extractedper quarter of root zone 1st 2nd 3rd 4th

40

30

20

10

Consumptive use and irrigation requirementfor alfalfa

Month &Y June July August Sentember

Growing days 16 30 31 31 15

cu Millimeters Inches 53.8 2.13 123.7 4.83 138.7 5.46 123.4 4.86 45.7 1.80

Dailv CU Millimeters Inches 2.29 0.09 4.06 .16 4.32 .17 1.52 .06 1.52 .06

Consumptive use and irrigation requirement for beans and small grains

Month
WY

June July August

Growing davs 16 30 31 15

cu Millimeters Inches 54.1 2.13 122.7 4.83 138.7 5.46 59.9 2.36

Dailv CU Millimeters Inches 2.29 0.09 4.06 .16 4.32 .17 1.02 .04

Typical irrigation schedules for the atea of concernmay have already been developedby commercial irrigation schedulingservice companies.From an historicalperspective,this type of irrigation schedule shouldbe adequate for drain systemdesign. S-58. Irrigation Deliveries and Deep Percolation From Irrigation.- Records show that irrigation deliveriesare made to the samplefarm at the rate of 0.14cubic meters(5 cubicfeet) per second, or 504 cubicmeters(4.96 acre-inches) per hour, andthat 84hoursareneeded to irrigate the 50.6-hectare (125~acre) farm. The depthof water deliveredis:

254

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

84x504 = 85 millimeters (3.33 inches) 50.6 The soil moisture was assumedto be at field capacity after snowmelt in the spring, May 15. The irrigation schedule for alfalfa is shown because this will be usedin estimatingthe dram spacing. Irrigation schedule for alfalfa Date Farm deliverv millimeters inches 5115 84.6 3.33 6l3 84.6 3.33 6114 84.6 3.33 84.6 3.33 6/Z 715 84.6 3.33 84.6 3.33 7115 7i25 84.6 3.33 814 84.6 3.33 84.6 3.33 8115 S/2 84.6 3.33 9/9 84.6 3.33 Total 930.6 36.63 Because the soil holds5 1.6millimeters (2.03 inches)of total readily available moisture at field capacity,the irrigation efficiency is: 51.6 Fatm efficiency = 84.6 x 100 = 61 percent Of this, about 10percent,or 8.4 millimeters (0.33 inch), runsoff assurfacewaste, leaving 76.2 millimeters (3.00 inches) to infiltrate the soil. This meansabout 24.6 millimeters (0.97 inch) will deeppercolateto the ground-water table upon eachirrigation. Deeppercolation= 76.2 - 5 1.6 = 24.6 millimeters (3.00 - 2.03 = 0.97 inch) per irrigation. The total annual deep percolation for 11 irrigations, assumingthat rainfall is negligible,will be about 271 millimeters (10.7 inches). Observation well data from the site may also be useful in estimating deep percolationfrom an irrigation event.Changesin water table elevationbeforeand after an irrigation event can be used to calculate deep percolation amounts. NeutronProbedata,which indicatedeeppercolationvalues,alsomay be available from irrigation schedulingservicecompanies. 5-59. Other Water Sources Causing High Water Table Conditions.Precipitationin the samplefarm areais low anderratic, so it was not considered a contributing sourceto the ground water. The remainingsources of high ground water during the irrigation seasonam: (a) ground water moving into the area

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

255

as subsurfaceflow from the adjacentfarm to the south and (b) seepage from unlinedcanalsand laterals. (a) Deep percolation from adjacent areas.-The ground-water contours on figure 5-37 indicate that subsurface water is moving into the samplefarm from the south. An estimateof the volume of this water canbe madeusing the Damy principle:
Q = KiA

(19)

where: Q = K = i = A =

Flow in cubic meters (feet) per secondper linear meter (foot) Hydraulic conductivity in meters (feet) per second Slopeof the water surfacein metersper meter (feet per foot) Cross-sectional area in square meters (feet) of the water-bearing stratum for a 1 meter (foot) width

A hydraulic conductivity of 12.7 centimeters(5 inches)per hour [3.05 meters (10 feet per day)] was indicatedby the auger-holetest at grid point E-O.A slope, i, of 0.004 meter per meter (foot per foot) and an area,A, of 2.44 squaremeters per linearmeter (8 squarefeet per linear foot) of boundarywere determinedfrom information taken from the north-south profile on the E-line shown on figure 5-40. Then, Q = 3.05 x 0.004 x 2.44 = 0.0298 cubic meter per linear meter (0.32 cubicfoot per linear foot) per day. As the southboundaryof the samplearea was about 792 meters (2,600 feet) wide, the total water moving into the farm could be 0.0298 x 792 = 23.6 cubic meters (0.32 x 2,600) = 23.6 cubic meters (832 cubic feet) per day, but flows up to 31.7 cubic meters (1,120 cubic feet) per day can be expectedaccordingto records. This is equivalentto 0.00317 hectarmeter (0.31 acre-inch)per day. Assumingan averageirrigation cycle of 12 days, and that this flow would occur under the entire farm area of 50.6 hectares 0.00317 x 12 = o 75 mil(125 acres),the drainagerequirementwould be about 50.6 limeter per hectare(0.03 inch per acre)per irrigation. This small amountof water can be easily removedthrough the spaceddrain system.If the amount is on the sameorder of magnitudeas deeppercolationfrom irrigation, an analysisshould be madeto determinewhether an interceptor drain shouldbe constructedat the upperboundaryof the samplefarm.

Irrigated form on south side of somple farm. c Lined

irrigo

tion

lateral
EXPLANATION

3600

1 El00

I &O E-l

I E-2

I E-3 E-4

--

E-5

1 E-6

Figure 5-I0.-North-south

profile on E-line of sample farm. Drawing 103-D-675.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

257

(b) Deeppercolationfromfarm

ditches.-The

seepage from farm ditchescan

be estimatedfrom equation(8) of section5-15:

Kl 41 = (B +w

3.5

With irrigation deliveriesat the rate of 0.14 cubic meters (5 cubic feet) per second through V-shaped farm ditches constructed in sandy loam soils, the velocity shouldnot exceedabout0.61 meter (2.0 feet) per second.Assumingthat the side slopesare l-1/2 to 1, the cross-sectional arearequiredcan be computed from the formula:

where:
A = Cross-sectional areain squaremeters (squarefeet) Q = Irrigation delivery rate in cubic meters (cubic feet) per second V = Velocity in meters (feet) per second A = *14 - 0.23 squaremeters (2.5 squarefeet)

0.61 -

From table 5-6, the depth of water, d, in the V-shapedfarm ditch would be about 0.4 meter (1.3 feet), and the width of the water surface, B, would be 1.2 meters (3.9 feet). From the in-place tests, the hydraulic conductivity in the farm ditch section would be about 3.05 centimeters (1.2 inches) per hour or 0.73 meter (2.4 feet) per day. Then:
41 =

0.73 (1.2 +0.8) = 0.4 17 cubic metersper day per linear meter 3.5 (4.45 cubic feet per day per linear foot) of channel

Seepage in cubic feet per secondper mile: 0.417x 1,000 - 0.00483ms/sper kilometer (0.272 fts/s per mile) 86,400 The time requiredfor irrigation of the samplefarm is 88 hours, andduring this time about 1.21 kilometers (0.75 mile) of farm ditch is carrying water. The seepageloss from the ditch during each irrigation over the 50.6 hectares (125 acres)is:

258

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Metic-O.OO483 x 1.21 x 88 x 3,600x 1,000 = 3.66 millimeters (0.14 inch) 10,000x 50.6 x x x x 12 English- 0.27 0.75 88 3,600 = 0.14 inch (3.66 millimeters) 43,560 x 125 The total deep percolation, including that from adjacentareasand the farm ditch, is 24.6 (0.97) + 0.76 (0.03) + 3.66 (0.14) = 29.0 hectare-millimetersper hectare(1.14 acre-inches per acre) for eachirrigation. 5-60. Determination of Barrier Zone.-An accurate appraisalof barrier zonesis important in the drain spacingsolution, but barrier zoneidentification is not alwayseasyor clearcut. The definition given in section46 definesa barrier zone as a layer which has a hydraulic conductivity value one-fifth or less than that of the weighted averagehydraulic conductivity of the layers above it. Table 5-l 1 shows the barrier layer computationsfor six subareas of the sample farm as shown on figure 541. S-61. Depth of Drains.-Figure 5-41 shows areaswith similar drainage conditionsand the m-placehydraulic conductivity data for each area. Study of thesedata indicatesthat drains about 2.75 meters (9 feet) deep would be in the most permeablematerial. Also, the benefits for drain depthsover 2.75 meters (9 feet) deepstart decreasing when comparedto constructioncosts. Seesection 5-33 for methodsof analyzingeconomicdram depths. 5-62. Drain SpacingDeterminations and Drain Locations.-Drain spacing is determinedby the methodsdescribedin part A of this chapter.The following tabulation shows calculated drain spacingsrounded to the nearest 3 meters (10 feet) for eachof the subareas:
Drain sDacinns on sample farm Drain spacing eet meters

A-l A-2 B C-l c-2 c-3

73 107 52 76 91 107

240 350 170 250 300 350

i?.

: SUBAREA \ --a -w .
SUBAREA C-3 \

C-I

04k(SL)=1.9 in/h ~-I~~(SCL)=O.S in/h

HC 4-H=l.Z in/h

0-9Yf(SL)=i.Z in/h \ 9-14f(SCL)=O.Sin/l., I I 14-19f(CL)f0.2 in/h \ IS-20f(C)=0.1 in/h \ -e ______ __-------r i SUBAREA ----: -------_

~-,~ C+,,,------e--s,

0-Ti(SL)=Z.O in/h 2-lf(SCL)=OB in/h 7-12k(SL)=l.2 in/h IZ-16f(L)=0.6 in/h l6-IOf(CL)=0.3in/h 16-20k(C)=o.1 in/h
-d-16=0.9

HCin/h

-7 /

.2

,- ,---

1 13-17f(CL)=O.2 in/h 4, ll-2Of(C)=O.l in/h \ ? SUBAREA

\ . . ---e-_-e-

B
/

b-$*(SL)=Z.O in/h /2-7f(SCL)=I.O in/h 1 I-12f(SL)=2.2 in/h I 12-16&(L)= 0.6 in/h i 16-ldf(CL)=0.3 in/h i 16-2df (C)- 0.1 in/h I /
:

/h

HC-Weighted hydraulic conductivity

\
800

A A-2 /

SUBAREA

200 I*~~1

0 SCALE

400 I OF FEET

Figure 541.Subareas of the sample farm having similar drainage conditions. The weighted, average, in-place hydraulic conductivity data are shown for each subarea. Drawing 103-D-676.

Table 5-l 1,Computations

Kz, hydraulic conductivity cm/hr in/h 3.05 1.2 1.27 0.5 0.51 0.2 0.25 0.1 4.06 1.6 1.27 0.5 0.51 0.2 0.25 0.1 1.52 0.6 3.05 1.2 2.03 0.8 0.76 0.3 0.25 0.1 2.54 1.0 5.58 2.2 2.03 0.8 0.76 0.3 0.25 0.1 0.25 0.1 3.81 1.5 0.51 0.2 0.25 0.1 4.83 1.9 1.27 0.5 0.51 0.2 0.25 0.1

showing selection of barrier layer.

K2, weighted hydraulic conductivitv annlr in/h 3.05 1.2 2.16 0.85 2.01 0.79 1.42 0.56 4.06 1.6 2.67 1.05 2.49 0.98 1.78 0.70 1.52 0.60 2.46 0.97 2.34 0.92 2.11 0.83 1.88 0.74 2.54 1.0 4.45 1.75 3.63 1.43 3.23 1.27 2.87 1.13 0.25 0.10 3.05 1.20 2.26 0.89 1.88 0.74 4.83 1.90 3.05 1.20 2.79 1.10 2.03 0.80 K1x5 compared with K2 of layers above

SUb-

area meters 1.2-2.7 2.74.3 4.3-1.6 4.6-6.1 1X2.7 2.74.3 4.34.6 4.6-6.1 1X2.1 2.1-3.7 3.74.9 4.9-5.5 5.5-6.1 1.2-2.1 2.1-3.7 3.74.9 4.9-5.5 5.5-6.1 1.2-1.8 1.84.0 4.0-5.2 5.2-6.1 1X2.7 2.74.3 4.34.6 4.6-6.1

Depth feet 4-9 9-14 14-15 15-20 4-9 9-14 14-15 15-20 4-7 7-12 12-16 16-18 18-20 4-7 7-12 12-16 16-18 18-20 4-6 6-13 13-17 17-20 4-9 9-14 14-15 15-U)

Texture SL SCL CL c SL SCL CL c SCL SL L CL C SCL SL L CL C C SL CL c SL SCL CL c

Remarks

C-l

1.27 (0.5) x 5 = 6.35 (2.5) > 3.05 (1.2) 0.51 (0.2) x 5 = 2.55 (1.0) > 2.16 (0.85) 0.25 (0.1) x5= 1.25 (0.9 <2.01 (0.79) 1.27 (0.5) x5 = 6.35 (2.5) > 4.06 (1.6) 0.51 (0.2) x 5 = 255 (1.0) < 2.67 (1.05)

Barrier

c-2

Barrier

A-l

3.05 2.03 0.76 0.25 5.58 2.03 0.76 0.25

(1.2) (0.8) (0.3) (0.1) (2.2) (0.8) (0.3) iO.ii

x x x x

5= 5= 5= 5=

15.25 (6.0) > 1.52 (0.60) 10.15 (4.0) > 2.46 (0.97) 3.80 (1.5) > 2.34 (0.92) 1.25 (0.5) < 2.11 (0.83) 27.9 (I 1.) > 2.54 (1.0) 10.15 (4.8) > 4.45 (1.75) 3.80 (1.5) > 3.63 (1.43) 1.25 i0.s) < 3.23 il.Zti

Barrier

A-2

x5= x5 = x5 = x5=

Barrier Barrier Barrier

3.81 (1.5) x 5 = 19.05 (7.5) > 0.25 (0.1) < 3.05 (1.2) 0.51 (0.2) x5 = 2.55 (1.0) .

c-3

1.27 (0.5) x 5 = 6.35 (2.5) > 4.83 (1.90) 0.51 (0.2) x 5 = 2.55 (1.0) < 3.05 (1.2)

Barrier

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

261

For maximum effectiveness,the drains shouldbe locatedin the more permeablelayers.The in-placehydraulic conductivity data were usedto determinethe most desirabledrain locations. For example,if spacingrequirementscould be satisfactorily met, a &am shouldnot be locatedthrough the lesspermeablearea represented by grid points D-3 and E-3. In this case,the drainscould be located on either side of this less permeable area and still meet the drain spacing requirements.Figure 542 showsthe location of the drainsfor the samplefarm.

262

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

563. Bibliography.Amer, N. N., andJ. N. Lmhin, 1967, ProposedDrain SpacingEquationand an Experimental Check on Transient Equations with the Hele-Shaw Model, InternationalSoil Water Symposium,Proceedings No. 2, Czechoslovak National Committee, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage,Prague. Bureauof Reclamation,1951, Inigation Advisers Guide, table 10, p. 117. Bureau of Reclamation, 1957, Hydraulic and Excavation Tables, Eleventh edition. Bureauof Reclamation,1974,Earth Manual, secondedition. Bureau of Reclamation, 1977, Ground Water Manual - A Water Resources Technical Publication, U.S. Department of the Interior. Bureauof Reclamation,1987,Construction InspectorTraining -Buried Pipe Drains. Christopher, J. N., and R. J. Winger, Jr., August 1975, Economical Drain Depth for Irrigated Areas. Paperpresentedat the American Society of Civil EngineersMeeting, Logan UT, pp. 263-272. Donnan,W. W., 1946,Model Testsof aTile-SpacingFormula, Proceedings, Soil ScienceSocietyof America, vol. 11,pp. 131-136. Dumm, L. D., October 1954, Drain-SpacingFormula, Agricultuml Engineering,vol.35, pp. 726-730. Dumm, L. D., December 1960, Validity and Use of the Transient-Flow Conceptin Subsurface Drainage. Paperpresented at the AmericanSociety of Agricultural EngineersWinter Meeting, Memphis TN. Dumm, L. D., February 1962,Drain SpacingMethod Used by the Bureauof Reclamation, Paperpresentedat ARS-SCS DrainageWorkshop, RiversideCA. Dumm, L. D., October 1967,Transient-Flow Theory and Its Use in Subsurface Drainage of Irrigated Land, American Society of Agricultuml EngineersWater ResourceConference,New York. Dumm, L. D., and R. J. Winger, Jr., June 1963, Designing a Subsurface Drainage Systemin an Irrigated Area through Use of the Transient-Flow Concept. Paperpresentedat the American Society of Agricultural EngineersMeeting, Miami BeachFL, Hooghoudt,S. B., 1937,Contributions to the Knowledgeof CertainPhysical Propertiesof the Soil, BrodenkundigInstitute, Groningen, The Netherlands,bulletin No. 43 (13)B, pp. 461-676. Hooghoudt, S. B., 1940,Bijdragen tot de Kemris van EenigeNaluurkundige Gmothedenvan den Gmnd Versiagenvan LandbourkundigeOnderzoekingen, No. 46(14)B, Algemeene Landsdurkbery, The Hague, The Netherlands. Israelsen,0. W., 1950, Irrigation Principlesand Practices, secondedition, JohnWiley and Sons,Inc., New York, Chapmanand Hall, Ltd., London.

CHAPTER V-DESIGN

AND CONSTRUCTION

263

Kirkham, D., October 1958, Seepage of SteadyRainfall Through Soil into Drains, TransactionsAmericanGeophysicalUnion, vol. 39, pp. 892-908. Kouns,R. H., and E. L. Pemberton,August 1963,Criteria for SurfaceWater DisposalSystems,Definite PlanReport,CedarRapidsDivision, NebraskaMissouri River Basin Project, Travel Report. Ligon, J. T., H. P. Johnson, andD. Kirkham, June1962,Glass-Bead-Glycerol Model for Studyingthe Falling Water TablebetweenOpenDitch Drains. Paperpresented at the AmericanSocietyof Agricultural EngineersAnnual Meeting, WashingtonDC, No. 62222. Luthin, J. N., and J. C. Guitjens,October 1965,TransientSolutionsfor Drain Spacingon SlopingLand as Determinedby the Hele-ShawViscousFlow Model. Presented at the Billings, Montana, Conferenceof the Irrigation and DrainageDivision, American Society of Civil Engineers. Maasland,M., January1956,The RelationshipBetweenPermeabilityandthe Discharge, Depth, and Spacingof Tile Drains, bulletin No. 1, Ground Water and Drainage Series,Water Conservationand Irrigation Commission, New SouthWales, Australia. Mantei, C. L. (1971, 1974), Interoffice Memorandums dated December 6, 1971,and July 151974, reporting resultsof analogstudies. Moody, W. T., June 7, 1960, Effect of Gap Width on Flow into Draintile, UnpublishedMemo to Chief, Office of Drainageand Ground Water Engineering. Talsma,T., andH. C. Haskew,November 1959,Investigationof Water-Table Response to Tile Drainsin Comparisonwith Theory, Journalof Geophysical Research,vol. 64, No. 11, pp. 1933-1944. Talsma,T. (compiled by), November 1959,Detailed Recordson Tile Drain Design and Performance, Addendumto Investigations of Water-Table Responseto Tile Drains in Comparison With Theory, Joumal of GeophysicalResearch,vol. 64, No. 11. Winger, R. J., Jr., June 1960, In-Place Permeability Tests and Their Use in SubsurfaceDrainage. Paperpresentedat the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage,Fourth Congress,vol. III, pp. 11.417 - 11.469, Madrid, Spain. Winger, R. J., Jr., December 1969, Drainage Design for Managing Saline Pollutants, American Societyof Agricultural EngineersWinter Meeting, ChicagoIL. Winger, R. J., Jr., December 1970, Gravel Envelopes for Pipe Drains Design, American Society of Agricultural EngineersWinter Meeting, ChicagoIL.

((Chapter VI

OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

OF

6-l. Introduction. -Efficient drainagesystemsmust ultimately be provided on all irrigation projects when natural drainageconditions are inadequateto remove surpluswater and salt. This surpluswater may include waste from the irrigated farms, surfacerunoff from snow andrainfall, seepage and leakagefrom project canalsand distribution systems,artesianwater, andpercolationfrom farm irrigation. Timely performanceof preventiveandregularmaintenance on project drainage systems is absolutely necessaryif the systems are to perform their intended functions. Project drainage systemsshould be thoroughly examined periodically to determineif they are functioning properly and if maintenanceis required. Occasionally,operation and maintenanceforces on Bureau of Reclamation projects are required to designand construct openand pipe drains.Thesedrams shouldbe designed and constructedunder the samecriteria usedwhen the work is doneby Reclamationengineers. 6-2. Buried Pipe Drainage Systems.-Buried pipe drainagesystems,pmperly installed, generally need little care to keep them operating satisfactorily; however,newly constructedsystems requireclosevigilanceduring theearly years of operation.Propercare of the systemduring this early period will increasethe effectivenessof the drains and will often eliminate the need for future costly maintenance.Drainage systemfailures or partial failures are usually associated with unstable soil conditions which causeshifts in pipe alignment and grade; collapsedpipe; pulledjoints; and pluggedoutlets, pipes,and manholes. (a) Pipe drain outlets.-All pipe outlets shouldbe inspected in the springand after heavyrainstormsto ensurethat the pipe still hasa freefall into the opendram and that no erosionhasoccurredon the sideslopeswhich could causethe outlet pipe to be displaced. Flap gates, when required on the pipe outlet to keep floodwater in the open, dram from backing up into the pipe, shouldbe inspectedat leastonce a month\ Rodent screensthat have been installed on pipe outlets should be checked

266

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

periodically to be sure they are in place. Rodent screensmay require periodic cleaningto removemossand algaegrowth. Placingthe screenin the outlet pipe so that it is out of direct sunlight may reduce the problem. Also, self-cleaning models are availablethrough plastic pipe manufacturers.Where rodent screens havenot beeninstalled,thepipe outlet shouldbeinspected periodicallyfor rodent nests.All pipe outletsshouldbeprotectedby fencingif farm animalsam allowed inthearea. (b) Manholes or sand traps.--Manholes areusedat anypoint on a pipe drain where they can be justified, and at junctions and major changesin alignment. It is very important that the manholesbe kept clean; particularly during the initial operation of the system.Manholes should be inspectedonce a week when the drains are first laid, becausefailure to clean them has causedmany drainage systemsto becomeplugged.Pumpscan be usedto remove sandfrom manholes. Any erosionor settlementaround the outsideof the manholeshouldbe repaired immediately.Manholesshouldnot beusedassurfacewastedisposaloutlets, and no one shouldbe permitted to remove the top LO-meter (3-foot) section,replace the cover, and thereby bury the structure without written consentof the control agency.Water levels shouldnot be allowed in the manholeshigher than the top of the inlet pipe. When using mechanicalcleaningrods in manholes,care shouldbe taken so that the whipping motion of the cleaningcabledoesnot damagethe endsof the inlet and outlet pipes. Silt and sand trappedin the manhole shouldbe cleaned following any drain-cleaning upstmam. Manhole covers should be fastened securely at all times, except during cleaningoperationsor inspection,to keep trashout and to prevent small children and animalsfrom falling into the manhole. (c) General maintenance of pipe drains.-A record should be established immediately after a drain is completed to track the amount of flow at each manholeandat the drain outlet. This tracking canbedoneby measuringthe depth of water in the pipes that dischargeinto the manholesandby actuallymeasuring dischargeat the drain outlet. A suddendrop in dischargeat any of the measuring points warrants additional investigationsbecausethere is a good possibility a segmentof the drainhasbeencompletelyor partially plugged.The areaalongthe pipe dmin shouldbe inspectedfor sinkholes,wet spots,or tree growth, which are good indicatorsof potential trouble locations. If a small sinkholeis discovered,it should be backfilled and inspectedlater for anyadditionalsettlement.If a largesinkholeis found,a fairly largehole should be dug down to the drain because large sinkholesoften developover brokenpipe or over joints that have separated. Broken pipe shouldbe replacedimmediately. Joints that have pulled apart can be repairedsatisfactorily by placing pipe butts (brokenpiecesof pipe) over thejoint andbackfilling aroundthejoint with gravel. Crushed pipe is a problem with plastic drains, and is usually the result of problems during construction. The most common problem is excessivestretch

CHAPTER VI-OPERATION

AND MAINTENANCE

OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

267

during construction;also, trencherbreakdownor getting stuck allows the box to settle on the pipe. All collapseddrainpipeshouldbe removedand replaced. Wet spots that suddenlyappearover pipe drains are good indicators that the drain has been completely or partially plugged. If the drain is only partially pluggedwith sediment,theplug canoften be removedby placinga ball somewhat smallerthan the pipe into the pipe upstreamfrom the wet spot. This method has beenused very successfullyto flush sandand silt from pipe drains. Sewerrods can also be usedboth in concreteand clay pipe to probe and clear the drain. In recentyears,high-pressure jets havebeendevelopedthat havebeenparticularly useful in cleaningplasticpipe drains.In somecases, a plug in the drain will have to be locatedand removedby uncoveringand replacinga sectionof the drain Broken pipe, pulled joints, or plugged drains should be repaired as soon as possibleso that the drainagesystemwill function asintended.Plugsin older pipe drains am usuahy causedby tree or plant roots. Copper sulfate injected into the drain systemwill usuallykill the roots, andby usinga cleaningtool operated from the downstream side, the dead roots can be broken off and washedout to the nearestmanholefor removal When manholesarenot available,a hole shouldbe excavatedto the drain downstream from the plug and one or more pipe joints removedso that the cleaningequipmentcanbe insertedinto thepipe. When using this method, a screenshould always be placed over the pipe opening on the downstreamside to prevent roots or other material from entering this portion of the drain. Corrugatedplastic drainpipecan easily be replacedusing couplersand wire or tape. In caseof an obstruction, insteadof removing the pipe, it is often easier to cut an opening or window in the top of the pipe. After the obstruction is removed or other work performed, the hole is easily repaired. A cover piece is cut from a sparepiece of pipe and then fastenedin placewith wire or tape. The window or joint areasare then coveredwith plastic sheetandthe gravelenvelope material replaced.Regardlessof material, the disturbedarea of pipe should be beddedin and coveredwith a minimum of 10 millimeters (4 inches)of gravel similar in gradationto the original envelope.(Sandersand Crooks, 1985). Periodicchecksshouldbe madealong the pipe drainsto ensurethat treesand shrubshave not startedto grow over or near the dmins. New growth shouldbe killed by sprayingwith acceptablechemicals,if practicable.If trees and shrubs are growing near the drains that cannotbe removed,the drain shouldbe treated with copper sulfate to kill the roots. The first treatment shouldbe madein April or early May, and if the roots are a seriousproblem, a secondtreatment should be made in August. The copper sulfate will not stop new root growth, so this treatment will have to be made annually. State water-quality standards must be followed closely when drainsare treatedwith coppersulfate or other chemicals. 6-3. Open Drainage System.-Open drains require regular maintenanceto keepthemfunctioning asdesigned. The frequencyanddegree of this maintenance depend upon the climate, amountof rainfall, and the depththat the ground-water table must be kept below the ground surface. Shallow surfacedrains in stable

268

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

material generallyrequire only spot cleaningannually and a complete cleaning about every 5 years. In unstablesoils, annualcleaningmight be required along the bottom of the drains to maintain design depth, particularly if pipe drains dischargeinto the open drain. In the more stable soils and deep open drains, chemicalsusedperiodically will prevent or kill weeds,willows, and tules. The weedsshouldbe removedafter they have beenkilled by chemicalsso that the drain section is kept clean. All open drainswill require somedegreeof maintenanceafter a large storm. A special problem is keeping open drains clear of tumbleweeds, which cancauseseriouserosionproblemsaroundstructures. All spoil banks should be planted to grass and should be releveled and replanted after bank cleaning. This replanting is done mainly to stabilize the excavatedmaterial to keepit from blowing or washingback into the drain and to provide a suitableroadway for maintenance.The side slopesof the open drain particularly the sidesabovethe water surface,shouldalsobeplantedto grassand fertilized every 2 years. Maintenanceroadsrequire spot repair in the spring and after large storms. Inlet openings,made through open drain banks for surface water, should be installedusingpipeinlets or linedchannels. Properlyinstalled,theseinletsusually require inspections only after large storms or when the open drain is being cleaned.Under no condition shouldan unlined cut be allowed through the drain bank. When pipes smaller than 45Omillimeter (l%inch) diameter are used for thesesurfaceinlets, they shouldbe inspectedfrequently during the spring to see if weedshavepluggedthe pipe. All gradecontrol structuresshouldbe inspected periodically to check for undercutting or settlementand to determine that the trashracksandbaffles are not pluggedwith weeds. All livestock wateringaccesses to the drain shouldbe coveredwith rock ripmp or pavedwith concreteand fenced.All f ricesacrossthe drain sectionshouldbe inspectedand cleanedof weedsand trasiI eachspring and after large storms. Wide-bottomed,shallow floodway channelsshouldbe grassed on the bottom and sides.The grassshouldbe clippedto a height of about 10centimetersat least oncea year.The banksandsidesshouldbe fertilized asneeded.Grazingon these grassed areasshouldbe controlled, particularly in early spring. Natural waterwaysusedas drainsshouldbe left in their natural stateasmuch as possible.Spot filling of erodedsectionswith rock or gravel shouldkeep the channelstable, and smaller sectionsthat erodeunder perennialflows shouldbe rock lined. All inlets for surplusirrigation or rainfall runoff shouldconsistof pipe inlets with riprap placedunder the pipe. 6-4. Wastewater Disposal Ponds.-Wastewater disposal pondsam effective only in areaswhere the ponds can be bottomed in permeablesandsand gravel with an adequatenatural outlet or can be of such sizeas to store and evaporate drainwatersenteringthe pond. The ponds will operateas intendedprovided the silt which accumulates in the bottom is removedperiodically.A recordshouldbe kept on the dischargeof ponds.Staff gaugescan be installedand readingstaken at regular intervals to determinehow fast the water seepsout of the pond. When

CHAPTER VI-OPERATION

AND MAINTENANCE

OF DRAINAGE SYSTEMS

269

the rate of discharge decreases considerably,it is time to cleanthe ponds.A good grasscover should be maintainedon the dikes aroundpondsby periodic fertilization and watering if required. Inlet structures,which havebeenconstructedto bring surfacewastewaterfrom thefields into the ponds,shouldbekept in goodrepair. Settlingbasinsor silt traps ahead of the inlet structum shouldbe kept cleanto minimize theneedfor cleaning the ponds. 6-5. Drainage Observation Wells.-Gbservation wells, properly installed, requireminimum maintenance. However, any suddenchangein the water-table depthor a constantwater-tabledepthovera 3- or4-month periodusuallyindicates a pluggedwell. The work involved in cleaningthe well can vary from pumping silt andsandfrom the well to pulling the pipe in the well and installingit in anew hole. The most common needfor maintenance results from the pipe in the well being bent or pulled out by farm or highway equipment.To keep a reliable and completerecord of the water table,thesedamaged wells shouldbereinstalledand protectedby a lOO-by lOO-millimeter(4- by 4-&h) paintedpost. All automatic recordersinstalledon observationwells requireconstantmaintenance to keepthe clock and recorderoperatingproperly. 6-6. Policy and Basic Requirements.-For additionalinformation, seeReclamation Instructions Series 520 Drainage, Part 521, Policy and Basic Requirements. 67. Bibliography.Sanders,G. D. and Crooks, T. J., 1985, You Need More than a Plumbers Helper, 1985ASCE Irrigation and DrainageConference.

((Chapter VII

SPECIAL DRAINAGE PROBLEMS

7-l. Return Flow Analysis Using the Transient Flow Concept.-A study of ground water hydrographsin an irrigated area generally shows that a water table risesduring the irrigation season and reachesits highestelevationafter the last irrigation of the seasonor, in an area of year-roundcropping, at the end of the peak portion of the irrigation season. The water table thenrecedesduring the slack or nonirrigation portion of the year and rises again during the irrigation season the following year. If the annualdischarge from anirrigatedareadoesnot equalrecharge,thetrend of the cyclic water table fluctuation will be progressivelyupward from year to year. When annualdischargeand rechargebecomeequal, the highestlevel and therangeof water tablefluctuation becomereasonably constantfrom yearto year. This condition is defined as dynamic equilibrium. The method of drainage analysisdeveloped by the Bureauof Reclamationtakesinto accountthe transient regimenof the ground-waterrechargeand discharge. Figure54, based on theBureausmathematical treatmentof the transientflow concept,showsgraphicallythe relation (at the midpoint betweenparallel drains) between the dimensionlessparameters.The curves on figure 5-4 for these parametersrepresentthe solution for the casewhere drams are abovea barrier and on a barrier, respectively. The dischargeformulas for parallel drains am:

q,2!w L
4 y

(dramsabovebarrier) (drainson barrier)

where: 4 = dramdischargein cubic meters(feet) per linearmeter (foot) of drain per day, K = hydraulicconductivity in cubic meters(feet) per squaremeter (foot) per day [meters (feet) per day], and 271

272

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

y, D, L, andH are as definedin sectionS-4. Thesedischargeformulas are combined with dmin spacingcomputationsin the developmentof area dischargecurves for use in the design of drams and analysis of return flows. The discharge formulas, together with the spacing computations or ananalysis of naturaldrainagein the<area, canbeusedto compute the monthly distribution of dischargefrom a subsurfacedrainagesystem andto check whether dynamicequilibrium exists. An alternateapproachto determiningoutflow is accomplished by calculating the change in volume between successivedrops in the water table and then dividing by the time period betweenreadings: Volume=0.8(y,
-y)xLxS

where: YO = initial water tableheight, Y = final water table height, L = drain spacing,and S = specific yield. The following is an exampleof drain spacingcomputationsand the development of areadischargeand monthly distribution dischargecurves.The pertinent soil, crop, irrigation, drain design, and climatic characteristicsare briefly describedbelow: (a) Dram depth is 2.4 meters (8 feet); maximum permissibleheight of water table midway betweendrams,yO,is 1.2 meters (4 feet) abovedrain. This height providesa minimum root zoneof 1.2 meters (4 feet). (b) Hydraulic conductivity of the subsoil,in the zone where the water table will fluctuate, is 38 centimeters(15 inches)per hour [9.1 meters(30 feet) per day] with a correspondingspecificyield of 23 percent. (c) The depthfrom the drain to the impermeable barrier, d, is about 10meters (33 feet). This depthcorresponds to anequivalentdepth,d, of 9.1 meters(30 feet) when spacing computations are corrected for convergency by Hooghoudts method, discussed in section5-S. (d> The weighted averagehydraulic conductivity in the zone between the maximum allowable water table and the impermeablebarrier is 48 centimeters (19 inches)per hour, or 11.6 meters (38 feet) per day. (e) Soil texture of the root zoneis sandyloam. Deeppercolationundernormal irrigation practices on sandy loam soils amounts to about 28 percent of the irrigation application. (jj The tabulationbelow showsthe crops grown in the area,amountof water for each crop per irrigation, runount of deep percolation for each crop per irrigation, and the buildup in the water table causedby eachirrigation. (g) The irrigation schedule,shown on figure 7-1, shows the number and timing of irrigations for each crop as reported by the farmers in the <area. Safflower-vegetable and barley-vegetable cropsare doublecroppedon the same

CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL

DRAINAGE PROBLEMS

273

274

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

land. In the computations,assumethat a 5-year crop rotation is practiced in the order shownfrom top to bottom on figure7-1. The daysbetweenirrigations,used in the computations,are alsoshown on figure 7-l. (h) Climatic conditions of the areaare arid with only about 7.6 centimeters (3 inches) of annual precipitation. Deep percolation from precipitation can therefore,be ignored.In areaswhere deeppercolationfrom precipitation canbe expected,the amount andtiming of suchdeeppercolationmust be consideredas recharge in the computations, as describedin sections 5-5 and 5-57 of this manual. (i) Assumethe water table hasreacheddynamic equilibrium.
Irrigation crop Alfalfa Safflower Vegetables Cotton Barley Bermuda millimeters 140 application, inches Deep percolation, millimeters inches Water table buildup, meters 0.17 feet

130 130 130 115 140

5.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.5 5.5

39 36 36 36 32 39

1.54 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.26 1.54

0.15 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.17

0.56 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.46 0.56

The water table reachesthe maximum allowable height, yO,above the drain immediatelyafter the last irrigation of the season or at the endof thepeakportion of the irrigation season. Therefore, the averageflow depth,D, canbe computed for the first drain-out period. With this flow depth and the valuesof K, t, S, and KDT a predetermined value of L, the valueof the parametercanbe computedfor SLZ the fast time period. With this value, the correspondingparametert can be obtainedfrom the curve for drains above barrier on tigure 5-4. Knowing the initial water tableheight, v, at the beginningof the time period, the valueof y, the height to which the midpoint water table falls during the time period, can be computed. This procedure is repeated for each successivetime interval. If dynamicequilibrium exists,the water tablemust againreach,but not exceed,the initial height at the sametime in the following year. Seesection5-7. Table7-l showscomputationsfor the following 5-year crop rotation: (1) alfalfa, (2) safflower and vegetables, (3) cotton, (4) barley and vegetables, and (5) bermuda.In table 7-1, the columnscontain the following information: Column 1.-Crop under consideration. Column 2.-Designation of each successiveincrement of ground-water rechargefor eachcrop, seefigure 7-l. Column 3.-Length of drain-out period or time betweenrechargein days. Column 4,Buildup of water table in meters (feet) dueto eachrecharge.

CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL

DRAINAGE PROBLEMS

275

Column 5.-Water table height at midpoint betweendrains immediatelyafter a rechargeor at the beginningof eachdram-out period (column 9 of preceding period plus column 4 of current period). Column 6.-D is the averagedepthof flow, d' + $ , where d' is the distance from drain to barrier correctedfor convergencyby Hooghoudtsmethod. Column 7.-Computed value for flow conditions during dram-out period (&x
km

colwnn 3 x column 6).

Column K-Taken from curve of figure 5-4 for correspondingvalue of -. SLZ Column 9.-Midpoint water tableheight abovedrain at end of eachdrain-out period (column 5 x column 8). Figure 7-2 shows the water table fluctuation for eachcrop in the rotation as producedby a 488meter (1,600-foot) drain spacing.This figure illustrates the fact that a singledrain spacingcannotbe expectedto be the optimum for all crops grown in rotation in the samefield. In this example,the maximum permissible water table height occurs with two of the crops. Therefore, the 488-meter (1,600-foot) spacingis the maximum allowablefor optimum production. Table 7-2 shows how the discharge formula, q =2 K !a!!? L is used with calculatedwater table heights to compute dischargerates at the beginning and end of eachdrain-out period. Figure7-3 showsfluctuationsin discharge rateproducedfrom a crop of alfalfa underthe following conditions:(1) entireareais irrigated at onetime (maximum dischargerate), and (2) areais too large to be irrigated at one time, but portions are irrigated alternatelyso that the entire areais irrigated within the time period betweenirrigations (averagedischargerate). The design capacity of individual drainlines should be the maximum rate obtainedfrom the curve of figure 7-3 for condition (1) above,because all or any portion of an individual line could be irrigated at one time. Collector andoutlet drams which serveareastoo large to be irrigated at one time shouldbe designed for the maximum rate obtainedfrom the curve of figure 7-3 for condition (2) above. In this example,crops am in a 5-year rotation, and eachfarm unit has equal areasin each of the crops. As mentionedpreviously, no drain spacingcan be optimum for all crops; similarly, no d.rainlinecapacity can be optimum for all crops, which meansthat both drain spacingand capacity shouldbe provided for the crop with the greatestdrainagerequirement; in this example, safflower. The maximum discharge rate for safflower, asshownin table7-2, is 2.01 cubicmeters per day per meter (21.6 cubic feet per day per foot) of drain The Bureau of Reclamationnormally expresses this rate in cubic meters (feet) per secondper kilometer (mile) of drain, as follows:

276

DRAINAGEMANUAL

Table 7-la.-Drain spacing computations with convergence correction included for the example j-year crop rotation program (metric units). L = 488 meters, K = 11.6 meters per day, S = 23 percent, and d = 9.1 meters. (Sheet I of 2.) 103-0-1679-l.
1 crop 2 rrigation Number 4 buildup, Meters 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 5 deters 1.219 1.161 I.426 I.488 I.499 I.493 I.490 I.498 I.586 3.668 3.741 I.801 3.850 3.894 3.930 1.027 1.113 1.075 3.412 3.475 D.489 D.489 D.311 D.426 D.536 DA48 D.752 D.848 D.934 1.016 1.092 1.158 1.219 1.275 1.326 1.375 0.484 0.568 0.672 0.775 0.867 0.954 6 D, [eters I.754 I.726 j.357 I.388 p.394 b.391 P.388 b.388 j.437 b.479 j.513 a.543 P.571 a.592 a.610 a.656 P.702 3.680 a.351 J.382 J.388 a.388 a.299 a.357 a.412 a.467 ).519 a.568 a.610 a.653 ).690 a.723 a.754 a.781 9.808 9.830 9.385 9.427 9.479 9.531 9.577 9.623 1.0351 I.1690 3.0455 3.0556 3.0597 3.0597 3.0576 D.0318 D.0300 D.0301 D.0302 0.0303 0.0304 0.0305 0.0203 0.0204 0.0349 0.1680 0.0456 0.0556 0.0597 0.1310 0.0275 0.0237 0.0199 0.0200 0.0202 0.0202 0.0204 0.0204 0.0205 0.0206 0.0206 0.0207 0.020E FE: 0:021s 0.02oc 0.0202 0.0202 0.136c 8 Y YO b.812 I.220 j.742 I.673 M45 M45 M65 I.840 I.850 I.850 I.850 I.850 I.850 I.850 I.920 I.920 I.810 I.225 I.740 1.670 I.650 1.320 3.870 3.893 I.920 I.920 I.920 3.920 I.920 I.920 I.919 I.919 I.919 I.917 0.917 0.240 0.851 0.912 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.313

Yo.

9 reLs
j.990 I.255 I.316 I.328 I.322 I.318 I.326 I.418 I.498 I.568 I.630 I.681 I.723 I.759 I.856 I.944 1.902 I.242 3.305 I.318 3.318 3.157 3.271 3.380 3.493 3.596 3.692 3.780 3.860 3.935 1.003 E!l 1:169 1.216 0.330 0.412 0.518 0.618 0.713 0.798 0.299

Alfalfa

: iafflower

CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL

DRAINAGE

PROBLEMS

277

Table7-la.-Drain

spacing computations with convergence correction included for the example j-year crop rotation program (metric units). L = 488 meters, K = 11.6 meters per day, S = 23 percent, and d = 9.1 meters. (Sheet 2 of 2.) 103-D-1679-2.
1 2 higatior Number 4 3uildup. Meters 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 0.140 o.p55 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.155 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171 0.171

crop

5 Yo.

6 D.
9.370 9.269

8 L YO

Meters D.454 D.248 D.342 0.453 D.549 D.633 0.705 0.766 0.817 0.862 0.902 0.271 0.313 0.381 0.438 0.517 0.585 K2 0:200 0.327 0.436 0.555 0.668 0.771 0.865 0.334 0.356 0.477 0.581 0.665 0.736 0.789 0.842 0.887 0.913 0.946 0.961 0.987 1.009 0.1770 0.0431 0.0276 0.0278 0.0279 0.0280 0.0281 0.0282 0.0283 0.0284 0.2032 0.0609 0.0414 0.0395 0.0297 0.0299 0.0299 0.1523 0.1485 0.0294 0.0296 0.0218 0.0199 0.0200 0.0202 0.1785 0.0769 0.0296 0.0298 0.0300 0.0301 0.0322 0.0303 0.0304 0.0325 0.0305 0.0326 0.0306 0.0306 0.1879

*eLs 0.093 0.187 0.298 0.394 0.478 0.550 0.611 0.662 0.707 0.747 0.131 0.173 0.241 0.298 0.377 0.445 0.500 0.166 0.045 0.172 0.281 0.400 0.513 0.616 0.710 0.163 0.185 0.306 0.410 0.494 0.565 0.618 0.671 0.716 0.742 0.775 0.790 0.816 0.838 0.182

Barley

cotton i

1 t egetables

J-

1 Bermuda

9.315 9.370 9.418 9.461 9.498 9.528 9.552 9.577 9.595 9.278 9.299 9.336 9.363 9.403 9.437 9.464 9.226 9.245 9.309 9.363 9.421 9.479 9.531 9.577 9.307 9.318 9.379 9.431 9.472 9.508 9.535 9.561 9.583 9.596 9.613 9.621 9.633 9.645

0.205 0.755 0.870 0.870 0.870 0.870 0.866 0.865 0.865 0.866 0.145 0.640 0.770 0.783 0.860 0.860 0.855 0.260 0.272 0.860 0.860 0.916 0.924 0.923 0.921 0.188 0.555 0.860 0.860 0.850 0.850 0.840 0.850 0.850 0.836 0.849 0.835 0.849 0.849 0.180

278

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Table 7-lb.-Drain spacing computations with convergence correction included for the example j-year crop rotation program (U.S. customary units). L = 1,600 feet, K = 38 feet per day, S = 23 percent, and d = 30 feet. (Sheet 1 of 2.) 103-0-1679-l. 1 2 4 5 6 8 9 -3 rrigation ime, hildup. D, 1 crop Number bays i; 23 Feet

Feet ;z ;g

YO

F2t
3.25 0.84

;i it :;
4lfalfa

:z :i :;
10 17 ii 28 30 66 14 12

:i
10 afflower :i :: :: 10 :: :: 10 :: 67

egetable

0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51

4.00 3.81 1.40 :*z 1:62 1.61 1.62 1.92 2.20 2.43 2.62 2.79 2.93 3.05 3.36 3.66 3.52 1.35 1.56 1.61 1.60 1.02 1.40 1.76 2.13 2.47 2.78 3.07 3.34 3.58 3.80 ~~ 4:36 4.50 1.59 1.86 2.21 2.54 2.85 3.13

I.0351 I.1690 M455

30:82 30.81 :i% 30:96 31.10 31.21 31.31 31.40 31.47 31.53 31.68 31.83 %:f 30:78 30.80 30.80 30.51 %;I: 31:06 31.23 31.39 31.53 31.67 31.79 31.90 32.00 32.09 32.18 32.25 30.79 30.93 31.10 31.27 31.42 31.57

Es: io597

0.0305 0.0203 0.0204 0.0349 0.1680 0.0456 0.0556 0.0597 0.1310 0.0275 0.0237 0.0199

0.1603 8E 0:02Oa 0.0202 0.0203 0.1360

3.812 3.220 3.742 3.673 D.645 D.645 0.665 0.840 0.850 0.850 0.850 0.850 0.850 0.850 0.920 0.920 0.810 0.225 0.740 0.670 0.650 0.320 0.870 0.893 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.919 0.919 0.919 0.917 0.917 0.240 0.851 0.912 0.920 0.920 0.920 0.313

::ii :~~
1:06 1.36

:-ii
2:06 2.23 2.37 2.49 2.80 3.10 2.96 0.79 1.00 1.05 A-E oh39 1.25 1.62 1.96 2.27 2.56 2.82 3.07 3.29 3.49 3.68 3.84 3.99 1.08 1.35 1.70 2.03 2.34 2.62 0.98

CHAPTER VII--SPECIAL

DRAINAGE PROBLEMS

279

Table 7-lb.-Drain spacing computations with convergence correction included for the example S-year crop rotation program (U.S. customary units). L = 1,600 feet, K = 38 feet per day, S = 23 percent, and d = 30 feet. (Sheet 2 of 2.) 103-D-1679-1.
1 crop

3 ime
lays 89 22 14 14 14 14 14

4 buildup, Feet 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.46 0.t 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.51 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56 0.56

5 FEi 1.49 E 1:49 1.81 2.08 2.32 2.52 2.69 2.84 2.97 0.89 1.02 1.25 I:92 2.10 0.55

Feet

D,
0.1770 0.0431 0.0276 0.0278 0.0279 0.0280 0.0281

I cotton

:44 &I ;t
t Barley 20

:: :i
76

:*?I

1 t egetable:

:: :tl
10 Iii 39

Ei
1:44 1.83 2.20 1:10 1.17 1.57 1.91 2.18 2.41 2.58 2.75 2.90 2.98 3.09 3.14 3.23 3.30

i-if

tz
15 I Bermuda :: 15 15 16 :i 15 ;: -

30.74 30.41 30.56 30.74 30.90 31.04 31.16 31.26 31.34 31.42 31.48 30.44 30.51 30.63 30.72 30.85 30.96 31.05 30.27 30.33 30.54 30.72 30.91 31.10 31.27 31.42 30.55 30.58 30.78

OdE 0:0284
0.2032 0.0395 0.0297 0.0299 0.0299 0.1523 0.1485 0.0294

0.0609 0.0414

%E

3FZ8
31:21 31.29 31.38 31.45 31.49 31.55 31.57 31.61 31.65

0:0199 0.0200 0.0202 0.1785 0.0769 0.0296 0.0298 0.0300 0.0301 0.0322 0.0303 0.0304 0.0325 0.0305 0.0326 0.0306 0.0306 0.1879

8 y_ YO D.205 D.755 3.870 D.870 D.870 3.870 D.866 D.865 0.865 0.866 0.145 0.640 0.770 0.783 0.860 0.860 0.855 0.260 0.272 0.860 0.860 0.916 0.924 0.923 0.921 0.188 0.555 0.860 0.860 0.850 0.850 0.840 0.850 0.850 0.836 0.849 0.835 0.849 0.849 0.180

9
Fc% 0.31 0.62 0.98 1.30 1.57 1.81 2.01 2.18 2.33 2.46 0.43 0.57 0.79 0.98 1.24 1.46

AC
0:15 0.57 0.93 1.32 1.69 2.03 2.34 0.54 0.61 1.01 1.35 1.62 1.85 2.02 2.19 2.34 2.42 2.53 2.58 2.67 2.74 0.59

#Ground
8

Surface

!.44

fi5
c c----cI

v) aa
Z 0 +--,------p---$------.1-w T

E
z ---.-s g =-E L-

r--1--;-+
0 I r

1.00

a
A 3, ___J -___--w-Q,

G
-----

5
-----------------

G
/louble

cc

f ____-------

t%
50 .22 .oo

z F c

A /A

lines indicate the . I *I L -I->. -.Toote TlucruoTes aurlng

zone where the woter the primary irrigation.

b.50

4
Figure 7-2.-Water table fluctuation for each crop in the example >-year crop rot&on program. 103-D-1675.

I.00
i

80 0-L

pu~uu 8 u!q#m Apnueus~nkup PeP6!J!

kl38W30~

P3QW3AoN

Ina

l43ByT3ld3s

1snDnv

AlfW-

3Nlw

AVW

1Ilidv

HNVN

AWnt1933

AHvnNvP

282 DRAINAGE MANUAL

CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL

DRAINAGE PROBLEMS

283

284

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

(2.01)(1,000) = 0.023 ms/s per kilometer(l.3 fts/per mile) 86,400 Discharge can also be expressedas cubic meters (feet) per secondper hectare (acne),as follows: (2.01)(10,000) = 0.00048ms/s per hectare(O.O068fP/s per acre)
@Wo9W8)

The maximum rate for safflower, 0.00048ms/sper hectare(0.0068fts/s per acre) is usedin deriving the areadischargecurvefor smallareasup to about 16hectares (40 acres). The designof collector dramscanbe basedon the maximum weightedaverage dischargerate producedby all crops usedin the 5-year rotation, seefigure 74. Figure 7-4 showsthe averagedischarge rate by crop at varioustime intervals. A curvefor any distribution of cropscanbe derivedby weightingthe discharge from each crop according to the acreagein that crop. In this example, figure 7-4 represents the averagedischarge rate from an areatoo large to be irrigated at one time and with equal acreagesin the various crops of the 5-year rotation. The maximum discharge,1.09cubicmeters(11.7 cubic feet per foot) of drain per day, from figure 7-4 canbe usedto developthe designcapacityfor collector andoutlet drams, asfollows: (1.09)(10,000) = 0.00026m3/s per hectare(0.00369fP/s per acre) (86,4000)(488) This rate is normally considered to apply to areaslarger thanabout200 to 240 hectares(500 to 600 acres).Anama dischargecurve for designingthe subsurface drainagesystem can be developedby plotting the rate for individual drainlmes for areasup to 16 hectares(40 acres)and the rate for collector and outlet drains for areasabove200 to 240 hectares(500 to 600 acres).A smooth curve is drawn to connect the 16- (40-) and 200-hectare(500-acre)curves. The atea discharge curve of figure 7-5 was derivedin this manner. Figure 7-4 can be used to derive the averagemonthly dischargerate and to confii that the 488-meter (1,600-foot) spacingproducesdynamic equilibrium. The dischargevolume for eachmonth of the year can be determinedas follows: For January: (0.539)(10,000)(31) = 342.4 cubic metershectareper month 488 where: 0.539 is the averagedischargerate in cubic metersper meter of drain per day (5.8 cubic feet per foot of drain per day), and 10,000is the number of squaremeters in a hectare

266

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Table 7-2a.-Discharge computations for the example J-year crop rotation program (metric units). (Sheet 2 of 4.) 103-D-1680-2. &P Ft;b; 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 iafflower 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 : egetables 3 4 5 6 1 I Cotton 2 3 4
l

Discharge

(q), m?m/day = 0.594 = 0.528 = 0.752 = 0.690 = 0.914 = 0.838 = 1.067 = 0.978 = 1.209 = 1.108 = 1.337 = 1.227 = 1.416 = 1.339 = 1.577 = 1,441 = 1.678 = 1.534 = 1.772 = 1.619 = 1.858 = 1.695 = 1.938 = 1.767 = 2.014 = 0.458 = 0.677 = 0.574 = 0.798 = 0.726 = 0.949 = 0.870 = 1.101 = 1.009 = 1.237 = 1.134 = 1.368 = 0.414 = 0.634 = 0,127 = 0.343 = 0.257 = 0.475 = 0.413 = 0,632 = 0.548

Avera e Discharg
JMdaY l

(0.14!$(0.426)(9.351) (0.38Ojt9.334) (0.536)(9.412) (0.493)(9.391) (0.648)(9.467) (0.596)(9.442) (0.752)(9.519) (0.692)(9.490) (0.848)(9.568) (0.780)(9,534) (0.934)(9.610) (0.860)(9,574) (1.016)(9.653) (0.935)(9.612) (1.092)(9.690) (1.003)(9.646) (1.158)(9.723) (1.064)(9.676) (1.219)(9.754) (1.120)(9.704) (1.275)(9.781) (1.169)(9.729) (1.326)(9.808) (1.216)(9.752) (1.375)(9,830) (0.330)(9.309) (0.484)(9.385) (0.412)(9.350) (0.568)(9.427) (0.5 18)(9.403) (0.672Jt9.479) (0.618)(9.453) (0.775)(9.531) (0.7 13)(9.501) (0.867)(9.577) (0.798)(9.539) (0.954)(9.623) (0.299)(9.294) (0.454)(9.370) (0.093)(9.191) (0.248)(9.269) (0.187)(9.238) (0.342)(9.315) (0.298)(9.293) (0.453)(9.370) 7 (0.394)(9.341)

0.561 0.721 0.876 1.023 1.159 1.282 1-400 1 509 * lJXK 1.696 1.777 1.853 1.236 0.626 0.762 0.910 1.055 1.186 0.891 0.381 o300 OM4 0.590

For the timeperiodbetween irrigations ** 2&/L = 2x( 11.6)/488

CHAPTER VII--SPECIAL

DRAINAGE

PROBLEMS

287

Table 7-2a.-Discharge computations for the exampleS-year crop rotation

program (metric units). (Sheet3 of 4.) 103-D-1680-3.

Crop Irrigatior Number 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 4

Discharge(q), d/m/day
0.149f?O.549)(9.418 (0.478)(9.383 I (0.633)(9&l) (0.550)(9.419) = 0.770 = 0.668 = 0.892 = 0.772 (0.75oji9.498j = 0.998 (0.611)(9.450) = 0.860 (0.766)(9.528) = 1.087 (O&2)(9.475) = 0.935 (0.817)(9.552) = 1.163 (0.707)(9.498) = 1.000 (0.862)(9.577) = 1.230 (0.747)(9.518) = 1.059 (0.902)(9.595) = 1.290 (0.131)(9.210) = 0.180 (0.271)(9.278) = 0.375 (0.173)(9.23 1) = 0.238 (0.3 13)(9.299) = 0.434 (0.241)(9.265) = 0.333 (0.381)(9.336) = 0.530 (0.298)(9.293) = 0.413 (0.438)(9.363) = 0.611 (0.377)(9.333) = 0.524 (0.517)(9.403) = 0.724 (O&5)(9.367) = 0.621 (0.585)(9.437) = 0.823 (0.500)(9.394) = 0.700 (0.640)(9.464) = 0.902 (O.MQ(9.227) = 0.228 (0.045)(9.167) = 0.061 (0.200)(9.245) = 0.276 (0.172)(9.230) = 0.237 (0.327)(9.309) = 0.454 (0.281)(9.285) = 0.389 (0.436)(9.363) = 0.608 (0.400)(9.344) = 0.557 (0.555)(9.421) = 0.779 (0.513)(9.401) = 0.719 (O&8)(9.479) = 0.943 (0.616)(9.452) = 0.868 (0.771)(9.531) = 1.095 (0.7 10)(9.499) = 1.005 (0.865)(9.577) = 1.234 (O-163)(9.226) = 0.224 (0.334)(9.307) = 0.463 (0.185)(9.237) = 0.255

Average Discharg m3/m/dav * 0.719 0.832 0.929 1.011 1.082 1.145 0.735 0.306 0.383 0.47 1 0.568 0.673 0.761 0.565 0.145 0.256 0.421 0.583 0.749 0.906 1.050 0.729 0.359

-ICotton

egetrtbles

I
t

5 6 7

For the time period between irrigations * 27tIUL = 2x( 11.6)/488

288

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Table 7-2a.-Discharge computations for the example S-year crop rotation program (metric units). (Sheet 4 of 4.) 103-D-1680-4. QoP Irrigation Number 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bermuda 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 .

Discharge (q), m%n/day (0. 49f ?0.356)(9.3 18) = 0.494

(0.306)(9.297)= (0.477X9.379)= (0.410)(9.349) = (0.581)(9.431) = (0.494X9.391) = (O&5)(9.472) = (0.565)(9.427) = (0.736)(9.508) = (0.61W9.453) = (0.789X9.535) = (0.671)(9.480) = (O&842)(9.561) = (0.716)(9.502) = (0.887)(9.583) = (0.742X9.5 15) = (0.9 13)(9.596) = (0.775)(9.532) = (0.946)(9.613) = (0.790)(9.539) = (0.961)(9.621) = (0.816)(9.552) = (0.987)(9.633) = (0.838X9.563) = (1.009)(9.645) = (0.182)(9.235) = 0.424 0.667 0.571 0.816 0.691 0.939 0.794 1.043 0.870 1.121 0.948 1.200 1.014 1.267 1.052 1.305 1.101 1.355 1.123 1.378 1.161 1.147 1.194 1.450 0.250

Average Discharge m%nJdav * 0.459 0.619 0.745 0.866 0.957 1.034 1.107 1.159 1.203 1.239 1.269 1.305 0.850

* For the time Period between irrigations ** 2xK/L= 2x(1 1.6)/488

CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL

DRAINAGE PROBLEMS

289

Table 7-2bAIischarge computations for the example S-year crop rotation program (U.S. &stom&y units): (Sheet 1 of 4.) 103-D-1680-1. Irrigation Number 16 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 Alfalfa 12 13 14 15 16 1 2 3 4 5 7

Discharge (q), f?/ft/day = 19.1 = 15.3 = 18.1 = 3.8 &4oj(30.7oj = 6.4 (1 LW(30.52) = 4.7 (1.60)(30.80) = 7.3 (1.08)(30.54) = 4.9 (1.64)(30.82) = 7.5 (1.06)(30.53) = 4.8 (1.62)(30.80) = 7.5 (1.04)(30.52) = 4.7 (1.61)(30.80) = 7.4 (1.06)(30.53) = 4.8 (1.62)(30.81) = 7.5 (1.36)(30.68) = 6.2 (1.92)(30.96) = 8.9 (1.64)(30.81) = 7.5 (2.20)(31.09) = 10.1 (1.87)(30.93) = 8.6 (2.43)(31.21) = 11.2 (2.06)(31.06) = 9.5 (2.62)(31.31) = 12.2 (2.23)(31.11) = 10.3 (2.79)(31.40) = 13.1 (2.37)(31.18) = 11.0 (2.93)(31.47) = 13.7 (2.49)(31.24) = 11.5 (3.05)(31.53) = 14.3 (2.80)(31.39) = 13.0 (3.36)(31.68) = 15.7 (3.10)(31.53) = 14.4 (3.66)(31.83) = 17.2 (2.96)(31.48) = 13.9 (3.52X31.76) = 16.6 (0.79)(30.40) = 3.6 (1.35)(30.67) = 6.2 (1.00)(30.50) = 4.5 (1.56)(30.78) = 7.1 (1.05)(30.52) = 4.8 (1.61)(30.81) = 7.4 (1.04)(30.52) = 4.8 (1.60)(30.80) = 7.3 (0.5 1)(30.25) = 2.3 (1.02)(30.51) = 4.6 (0.89)(30&l) = 4.0

rverage Dischwz ft?ftiday *

~.149J*(4.00)(32.00 (3.25)(31.62 I (3.81)(31.91) (0.84X30.42)

6.1 6.1 6.8 8.2 9.3 10.3 11.2 12.1 12.6 13.6 15.1 15.5 10.1 5.8 6.0 6.0 4.8 4.3

1 Forthetimeperiodbetween irrigations
c+ 27WL = 21c(38)/1600

290

DRAINAGE MANUAL

Table7-ILb.-Discharge computations for the example S-year crop rotation

program (U.S. customary units). (Sheet 2 of 4.) 103-D-1680-2.

rrigation Vumber 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 afflower 15 16 17 18 19 20 1 2 3 4 5 6 1 23 4

Discharge (1.40)(30.70) = 6.4 (1.25)(30.62) = 5.7 (1.76)(30.88) = 8.1 (1.62)(30.81) = 7.4 (2.13)(31.06) = 9.9 (1.96)(30.98) = 9.0 (2.47)(3 1.23) = 11.5 (2.27)(31.13) = 10.5 (2.78)(31.39) = 13.0 (2.56)(3 1.28) = 11.9 (3x)7)(31.53) = 14.4 (2.82)(31.41) = 13.2 (3.34)(31.67) = 15.8 (3.07)(31.53) = 14.4 (3.58)(31.79) = 17.0 (3.29)(31&l) = 15.5 (3.80)(31.90) = 18.1 (3.49)(31.74) = 16.5 (4.00)(32.00) = 19.1 (3.68)(31.84) = 17.5 (4.19)(32.10) = 20.0 (3.84)(31.92) = 18.3 (4.36)(32.18) = 20.9 (3.99)(32.00) = 19.0 (4.50)(32.25) = 21.6 (1.08)(30.54) = 4.9 (1.59)(30.79) = 7.3 (1.35)(30.67) = 6.2 (1.86)(30.93) = 8.6 (1.70)(30.85) = 7.8 (2.21)(31.10) = 10.2 (2.03)(31.02) = 9.4 (2.54)(3 1.27) = 11.8 (2.34)(31.17) = 10.9 (2.85)(31.43) = 13.3 (2.62)(31.31) = 12.2 (3.13)(31.57) = 14.7 (0.98)(30.49) = 4.5 (1.49)(30.74) = 6.8 (0.31)(30.15) = 1.4 (0.82)(30.41) = 3.7 (0.62)(30.3 1) = 2.8 (1.13)(30.56) = 5.1 (0.98)(30.49) = 4.5 (1.49)(30.74) = 6.8 (1.30)(30.65) = 5.9

jvesageDischarge ft /ft/daY l 6.0 7.8 9.5 11.0 12.5 13.8 15.1 16.2 17.3 18.3 19.2 20.0 13.3 6.7 8.2 9.8 11.4 12.8 9.6 4.1 3.3 4.8 6.3

* For the time period between irrigations ** 2zK,/L = 2x(38)/1600

CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL

DRAINAGE

PROBLEMS

291

Table 7-2bAXscharge computations for the example S-year crop rotation program (U.S. customary units). (Sheet 3 of 4.) 103-D-1680-3. crop 1 yg;g; Discharge (q), f&lay :0.149~*(1.81)(30.90) = 8.3 (1.57)(30.79) = 7.2 (2.08)(31.04) = 9.6 (1.81)(30.90) = 8.3 (2.32)(31.16) = 10.8 (2.01)(31.00) = 9.3 (2.52)(3 1.26) = 11.7 (2.18)(31&I) = 10.1 (2.69)(31X) = 12.6 (2.33)(31.16) = 10.8 (2.84)(31.42) = 13.3 (2.46)(31.23) = 11.4 (2.97)(31.48) = 13.9 (0.43)(30.21) = 1.9 (0.89)(30.45) = 4.0 (0.57)(30.28) = 2.6 (1.02)(30.51) = 4.6 (0.79)(30.40) = 3.6 (1.25)(30.63) = 5.7 (0.98)(30.50) = 4.5 (l&)(30.72) = 6.6 (1.24)(30.62) = 5.7 (1.70)(30.85) = 7.8 ( l/%)(30.73) = 6.7 ( 1.92)(30.96) = 8.9 (1.64)(30.82) = 7.5 (2.10)(31.05) = 9.7 (0.55)(30.27) = 2.5 (0.15)(30.07) = 0.7 (O&)(30.33) = 3.0 (0.57)(30.28) = 2.6 (1.08)(30.54) = 4.9 (0.93)(30&i) = 4.2 (1.44)(30.72) = 6.6 (1.32)(30&S) = 6.0 (1.83)(30.91) = 8.4 (1.69)(30.84) = 7.8 (2.20)(31.10) = 10.2 (2.03)(31.01) = 9.4 (2.54)(31.27) = 11.8 (2.34X31.17) = 10.9 (2.85)(31.42) = 13.3 (OSQ(30.33) = 2.4 (1.10)(30.61) = 5.0 (0.61)(30.33) = 2.8 m-age Discharge * f?&/da y 7.8 9.0 10.0 10.9 11.7 12.4 7.9 3.3 4.1 5.1 6.1 7.2 8.2 6.1 1.6 2.8 4.6 6.3 8.1 9.8 11.4 7.9 3.9

5
6 Cotton 7 8 9 10 11 1 2 3 Bi :Y 4 5 6 7

.ble

@For the time Period between irrigations 8 21tKlL = 21t(38)/1600

292

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Table 7-2bdischarge computations for the example 5-year crop rotation program (U.S. customary units). (Sheet 4 of 4.) 103-D-1680-4. crop Irrigation Number 2 3 4 5 6 7 Bermuda 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 v f Discharge (q), f&/day 5.3 (0.149~+(1.17)(30.61) (1.01)(30.52) = 4.6 (1.57)(30.80) (1.35)(30.68) = = 7.2 6.2 (1.91)(30.96) 7.4 (1.62)(30.82) = = 8.8 (2.18)(31.10) 8.5 (1.85)(30.94) = = 10.1 (2.41)(31.22) = 11.2 9.3 (2.02)(31.02) = (2.58)(3 1.30) (2.19)(31.10) (2.75)(31.39) (2.34)(31.18) = = = = 12.0 10.1 12.9 10.9 Aver;ge Discharge * ft /ftldav 5.0 6.7 8.1 9.3 10.3 11.1 11.8 12.4 12.9 13.3 13.6 14.0 9.2 t

(290)(31&i) = = 13.6 11.3 (2.42)(31.21) (2.98)(31.50) 11.8 (2.53)(31.27) = = 14.0 (3X)9)(31.55) 12.0 (2.58)(31.29) = = 14.6 (3.14)(31.57) = 12.5 (2.67)(31.33) = 14.8 (3.23)(31.61) = 12.8 (2.74)(31.37) = 15.2 (3.30)(31.65) = 15.6 (0.59)(30.30) = 2.8

* For the time Period between irrigations +* 27WL = 2x(38)/1600

CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL

DRAINAGE

PROBLEMS

293

Assuming the areaunder considerationcontains 1510hectares(3,730 acres) of irrigated land, then the dischargeduring Januaryis: (342.4)(1510) = 5 16 860 cubic meters(419 acre-feet) Table7-3 showsthe dischargefor eachmonth in the year,andtable74 shows the ndarge for eachcrop. Table 7-3.--Monthly
distribution of dischargeffom (3,730 acres). 1510 hectares

Month JatlUaty February Match April May June

Discharge hectare-meters acre-f& 51.8 41.0 50.0 64.9 81.2 92.5 420 332 405 526 658 750

Month July August September October November December Total

Discharge hectare-meters acre-feet loo.5 88.2 75.2 74.0 76.7 69.7 865.7 815 715 610 600 622 565 7,018

Table 744echarge
Number of annual irrigations 16 14 6 11 7 7 14

by crop.

crop
Alfalfa Safflower Vegetables Cotton Barley Vegetables Bermuda

Recharge Per irrigation Annuahy millimeters inches meters feet 39.1 35.6 35.6 35.6 32.0 35.6 39.1 1.54 1.40 1.40 1.40 1.26 1.40 1.54 Total 0.625 0.497 0.213 0.390 0.225 0.250 0.549 2.749 2.05 1.63 0.70 1.28 0.74 0.82 1.80 9.02

Average per hectare (acre) annual = y

=0.550 meter(l.80)

The annd rechargefor the 1510hectares(3,730 acres)is then 1510x 0.55 (3,730 x 1.80) = 830.5 hectaremeters (6,733 acre-feet), which comparesfavorably with the computed annual discharge of 8657 cubic dekameters(7,018 acre-feet).The annualdischargeis within about4 percentof the annualrecharge, which indicatesthat dynamic equilibrium essentiallyexists under the specified conditions.

294

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

The Bureau of Reclamation has developedcomputer programs using this conceptto analyzewater tablebuildupfrom presentwater tablepositionsto levels wheredynamic equilibrium is reached. This conceptallows the drainage engineer to develophighly sophisticated modelsto estimatequantity andquality of return flows from irrigation projects. 7-2. Two-Layer Aquifers .-Drains should always be installed in the most permeablezone that is within an economicalexcavation depth, usually within about 3 meters (10 feet) of the ground surface.Often fine-textured soils overlie soilsof much higher permeability.When the more permeablezoneis too deepto reach with normal drain construction equipment,the drain must be installed in the lesspermeablematerial. However, this type of two-layer dminagecan work efficiently. Sandtank modelshave shown that the water moves vertically down to the more permeable layer, horizontally through the permeablelayer, thenback up almost vertically to the dmin, as shown on figure 7-6. On projects with two-layeredconditions,Reclamationhasusednumericalmodelsto generate drain spacingsfor representativeconditions for the area. No general solution with provenreliability over a wide rangeof conditionshasbeendeveloped. 7-3. Moodys Nonlinear Solutions.-Chapter 5 presents the Bureau of Reclamationstransientdmin spacingmethodfrom a practicalapplicationstandpoint. For design purposes, the transient solution has been reduced to two dimensionless curves,one for drain on barrier and one for dram abovebarrier. Section5-3f gives criteria for choosingthe proper case(on barrier or above barrier) for designpurposesand introducesthe conceptof a family of curves betweenthe two limiting curvesbut suggests suchrefinement is of little practical application. W. T. Moody (1966) solvedthe generalnonlinearproblem using a numerical solution based on finite difference methods for intermediate cases and for drains on barrier. His results ate given as three families of curvesrepresenting: (a) dimensionless water table height versusdimensionless time, (b) dimensionlessdischargeversusdimensionless time, and(c) dimensionless volume of water removed versusdimensionless time. Within a curve family, Moody introduced the curve parameter, m, to representthe ratio of initial maximum water table height abovedrain level to the corresponding height abovebarrier. For drainson barrier, m = 1, andfor drainsfar abovethe barrier, m = 0. Thus,in varying m from zero to one, the entire rangeof possibilitiesis represented. Moodys work is a powerful extensionto Reclamationsdrain-spacing method asthe work contributesto theoverallunderstanding of hydraulicsof spacingwhen the drainsare near the barrier. The three families of curvesare presented here in supportof the practical applicationsdiscussed in chapter5. 7-4. Agricultural Drainage Planning Program (ADPP),ADPP is a menu-driven computer program that assists drainage system design and the analysisof existing drainagesystems.ADPP has two components: Dminage Design Under Uncertainty, a risk aualysis program that uses Donnans

CHAPTER VII--SPECIAL

DRAINAGE

PROBLEMS

295

296
1.07

DRAINAGE MANUAL

0.8-

0.8-

0.7-

0.6 -

*[I

os-

0.4 -

0.3-

0.2 -

0.1 -

o.o0.001 KW -iiF

Figure 7-7.-Dimensionless curves of maximum water-table height, y, versus time, t, for parallel drains at various distances above an impermeable barrier.

Steady-State Equation;and Transient-State Drain Spacing,aprogram that uses the Glover tmnsient-stateequationto computedrain spacings. DrainageDesign Under Uncertainty shouldbe usedto assess the reliability of a rangeof designsor a specificdesign.Transient-State Drain Spacingshould be usedfor the drain systemdesign. The programis basedon procedures described in this manual.ADPP is written in FORTRAN and is compiled to run on MS-DOS computersystems.It can run on an IBM XT, IBM AT, or larger compatiblepersonalcomputer. The software is containedon threefloppy diskspackaged with ausersmanual. The complete packageis availablethrough the Superintendentof Documents, U.S. GovernmentPrinting Office. The Transient-State Drain Spacingcomponentusesthe transient-state equation for drain spacingas developedby Lee Dumm, Ray Winger, Jr., andRobert Glover of the U.S. Bureauof Reclamation.HooghoudtsCorrection for Convergenceis usedto accountfor convergence loss.

CHAPTER VII--SPECIAL

DRAINAGE PROBLEMS

297

1 \\ \ it \ \ \ c- 4 \ \ . \

+\ 4 .

Figure 7-8.--Dimensionless curves of rate of discharge, q, versus time, t, for parallel drains at various distances above an impermeable barrier.

The program will calculate a drain spacing and provide a table showing computation of water table fluctuation. The table of water table fluctuation is similar to tables 5-3 and 5-4. Using the drain spacing(computedor enteredby user), the table showsthebuildup per irrigation, the height of the water table (Y,), the flow conditionsduring a dmin-out period (KLMV4, and the midpoint water tableheight abovedrain at the end of eachdrain-out period (Y). The user canuse this table to determinethe drain spacingeffectiveness. This program may be usedto obtaindrain spacings basedon the field dataand the deeppercolation. In thosecaseswhere there are physical constraintson the ideal drain design,this componentwill provide information on the water table for different drain spacingsand/or depths, allowing the user to make a more informed decision on design. It has also been found useful to calculate drain

298

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

0.1 +k

1.0

Figure 7-9.-Dimensionless curves of volume of water removed, V, Venus time, t, for parallel drains at various distances above an impermeable barrier.

spacings with the transient-state analysiscomponent,andthen employthe uncertainty componentto determinethe reliability of the spacing. Data required to usethe program to computedrain spacingare: (a) Permeability,in meters (feet) per day. (b) The maximum allowable water table above the drain at the midpoint of the drain in meters (feet). (c) The distancefrom the dram to barrier, in meters (feet). (d) Specific yield, a decimalnumber. (e) The radius of the dram, including pipe and gravel envelope,in meters (feet). cf) Depth to the drain, in meters (feet). (g) Schedule of deeppercolationeventsby month and day. (h) Deeppercolationamount for eachevent in millimeters (inches). The DrainageDesign Under Uncertainty componentis basedon Donnank steady-stateequation. Normal design proceduresuse average site values for hydraulic conductivity (K), depth of flow zone(D), andrechargerate (Qd). The use of thesevaluesresults in a computeddrain spacingwhich shouldcontrol the depth to water table at a desired level. A problem with using averagevaluesof

CHAPTER VII-SPECIAL

DRAINAGE PROBLEMS

299

systemperformanceis that they give no information aboutthe expectedvariation of actualperformancebut the averagevalue. The risk approachto drain designaddresses the uncertainties(normal variations) of K, D, and Qd, and expressesthem as the uncertainty of drain performance.Drain performanceis measuredas its effectivenessin controlling depth to water table. This analysisusesthe FOSM (first-order, secondmoment) approach. TheFOSM methodassumes that the information containedin themean valueandthe varianceis sufficient to describethe uncertaintyin the problem.For a more detaileddescription,the readeris referred to Garcia and Strzepek(1985) and Strzepek,Garcia, and Christopher (1987). The drain designapproachdevelopedin this packageallows the designerto look at the reliability of the drain to meet the specifieddepthto water table given the normal variation in the input parameters.The analytical packagewill also provide for the leastcost designfor eachlevel of reliability. The cost model used to developthe least cost designis describedin section5-34 of this manual. The packagefor drain designassumes that the designerhasperformed all the datacollection andanalysis.The package requiresthe designerto have the mean and varianceon soil parameters,a designvalue of the depth to the water table, and all economicand physical datafor the designprocess. (a) Field Da&-Eight data items are requested: (1) Type of pipe-plastic, concrete,or clay. (2) Drain radius in meters (feet). (3) Depth to barrier from drain, d, in meters(feet). (4) Standarddeviationof, d, in meters (feet). (5) Hydraulic conductivity of soils, K, in meters/day(feet/day). (6) Standarddeviation of K in meters/day(feet/day). (7) Rechargerate, Q, in meters/day(feet/day). (8) Standarddeviation of Q in meters/day(feet/day). Reliableanalysisof a drainagesystemrequiresthat thesedatabe site specific andbe basedon field measurements. (b) Cost Data.Information requested is: (1) Interest rate to be used(percent). (2) Lie of the systemin years. (3) Cost of operationandmaintenance per linear meter (foot). The interest rate is to be enteredas a percentage, not a decimal number (i.e., if 8 percent,use 8, not 0.08). Thesedataareusedin cost analysisby the program. (c) Pipe Cost.-Pipe costscan be computedas an averagecost of all sixesof pipe, or as a distribution of various pipe sixes. (d) Data for TrenchingMachines.-This screenrequeststhe type of machine that will be used to install drains. Two types are used by the program: a constant-speed machineand a variable-speed machine. (1) Constantspeed.-If this option is chosen,the program requests the rate of installation in meters/minute (feet/minute) and the cost per minute of installation.

300

DRAINAGE MANUAL

(2) Variable speed.-If this option is chosen,the program requeststhe maximum depth of installationin meters (feet), the minimum rate of installation, the cost per minute of installation, and the slope of depth versus installation rate (a decimal number). The normal range of values for most trenchersis 0.10 to 0.20. (e) Analysis Evuluation.-The user is given the option of entering a dram designfor a risk analysisor requestingan analysisof a rangeof drain designs. If the userdecidesto entera drain design,theprogramprompts for the spacing to be considered,the depthto be considered, and the critical depth to water. The critical depthto water is the allowableheight of water abovethe drain at midpoint betweendrains. As used in the program, the critical depth to water may not be exceeded. This technique resultsin a very conservative drain spacinganda deeper drain depth. If the user requestsau analysisof a rangeof designs,the programprompts for minimum depth,maximum depth, incrementsin depth,minimum spacing,maximum spacing,and incrementsin spacing.The smaller the incrementsgiven, the longer the program will take to calculate. fj) Uncertainty Analysis Option.-The user may requestthat the uncertainty analysisbe calculatedon a risk analysisof the reliability of the dramsor on a loss function analysis. The risk analysis option looks at the reliability of the drainage design in maintaininga water table that is kept within the critical depth to water. The user is given an option of finding a given reliability or of producinga table andgraph of reliability versus cost. If the user requests a given reliability, the program prompts for the reliability. This reliability is a percentage, not a decimalnumber. If the userrequestsa table of reliability versuscost, the program prompts for the minimum reliability, the maximum reliability, and the incrementto be used. When using the risk analysisportion of ADPP, the user shouldbear in mind that the values am relative. Also, that the dollar value of crop loss for each increment of water table rise above the control level is subjective. For the traditional Reclamation drain system design, the reliability range is 55 to 65 percent.This rangemeansthat there is a 60-percentchancethat the water table will never exceedthe designcontrol level. Thisportion of the programis most usefulfor assistingdesigners andmanagers in determiningtherelative level of risk they are assumingin using a given quality of datafor systemdesign.The valueversuscostof collectingbetter quality design data can be evaluated.Reclamationplans to use the Risk AnalysisProgramas a tool to aid drainageengineersin evaluatingdata collectionneedswhich result in a successfuldram systemdesign. 7-5. Bibliography.Dumm, L. D., October 1954, Drain-Spacing Formula, Agriculturul Engineering, vol. 35, pp. 726-730. Dumm, L. D., December 1960, Validity and Use of the Transient-Flow Conceptin Subsurface Drainage.Paperpresented at the AmericanSociety of Agricultural EngineersWinter Meeting, Memphis, Term.

CHAPTER VII--SPECIAL

DRAINAGE

PROBLEMS

301

Dumm, L. D., Febuary 1962, Drain-SpacingMethod Used by the Bureauof Reclamation. Paper presented at ARS-SCS Dminage Workshop, Riverside, Calif. Dumm, L. D., and R. J. Winger, Jr., June 1963, Designing a Subsurface DrainageSystemin an Irrigated Area ThroughUse of the TransientFlow Concept. Paper presented at the American Society of Agricultural EngineersMeeting, Miami BeachFla. Garcia, L. A., and K. M. Sttzepek, 1985, A CAD Approach to Tile Drain Design Under Uncertainty in Soil Properties, TEESTechnicalReport. Ligon, J. T., H. P. Johnson, andD. Kirkham, June1962,Glass-Bead-Glycerol Model for Studyingthe Falling Water TableBetweenOpen Ditch Drains. Paperpresented at the American Societyof Agricultural EngineersAnnual Meeting, Washington,D.C. Maletic, J. T., M. S. Sachs, andE. S. Krous, November 1968,DesaltingSaline Irrigation Water Suppliesfor Agriculture-A Case Study-Lower Colorado River Basin, U.S.A., Symposiumon Nuclear Desalination,International Atomic Energy Agency, Madrid, Spain. Moody, W. T., June1966,Nonlinear Differential Equationof Drain Spacing, Journal of the Irrigation and Drainage Division, Proceedings of the American Societyof Civil Engineers. Strzepek,K. M., 1982,Analysis of Tile DrainageDesignPoliciesin Egypt, ICID Bulletin No. 31, No. 2, pp. 39-44. Strzepek, K. M., J. L. Wilson, and D. H. Marks, Design of Agricultural Drainage Under Uncertainty; A Multi-level Approach, Ralph Parsons Laboratory, MIT TechnicalReport. Strzepek,K., L. A. Garcia, andJ. N. Christopher,December15-l&1987, An Expert System for Tile Drainage Design, American Society of Agricultuml Engineers,Winter Meeting, Chicago, Ill., ASAE Paper No. 87-2552, pp. 5. Sazepek,K., L. Garcia, and J. N. Christopher, A Computer Aided Design Approachto Training Designersof Tile Drainageto ConsiderUncertainty in Soil Properties, 13th Congress,USCID TechnicalConference,Reno, Nev. Strzepek,K. M., July 18-21,1988, A Comprehensive Tool for Tile Drainage Planning, AXE Irrigation and DrainageConference,Lincoln, Neb.. Winger, R. J., Jr., June 1960, In-Place Permeability Tests and Their Use in Subsurface Drainage, International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, Transactions of the Fourth Congress, vol. 111, pp. 11.417-11.469, Madrid, Spain.

APPENDIX

wa
SI METRIC
INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM (SI METR1C)IU.S. CUSTOMARY CONVERSION TABLES

Length
To convert from To Multiply by

angstromunits

nanometers(nm) micrometers (pm) millimeters (mm) meters(m) mils inches(in) millimeters meters angstromunits (A) mils inches micrometers centimeters(cm) meters mils inches feet (ft) millimeters meters mils inches feet millimeters meters mils feet

0.1 1.0 x 10-4 1.0 x 10-T 1.0 x 10-10 3.937 01 x 10-G 3.937 01 x 10-9 1.0 x 10-3 1.0 x 104 1.0 x 104 0.039 37 3.937 01 x 10-s 1.0 x 103 0.1 1.0 x 10-3 39.37008 0.039 37 3.280 84 x 10-3 10.0 0.01 0.3937x 103 0.3937 0.032 8 1 25.40 0.0254 1.0 x 103 0.083 33

micrometers

millimeters

centimeters

inches

304

APPENDIX

feet

millimeters meters inches yards 64 meters inches feet

304.8 0.3048 12.0 0.333 33 0.9144 36.0 3.0 1.0 x 103 1.0 x 10 39.37008 3.28 1.09361 6.213 71 x 10-4 1.0 x 103 3.280 84 x 103 0.621 37 1.60934 x 1.60934 5280.0 1760.0 1.8520 1.1508
103

meters

millimeters kilometers (km) inches feet Yards miles (mi) meters feet miles meters kilometers feet Yards kilometers miles

kilometers

miles

nauticalmiles (nmi)

Area
To convert from To Multiply by

squaremillimeters squarecentimeters

squarecentimeters(cm2) squareinches(in2) squaremillimeters (mm2) squaremeters (m2) squareinches squarefeet (ft2) squaremillimeters squarecentimeters squaremeters squarefeet

0.01 1.550x

103

100.0 1.0 x 104 0.1550 1.07639 x 10-3 645.16 6.4516 6.4516 x lo-4 69.444 x 10-4

squareinches

APPENDIX

305

squarefeet

squaremeters hectares(ha) squareinches acres squaremeters hectares squarefeet acres hectares squarefeet acres squareyards(yd2) squaremeters hectares squarefeet squaremeters acres squaremeters hectares squarefeet acres squaremiles (mi2) squaremeters hectares squarekilometers (km2) squarefeet acres Volume-Capacity

0.0929 9.2903x 10-6 144.0 2.295 68 x 10-S 0.836 13 8.3613 x 10-5 9.0 2.066 12 x 10-4 1.0 x 104 10.76391 2.471 x 10-4 1.19599 4046.8564 0.404 69 4.356 x 104 1.0 x 104 2.471 1.0 x 106 100.0 107.6391x 105 247.10538 0.3861 258.99881 x 104 258.99881 2.589 99 2.787 84 x 107 640.0

squareyards

squaremeters

acres

hectares squarekilometers

squaremiles

To convert from

To

Multiply by

cubic millimeters

cubic centimeters(ems) liters (L) cubic inches(in3) liters milliliters (mL) cubic inches fluid ounces(fl oz)

1.0 x 10-3 1.0 x 10-5 61.02374 x 106 1.0 x 10-3 1.0 61.02374 x 10-3 33.814x lo-3

cubic centimeters

306

APPENDIX

milliliters cubic inches liters

liters cubic centimeters milliliters cubic feet (fts) cubic meters cubic feet gallons fluid ounces liters cubic meters fluid ounces cubic feet liters cubic meters (ms) cubic dekameters(dam3) cubic inches cubic yards (yd3) gallons(gal) acrefeet (acre-ft) cubic dekameters cubic kilometers (km3) acre-feet cubic meters cubic feet liters cubic dekameters gallons cubic feet cubic yards acre-feet cubic meters cubic dekameters cubic feet gallons cubic meters cubic feet acre-feet gallons

1.0x 1.0

10-3

16.38706 57.87037 x 10-S 1.0 x 10-3 0.035 31 0.264 17 33.814 3.7854 1 3.78541 x 128.0 0.133 68
10-3

gallons

cubic feet

28.316 85 28.31685 x 10-3 28.316 85 x lo-6 1728.0 37.03704 x 10-3 7.480 52 22.95684 x 104 4.168 18 x 106 4.168 18 3.3792x 106 0.764 55 27.0 1.0 x 103
1.0 x 10-3

cubic miles

cubic yards cubic meters

264.1721 35.314 67 1.30795 8.107 x 10-4 1233.482 1.23348 43.560 x 103 325.8514x 103 1.0 x 103 35.31467 x 103 0.810 71 26.417 21 x 104

acre-feet

cubic dekameters

APPENDIX

307

cubic kilometers

cubic dekameters acre-feet cubic miles (mi3) Temperature

1.0 x 106 0.81071 x 106 0.239 91

degrees Celsius(C) kelvin (K) degrees Fahrenheit(T) degrees FQutkine @) t, = (tf - 32)/1.8 =&-273.15 & = t, + 273.15 = (G + 459.67)/1.8 = G/1.8 tf=t,/1.8+32 G= 1.8t, = 1.8 b + 491.68

E t G

Acceleration
To convert from To Multiply by

feet per second squared

metersper second squared(m/s2) Gs

0.3048 0.03108 3.280 84 0.10197 9.806 65 32.17405

metersper second squared

feet per second squared(ft/s2) Gs

G's (standard gravitational acceleration)

meters per second square feet per second square Velocity

To convertfiom

To

Multiply by

feet per second

meters per second(m/s) kilometers per hour (km/h) miles per hour (n-G/h)

0.3048 1.097 8 0.681 f 2

308

APPENDIX

metersper second

kilometers per hour feet per second(ft/s) miles per hour metersper second feet per second miles per hour kilometers per hour metersper second feet per second millimeters per second tmm/s) centimetersper second Force

zo 84 2.236 94 0.27778 0.911 34 0.62147 1.60934 0.447 04 1.46667 9.665 14 x 10-6 3.505x
104

kilometersper hour

miles per hour

feet per year WY) feet per day

To convertfrom pounds kilograms newtons dynes

To newtons (N) newtons pounds(lb)

Multiply by 4.4482 9.806 65 2.2046 0.224 8 1

newtons Mass

1.0 x

10-5

To convertfrom grams ounces(avdp)

To ~ograms (kg) ounces(avdp)

Multiply by 1.0 x lo-3 0.035 27 28.34952 0.028 35 0.0625 0.453 59 16.00 0.101.97 2.204 62 0.068 52

grams (g) kilograms

pounds(avdp) kilograms ounces(avdp) kilograms (force)secondsquaredper meter (kgf&/m) pounds(avdp) slugs

pounds(avdp) kilograms

APPENDIX

309

slugs short tons metric tons (tonne or megagram) long tons

lcilograJns kilograms metric tons (t) pounds(avdp) kilograms pounds(avdp) short tons kilograms metric tons pounds(avdp) short tons Volume per Unit Time Flow

14.5939 907.1847 0.907.18 2000.0 1.0 x 103 2.20462 x 103 1.10231 1016.047 1.01605 2240.0 1.120

To convert from

To

Multiply by

cubic feet per second

liters per second(L/s) cubic meters per second (m3/s) cubic dekameters per day (dam3/d) gallonsper minute &dhW acre-feetper day (acre-ft/d) cubic feet per minute (ftVnin) cubic metersper second liters per second cubic dekameters per day cubic feet per second W/s) acre-feetper day cubic meters per second cubic dekameters per day cubic feet per second cubic meters per second cubic feet per second acre-feetper day

28.316 85 0.028 32 2.446 57 448.831 17 1.98347 60.0 0.631 x 10-4 0.0631 5.451 x 103 2.228 x 10-3 4.4192x 0.014 28 1.23348 0.504 17 0.01157 0.40874 0.81071
10-3

gallonsper minute

acre-feetper day

cubic dekameters per &Y

310

APPENDIX

Viscosity
To convert from To Multiply by

centipoise

pascal-second (pa0.s) poise pound per foot-hour (lb/ft.h) poundper foot-second (lb/ft.s) slug per foot-second (slug/ft.s) centipoise pound per foot-hour poundper foot-second slug per foot-second pascal-second poundper foot-second centipoise pas&second slug per foot-second centipoise squaremetersper second (m2/s) squarefeet per second Ws) stokes squaremetersper second centistokes squaremetersper second 1 per pascal-second ( l/h4

1.0 x
0.01

10-3

2.419 09 6.719 69 x lo-4 2.08854 x 10-s 1000.0 2.419 09 x 103 0.671 97 20.8854x 10-3 4.133 79 x lo-4 2.777 78 x 10-4 0.413 38 1.488 16 31.0809x 10-3 1.48816 x 103 1.0 x 104 10.76391 x 10-6 0.01 9.2903x 10-Z 9.2903x 104 1.0 x 104 10.0

pascal-second

poundper foot-hour

poundsper footsecond centistokes

squarefeet per second stokes rhe

APPENDIX

311

Force per Unit Area Pressure-Stress

To convert from To Multiply by

poundsper squareinch

kilopascals(kpa) meters-head hm of Hg lfeet of water poundsper squarefoot (lb/f@) std. atmospheres kilopascals meters-head km of Hg tfeet of water poundsper squareinch std. atmospheres kilopascals poundsper squareinch (lb/S) kilopascals 2mm of Hg lfeet of water poundsper squareinch poundsper squarefoot kilopascals meters-head hm of Hg 2inches of Hg poundsper squareinch poundsper squarefoot newtonsper squaremeter (N/m2) hm of Hg meters-head 2inches of Hg poundsper squarefoot poundsper squareinch std. atmospheres

6.894 76 0.703 09 51.7151 2.3067 144.0 68.046 x 10-s 0.047 88 4.8826 x 10-3 0.359 13 16.0189x 10 6.9444x 10-3 0.472 54 x 10-3 95.76052 13.88889 9.806 36 73.554 3.280 84 1.42229 204.81 2.998 98 0.3048 22.4193 0.882 65 0.433 5 1 62.4261 1.0 x
10-3

poundsper squarefoot

short tons per squarefoot meters-head

tfeet of water

kilopascals

7.500 64 0.101 97 0.2953 20.8854 0.145 04 9.8692 x lo-3

312

APPENDIX

kilograms (f) per squaremeter millibars (mbar) bars std. atmospheres

kilopascals hm of Hg poundsper squareinch kilopascals kilopascals

hm

9.806 65 x 10-s 73.556x 10-3 1.4223x 10-3 0.10 100.0 101.325 760.0 14.70 33.90

kilopascals of Hg poundsper squareinch lfeet of water

Mass per Unit Volume Density and Mass Capacity

To convert from To Multiply by

poundsper cubic foot

kilograms per cubic meter (kg/m3) slugsper cubic foot (slug/f@) poundsper gallon (lb/@) kilograms per cubic meter Wm3) slugsper cubic foot kilograms per cubic meter poundsper cubic foot (lb/fts) kilograms per cubic meter poundsper cubic yard gramsper liter (g/L) kilograms per cubic meter

16.01846 0.031 08 0.133 68 119.8264 0.2325 0.593 28 0.037 04 1.0 x 103 1.6856x 103 7.489 15 7.489 15 1.0x 1.0 x
10-3 10

poundsper gallon

poundsper cubic Yd gramsper cubic centimeter ouncesper gallon eJEF4 kilograms per cubic meter

gramsper cubic centimeter (g/cm3) metric tons per cubic meter (t/m3) poundsper cubic foot (lb/fts) poundsper gallon poundsper cubic yard 1Column of H20 (water) measuredat 4 C. 2 Column of Hg (mercury) measured at 0 C.

62.4279x 10 8.3454 x 10-s 1.68556

APPENDIX

313

long tons per cubic yard ouncesper cubic inch (oz/in3) slugsper cubic foot

kilograms per cubic meter kilograms per cubic meter kilograms per cubic meter Volume per Area per Unit Time Hydraulic Conductivity (Permeability)

1328.939 1729.994 515.3788

To convert from

To

Multiply by

cubic feet per squarefoot per &Y

cubic meters per square meter per day (m3/(m24) cubic feet per square foot per minute (fts/(f@omin)) liters per squaremeter Per &Y 04m24) gallonsper squarefoot per day (gWt2d)> cubic millimeters per squaremillimeter per day ollIW(mm2d)) cubic millimeters per squaremillimeter per hour (mrns/(mm2.h)) cubic inchesper square inch per hour (ins/(irAh)) cubic meter per square meter per day (m3/(m24> liters per squaremeter per &Y &/(m2dN cubic feet per square foot per day (fts/(ft%d))

0.3048 0.6944x 10-s 304.8 7.480 52 304.8 25.4 0.5

gallonsper square foot per day

40.7458 x 10 40.7458 0.133 68

314

APPENDIX

Volume per Length per Unit Time Transmissivity

To convert porn To

cubic feet per foot per day (ft3Jft.d))

cubic metersper meter per day (m3/(m4) gallonsper foot per &Y @wfw) liters per meter per &Y (L/(mO cubic meter per meter per day (m3/(md)) cubic feet per foot per day (ftV(ft*d))

Multiply by 0.0929 7.480 52 92.903 0.012 42 0.133 68

gallonsper foot per &Y

1 Many of theseunits can be dimensionallysimplified. For example,m3/(m.d) can also be written m*/d.

INDEX
Absorption, 205 Advanced Drainage Planning Program (ADPP), 161,295 Aerial photographs, 14 Alignment (see Drains, grade, and alignment) Antecedent moisture, 42 Area discharge, 174,.285 Artesian aquifer, 17 Artesian pressure (see Hydrostatic ptessum) Auger-hole test for hydraulic conductivity, 61,247 calculations, 70 computation sheet, 69 equipment, 61 limitations, 72 procedure, 67 step test, 73 Available moisture, 46 Backfilling, 199,225,229,235 puddling, 226 Barbour, Edmund, iv Barker, D. A., iv Bartier, 17.130.258 definition, 126 Bateman, K. G., iv Batista, M.D.J., iv Bedding classification, 229 Bell, W. C., iv Benefit-cost ratio, 138 Berms, 194 Blaney-Griddle method, 50 Bmnskill, G. P., iii Campbell, Keith, iv Canal
capaciiycuwes,58

chutes, 200 Clay dispersion of, 29 Clay pipe, 203 laying, 224 specifications, 205 *
strength,229

Coefficient of curvature, 213 coefficient of roughness, 188,199,237 Coefficient of uniformity, 213 Collectordrains, 8,173,193,205,275,285 capacity of, 199 definition, 9 gradient, 190 size, 173 Computerprograms, 161,295 Concrete pipe, 203 laying, 224 specifications, 204 strength, 229
C.onstantlevelfloatvalve,83

constNction by stages, 203 Consumptive use, 50 Convergence, 149

costs,203,206

estimating, 11,203 Cmp moisture extraction patterns, 48 response to water table, 139 mot mne, 48 salt removal, 33
CNSSilg StNCtUIW,

200

pipe joints on, 203 Culverts, 194,199 Cunningham, A.J., Jr.,iv Darcy flow equation, 100,255 Damys law, 18 Data, 13,122,161 Data logger, 62,70,73 DeBmyn, D. A., iv Deep petcolation, 29,50,53 buildup from, 158 definitioq 33 from irrigation, 140,253 from sprinkler systems, 141 Deferred drainage, 8
315

crossings, 200
lining,173

seepage, 173,176,257 Capillary fringe, 26 field studies, 28 measuring, 28 Carlson, E. J., iv Channels natural, 200 Christensen, C. L., iv Christopher, J. N., iii, iv

316

DRAINAGE

MANUAL

Deflection plastic pipe, 234 Depth of drains open, 193 pipe. 205 Depth to barrier, 123, 126 Depth to water measuring devices, 114 Design and construction, 147 Design capacity, 199,275 (see also Drain accretions, Return flow, Drain discharge, and Recharge)
Design discharge, 173,238

Detailed studies, 14 Dewatering, 223 (see also Stage construction) Discharge from spaced drains, 171 Donnan formula, 169 Drain(s) above barrier, 16 1 accretions to, 132,171,173, 178,188, 193, 199,237,243
banks, 194 below acanal, 175

collector, 8, 173, 193,205,275,285 depth, 193,205,258 discharge (see Drain discharge) effluent, 135 function of, 9 grade and alignment, 212.224.266 inlets, 194,268 inspecting and testing, 225,265 installation, 224 interceptor, 9 investigation and layout, 247 location, 135 maintenance policy, 269 natural, 268 numbering, 136 on barrier, 155,166,170 open, 188,267 (see also Open drams) outlet, 9, 132,205,227,246,265,275 pipe, 8,203,229 pipe size, 237 relief, 9 spacing (see Spacing of drains) suboutlet, 9 test plug, 225 velocity, 190, 199 Drain discharge, 190,275 for determining pipe size, 173 from spaced drains, 171 open channel flow, 188 quality (see Dram(s) effluent) seepage rate, 177 Drainage

basic data, 13 benefits, 4, 137 by punu+, 246 cost, 137 (see also Economics) deferred, 8 definition, 1 design under uncertainty, 296 environment, 7,135,140 factors in investigation, 121 for sprinkler irrigation 140 general introduction to, 1 history, 4 importance of, iii, 4 investigations, 121 maintenance of systems, 265 maps, 13 nomenclature, 8 on irrigated sloping land, 180 optimum plan, 13 outlet conditions, 132 prime objective of, 1 subsurface, 5,8 surface, 8 Drops, 200 Dumm, L. D., iii Dynamic equilibrium, 148,271 Ecology, 7 Economics, 137 benefit-cost ratio, 138 Effective drain radius definition 155 Rfferts, R. J., iv Electric analogs, 144 Electrical conductivity, 30 J?nvelopematerial, 36, 136,212,218 hydraulic conductivity of, 214,219 Environment, 7, 140 Ephemeral stream, 200 Equivalent depth, 154 (see also Conv Excavation table, 215 Exchangeable sodium, 36 Farm efficiency, 53,254 Farm losses from sprinkler irrigation, 143 Farm waste, 53,199 Fences, 266,268 Field and laboratoty procedures, 61 Field capacity, 46 Field reconnaissance, 122 Filters, 87, 103 Flap gates, 227,265
Floodflow, 200 Rood runoff, 39

I NDEX Flow depth, 154 Flow paths, 296 Ftogge, R. R., iv Fuller, J. E., iv Geographic Information Systems (GIS), 123, 132 Geology, 15 influence of, 126 Glover, R. E., iv Gradation analysis, 20 Grade (see Drains, grade, and alignment) Gravel envelope (see Envelope material) Ground water, 108 buildup, 158 mound, 177 profiles, 123 studies, 128 Hand augers, 63, 118 Haniman, H. T., iv Haskew, H. C., 61 Hayward, H. E., 28 Headwalls, 199 High pressure jets, 267 Highways (see Crossing structures) Hole scratcher, 64 Hooghoudts convergence correction, 154, 164 Humid areas, 167 Hydraulic conductivity (coefficient of permeability), 18,86,61, 123, 175 auger hole test for, 61 conversion factors, 17 definition, 18, 153 disturbed soil samples, 108 envelope material, 214 laboratoty tests for, 107 lateral (horimntal), 19,73, 108 piezometer test for, 75 pomona well point method, 78 precision, 20 projection of data, 123 relationship to soil properties, 18 relative, 120 ring pemreameter test for, 95 shallow well pumpin test for, 83 single well drawdown test for, 81 step tests in layered soils for, 73 test pit method for, 103 undisturbed soil samples, 107 units of, 18 vertical, 19.95.108 weighted average, 19 well pumping method, 61 Hydraulic radius, 190,242 Hydmgraphs, 130 Hydrostatic (artesian) pressure, 128,246

317

Infiltration, 33 definition, 106 from irrigation, 50 fmm precipitation, 47,53, 159 test for determining rate of, 104 Infiltration galleries, 246 Inlets, 199 smface, 194,227 In-place hydraulic conductivity tests (see also Hydraulic conductivity) above a water table, 83 below a water table, 61 Interceptordrains, 9,175 Invetted wells, 11,246 Investigations, 121,247 drain location, 135 economic considerations, 137 electric analog models, 144 existing structures, 136 factors, 121 field reconnaissance, 122 geologic influence, 126 gmund-water accretions to drains, 132 ground-water studies, 128 identifying barrier zone, 126 outlet conditions, 132 review of existing data, 122 scope, 121 subsurface, 123 water source studies, 127 Inigated agriculture, 1 Irrigation, iii, 127 nonirrigation period, 162 schedule, 46,251 waste, 194, 199,200 Junction boxes, 226 Kennedy, P. J., iv Kitkham, D., 76 Laboratoty tests for hydraulic conductivity, 107 Lateral capacity, 58 Layemd soils, 73 Leaching efficiency, 33 Leaching requirement continuing, 29 definition, 29 in drain design, 5,29,50 initial, 29.36 refinements, 33

318 Lidster, W. A.,iv Logs, 123 Lunde, R. 0.. iv Luthin, J. N., 78

DRAINAGE

MANUAL reconls, 112 Open channel flow, 188 Open drains, 188 banks, 194 cross section, 193 cross-sectional area and hydraulic radius, tables, 191, 192 depth, 193 &sign capacities, 199 gradient, 190 hydraulic radius, 190 Mannings II, 188 natural channels, 200 open channel flow, 188 operation and maintenance, 267 stage construction, 203 StNCtUlIX, 199 surface waterinlets, 194 ttansition sections, 194 tributaty dram intersections, 194 velocities, 190 Operation and maintenance, 265 buried pipe, 265 manholes, 266 observation wells, 269 open drains, 267 pipe drain outlets, 265 pipe drains, 266 policy and basic requirements, 269 wastewater and disposal ponds, 268 Pehrson, P. J., iv Perennial stream, 200 Permeability (see Hydraulic conductivity) Peters, W. B., iv Piezometea, 108, 111,128, 130 (see also Piezometer test for hydraulic conductivity) installation, 111 profiles, 130 Piezometer test for hydraulic conductivity, 61,75,251 calculations, 76 equipment, 75 limitations, 78 procedure, 75 Piezometric profiles, 130 Pipe drams, 203 backfilling trench for, 225 capacity, 238 collector drams for, 205 corrugated plastic, 204,205,267 cost analysis, 206 depth of, 205 drainage sump and pumping plant for, 238 envelope material for, 212

Maasland, M., 61 Maierhofer, C. R., iv Maki, C. R., iv Maletic, J. T., iv Manholes, 226,266 Manning formula, 188 Mannings n, 188, 199,237, (see also Coefficient of roughness) Mantei, C. L., 219 Maps contour, 14, 123 depth-to-barrier, 130 depth-to-ground water, 130 drainage, 14 features on, 14 ground water, 120 scale of, 13 sources of, 14 symbols for, 16 topographic, 13 Marston formula, 229,234 Mathison, A. E., iv McMath formula, 38 Metric conversion tables, 302 Mineral deposits, 205 Mohr, R. D., iv Moisture extraction pattern, 46 Moisture-holding capacity, 46,233 Monitoring wells (see Wells) Montieth, John, III, iv Moody, W. T., iv, 219,295 Munsell color chips, 22 Myers, P. M., iv Natural channels, 200 Neff, G. E., iv Nelson, H. R.,iv Neumann, C. A., iv Noy s, N. E., iv Numerical models, 144 Finite-difference method, 144 Finiteelement method, 144 Observation holes, 108, 128.254.269 also wells, observation) casing, 110 installation, 109 location, 108 numbering, 112 plugged, 117 (see

I NDEX gap width, 218 grade and alignment, 212 inspecting and testing, 225 laying, 224 length of sections, 219 manholes, 226 Mannings n, 231 mineral deposits, 205 operation and maintenance, 265,266 outlet structures, 227, 265 pipe for, 203 puddling of backfill, 226 repair, 267 rodent screens, 227,265 size, 231 specifications, 204 stability of bed, 223 strength, 229 surface inlets, 227 test plug, 225 Pipe size, 237 Pipe specifications, 204 Plant roots, 5 Plastic pipe, 203,224,237,247 backfill loadings, 234 deflection, 234 laying, 224 specifications, 205 strength, 234 Pomona well point method, 78 Ponding, 199 Precipitation, 37, 127 infiltrated, 46, 159 Pressure transducer, 62,70 Puddling, 36 of backfill, 226 Pugsley, J. A.,iv Pumping plants, 192,238 Pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity (see Shallow well pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity) Pumps (see Pumping plants) Railroads (see Crossing structures) Rainfall, 159 (see also Precipitation) infiltrated, 53, 160 intensity-frequency, 39 time of concentration, 39 Rate of installing drains, 206 Reharge, 130, 169 Recharge wells, (see Wells, inverted or redwe) Reclamation Act, iii Reconnaissance field, 122

319

study, 13 Relief wells, 245 Return flow (see Discharge from spaced drams) Return flow analysis, 27 Ribbens, R. W., iv Ring permeameter test for hydraulic conductivity, 95 calculations, 100 equipment, 95 limitations, 100 procedure, 98 Risk analysis, 300 Roadways, 194,268 Rodent screen, 221,265 Root distribution, 46 zone, iii, 1, 48, 139, 251 Ryan, W. F., iii Salinity and alkalinity, 28, 138 Salt balance, 29.35 Salt tolerance, 3 1 Sand traps, 226, 266 (see also Manholes) Sanders, G. D., iv Schaack, J. M., iv Schweem, H. A., iv Screened well point, 81 Seepage, 127,173 from surface sources, 111 rate, 176 Settling basins, 269 Shallow well pump-in test for hydraulic conductivity, 83 calculations, 90 equipment, 83 limitations, 95 procedure, 85 Silt traps, 269 Single well drawdown test for hydraulic conductivity, 81 Sinkholes, 266 Slotted PVC casing, 67,85,110 Sodic soils classification of saline and, 37 construction in, 36 Soil characteristics, 18 capillary fringe, 26 color, 22 hydraulic conductivity, 18 specific yield, 25 stnlctum, 22 texture, 20 Soil profile, 48 Soil structure 22,29

320

DRAINAGE

MANUAL McMath formula, 38 rainfall intensity map, 40 time of concentmtion, 41 time of flood concentration, 41. StNCtureS, 199 crossings, 200 drops and chutes, 200 existing, 136 inlets, 199 manholes, 226 outlets, 227 Subsurface drainage, 5,8,193 Subsurface investigations, 123 Sumps, 238,243 Surface drainage, 8 Surface inlets, 194,227 surface runoff, 37 estimating, 42 precipitation, 37 stomdlow, 38 Surface water inlets (see Surface inlets) Terminal seepage rate, 177 Test pit method for hydraulic conductivity, 103 Textural classes, 20 bw4v, 13 Total available moisture, 46 Total readily available moisture, 46, 159 Trace elements, 122 Tractive force, 190 Tmfficability, 5 Transducer (see Pressure transducer) Transient flow method, 147,271,296 (see also Spacing of drains) background of, 148 data required for, 148 drain spacing, 147 for retum flow analysis, 271 Transition sections, 194 Tmshracks, 227,268 Tributary drains, 193 T-section, 226 Two-layer drainage, 295 Uncertainty, drainage design under, 296 Wadleigh, C. H., 28 Wastewaterponds, 268 wastewaters, 199 Water quality, 7 Water source studies, 127 Water supply tank, 83 Water table, 26,148,254 buildup, 154,158

class, 23 fragment, 24 grade, 23 pd. 24 type* 22 soils, 15 alkaline, 29 ahvial, 15 dmacteristics (see Soil characteristics) color, 22 definition, 1 eolian, 17 glacial till, 15 gradation analysis, 20 lacustrine, 15 loess, 17 moisture-holding capacity, 46 oxygen content, 1 particle size classification, 20 residual, 15 saline, 28,37 saturated, 5 sodic, 29, 36, 37 stability, 29,200,223 StNCtUE, 22 temperature, 5 Soil texture triangle, 21 S@cing of drains, 147 data required, 148 definition, 154 drain above bartier, 161 drain on barrier, 166 empirical methods, 147 steady-state method, 169 tmnsieut flow method, 147,271,296 using the data, 161 Special drain types, 245 inverted or recharge wells, 11,246 pumped wells, 11,246 relief wells, 11, 246 Specific yield, 25,153 definition, 25, 153 versus hydraulic conductivity, 27 Sprinkler irrigation, 140 deep percolation from, 141 Stability of soils, 29,200,223 Stabilizing gravel, 36 steam curing, 204 Step test for hydraulic conductivity (see Auger- hole test for hydraulic conductivity) Stomflow, 38,199,203 basin coefficient, 38 estimating runoff, 39 intensity and duration, 39

I NDEX fluctuation, 148,275 hydmgraphs, 130,148 parameters for drain spacing, 153 profiles, 130, 180 shape of, 183 Watson, W. O., iv Weimer, R. H., iv Well location, USGS method, 114 Well pemreameter test for hydraulic conductivity (see Shallow well pumpin test for hydraulic conductivity) Well points, 37 Well pumping method, 61 Wells inverted or recharge, 245 monitoring wells EPA Standards, 110 Statutory requirements, 110 observation, 254,269 (see also observation holes) pumped, 245 relief, 245 Wildlife habitats, 7 Williford, John, iv Wilting point, 46 Winger, R .I., Jr., iii, iv Yarger, W. H., iv Y-section, 226 Zeigler, E. R., iv

321