EIEN307 I

Electronic Circuits I

2007 Spring
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EIEN307 I

Chapter 1-1

Circuit Analysis and Design

Microelectronics

Chapter 1 Semiconductor Materials and Devices

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Chapter 1-2

In this chapter, we will:

Gain a basic understanding of semiconductor material properties

Two types of charged carriers that exist in a semiconductor Two mechanisms that generate currents in a semiconductor Ideal currentvoltage characteristics of a pn junction diode

Determine the properties of a pn junction

Examine dc analysis techniques for diode circuits using various models to describe the nonlinear diode characteristics Develop an equivalent circuit for a diode that is used when a small, time-varying signal is applied to a diode circuit Gain an understanding of the properties and characteristics of a few specialized diodes Design a simple electronic thermometer using the temperature characteristics of a diode

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Chapter 1-3

Intrinsic Semiconductors
Ideally 100% pure material Elemental semiconductors Silicon (Si)
Most common semiconductor used today

Germanium (Ge)
First semiconductor used in p-n diodes

Compound semiconductors Gallium Arsenide (GaAs) Very high devices and optical devices

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Chapter 1-4

Silicon (Si)

Covalent bonding of one Si atom with four other Si atoms to form tetrahedral unit cell. Valence electrons available at edge of crystal to bond to additional Si atoms.
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Chapter 1-5

Effect of Temperature

At 0K, no bonds are broken. Si is an insulator.

As temperature increases, a bond can break, releasing a valence electron and leaving a broken bond (hole). Current can flow.

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Chapter 1-6

Energy Band Diagram

E g = Ec E v

Ev Maximum energy of a valence electron or hole Ec Minimum energy of a free electron Eg Energy required to break the covalent bond
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Chapter 1-7

Movement of Holes

A valence electron in a nearby bond can move to fill the broken bond, making it appear as if the hole shifted locations.

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Chapter 1-8

Intrinsic Carrier Concentration

ni = BT e
32

Eg 2 kT

B coefficient related to specific semiconductor T temperature in Kelvin Eg semiconductor bandgap energy k Boltzmanns constant

ni ( Si,300 K ) = 1.5 x10 cm

10
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Chapter 1-9

Extrinsic Semiconductors
Impurity atoms replace some of the atoms in crystal
Column V atoms in Si are called donor impurities. n-type : donor impurity P, As Column III in Si atoms are called acceptor impurities. p-type: acceptor impurity B

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Chapter 1-10

Phosphorous Donor Impurity in Si

Phosphorous (P) replaces a Si atom and forms four covalent bonds with other Si atoms. The fifth outer shell electron of P is easily freed to become a conduction band electron, adding to the number of electrons available to conduct current.
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EIEN307 I

Chapter 1-11

Boron Acceptor Impurity in Si

Boron (B) replaces a Si atom and forms only three covalent bonds with other Si atoms. The missing covalent bond is a hole, which can begin to move through the crystal when a valence electron from another Si atom is taken to form the fourth B-Si bond.
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Chapter 1-12

Electron and Hole Concentrations

n = electron concentration p = hole concentration

n = n p
2 i

n-type: n = ND, the donor concentration p-type: p = NA, the acceptor concentration

p = ni2 / N D

n = n / NA
2 i
Chapter 1-13

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Drift Currents

Electrons and hole flow in opposite directions when under the influence of an electric field at different velocities. The drift currents associated with the electrons and holes are in the same direction.
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Chapter 1-14

Diffusion Currents

Both electrons and holes flow from high concentration to low. The diffusion current associated with the electrons flows in the opposite direction when compared to that of the holes.

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Chapter 1-15

p-n Junctions
A simplified 1-D sketch of a p-n junction (a) has a doping profile (b). The 3-D representation (c) shows the cross sectional area of the junction.

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Chapter 1-16

Built-in Potential
This movement of carriers creates a space charge or depletion region with an induced electric field near x = 0. A potential voltage, vbi, is developed across the junction.

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Chapter 1-17

Reverse Bias

Cj =

C jo VR 1+ Vbi

varactor diode Increase in space-charge width, W, as VR increases to VR+VR. Creation of more fixed charges (-Q and +Q) leads to junction capacitance.
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Chapter 1-18

Forward Biased p-n Junction

Applied voltage, vD, induces an electric field, EA, in the opposite direction as the original space-charge electric field, resulting in a smaller net electric field and smaller barrier between n and p regions.
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Chapter 1-19

Minority Carrier Concentrations

Gradients in minority carrier concentration generates diffusion currents in diode when forward biased.
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Chapter 1-20

Ideal Current-Voltage (I-V) Characteristics

The p-n junction only conducts significant current in the forwardbias region. iD is an exponential function in this region. Essentially no current flows in reverse bias.

I D = I s (e

vD VT

1)

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Chapter 1-21

Ideal Diode Equation

A fit to the I-V characteristics of a diode yields the following equation, known as the ideal diode equation:

I D = I s (e

qv D nkT

1)

IS is the reverse-saturation current. kT/q is also known as the thermal voltage, VT. VT = 25.9 mV when T = 300K, room temperature.

I D = I s (e
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vD VT

1)
Chapter 1-22

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Ideal Diode Equation

iD I s e log e log(iD ) vD + log( I s ) nVT

The y intercept is equal to IS. The slope is proportional to 1/n. 60mV When n = 1, iD increased by ~ one order of magnitude for every 60-mV increase in vD.

vD nVT

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Chapter 1-23

Circuit Symbol

Conventional current direction, iD and polarity of voltage drop vD is shown.

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Chapter 1-24

Breakdown Voltage
Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown The magnitude of the breakdown voltage (BV) is smaller for heavily doped diodes as compared to more lightly doped diodes. Current through a diode increases rapidly once breakdown has occurred.

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Chapter 1-25

Transient Response
turn-off time = ts+ tf

Short reverse-going current pulse flows when the diode is switched from forward bias to zero or reverse bias as the excess minority carriers are removed. It is composed of a storage time, ts, and a fall time, tf.
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Chapter 1-26

dc Model of Ideal Diode

Models, or mathematical relationships, that describe the current-voltage characteristics of electrical elements allows to analyze and design circuits. Large-signal model Small-signal model

iD + vD Equivalent Circuits

I0

ideal diode model

Assumes vbi = 0.

open off

short on

No current flows when reverse biased (b). No internal resistance to limit current when forward biased (c).
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Chapter 1-27

Half-Wave Diode Rectifier

positive half negative half

average = 0

rectifier vO=vI vO=vI

Diode only allows current to flow through the resistor when vI 0V. Forward-bias equivalent circuit is used to determine vO under this condition. dc analysis of diode circuit: (a) iteration (b) graphical techniques (c) piecewise linear modeling method (d) computer analysis
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average > 0

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Chapter 1-28

Iteration and Graphical Analysis Techniques

Simple diode circuit where ID and VD are not known.

VPS = I D R + VD VPS VD ID = R R VD V I D = I S e T 1 VD V VPS = I S R e T 1 + VD

Iteration method (Example 1.8)

Ideal diode model : VD = 0V VPS VD R 50 = = 2.5mA 2k ID =

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Chapter 1-29

Example 1.8
Objective: Determine the diode voltage and current for the circuit shown in Fig. 1.27. Consider a diode with a given reverse-saturation current of IS=10-13A.
VD V T 1 + VD VPS = I S R e VD VT 3 13 1 + VD (1.24) 5 = (10 )(2 10 ) e iteration method try and error method first try : VD = 0.6 Eq.(1.24) = 2.7V

second try : VD = 0.65 Eq.(1.24) = 15.1V final try : VD = 0.619 Eq.(1.24) = 4.99V ID = VPS VD 5 0.619 = = 2.19mA 2 R EIEN307 I Chapter 1-30

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VD V T I D = I S e 1

Graphical approach Load Line Analysis

VPS = I D R + VD ID = VPS VD R R
VPS R
The x intercept of the load line is the open circuit voltage and the y intercept is the short circuit current. The quiescent point or Q-point is the intersection of diode I-V characteristic with the load line. I-V characteristics of diode must be known.

quiescent point

short circuit : VD = 0 I D =

1 R

y=mx

I=GV

open circuit: ID=0VD=VPS

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1 G= R
Chapter 1-31

EIEN307 I

Piecewise Linear Model

Two linear approximations are used to form piecewise linear model of diode. Ideal diode model shifted to V iD + vD rf 0 gf

For VD > V where V is the turn-on, or cut-in voltage, rf is the forward diode resistance.

Practical diode model

For VD < V a straight line approximation with zero current level.

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Chapter 1-32

Diode Piecewise Equivalent Circuit

iD + vD gf = rf = 1 =0 gf

when the diode is in the on condition, VD > V (a) the diode is replaced by a battery with voltage, V , with a resistor, rf, in series. when in the off condition, VD < V (b) then the diode is replaced by an open. If rf = 0, VD = V when the diode is conducting.
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Chapter 1-33

Objective: Determine the diode voltage and current in the circuit shown in Fig. 1.27, using a piecewise linear model. Also determine the power dissipated In the diode. Assume piecewise linear parameters of V = 0.6V and rf =10.

Example 1.9

R=2k
+ VPS -

=10 = 0.6V

piecewise linear model

ID =
V=0.6V 2.19mA

VPS V R + rf

5 0.6 = 2.19mA 2000 + 10

VD = V + I D rf = 0.6 + (2.19 10 3 )(10) = 0.622V PD = I DVD

VD=0.622V
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= 2.19(0.622) = 1.36mW
EIEN307 I Chapter 1-34

Q-point
V=0.7V

A B C

If rf = 0 R 5 0.7 = = 2.15mA 2 ID = VPS -V

A : VPS = 5V, R = 2k B : VPS = 5V, R = 4k C : VPS = 2.5V, R = 2k D : VPS = 2.5V, R = 4k

The Q-point is dependent on the power supply voltage and the resistance of the rest of the circuit as well as on the diode I-V characteristics.
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Chapter 1-35

Homework #1
Chapter 1: 37, 39, 41, 43, 45, 47, 49, 51, 53, 55

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Chapter 1-36

Load Line: Reverse Biased Diode

VPS = I PS R VD = I D R VD ID = VPS VD R R
I D = 0 VD = VPS

VD = 0 I D =

VPS R

The Q-point is always ID = 0 and VD = the open circuit voltage when using the piecewise linear equivalent circuit.
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Chapter 1-37

Simulation program with integrated circuit emphasis

PSpice Analysis

Circuit schematic

PSpice
Diode current

Diode voltage
0.61V 0.4V 5.0V

2.2mA

5.0V

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Chapter 1-38

vI = VI + vi = VPS + vi

ac Circuit Analysis

iD = I D + id = I DQ + id
vD = VD + vd = VDQ + vd
Combination of dc and sinusoidal input voltages modulate the operation of the diode about the Q-point.
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Chapter 1-39

iD I S e = ISe e
vd V T

vD V T

= ISe

VDQ + vd V T

iD- vD relationship
If ac signal is small, vd << VT
i

VDQ V T

vd V T

v 1+ d VT
VDQ V T

I DQ = I S e

gd
v

I DQ vd rd = = + = + = + 1 v I i iD = I DQ I DQ d V DQ V d gd T T I DQ vd = g d vd : g d = small - signal incremental conductance id = VT vd = VT id = rd id I DQ : rd = small - signal incremental resistance

EIEN307 I Chapter 1-40

VT I DQ

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Equivalent Circuits dc analysis + ac analysis

dc equivalent circuit

ac equivalent circuit

When ac signal is small, the dc operation can be decoupled from the ac operation. First perform dc analysis using the dc equivalent circuit (a). Then perform the ac analysis using the ac equivalent circuit (b).
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Chapter 1-41

Objective : Analyze the circuit shown in Fig.1.34(a). Assume circuit and diode parameters of VPS = 5V, R = 5k, V = 0.6V, and vi = 0.1sint (V).
For the dc analysis : vi = 0 5 - 0.6 = = 0.88mA I DQ = R 5 VO = I DQ R = (0.88)(5) = 4.4V VPS V

Example 1.11

For the ac analysis : VPS = 0 vi = id rd + id R = id ( rd + R ) 0.026 VT = = 0.0295 k rd = 0.88 I DQ vi 0.1 sin t = = 19 .9 sin t[A ] id = rd + R 0.0295 + 5 vo = id R = 0.0995 sin t[ V ]
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Chapter 1-42

Minority Carrier Concentration

Time-varying excess charge leads to diffusion capacitance with a forwardbiased pn junction.

dQ Cd = dVD

Cd >> C j
VR C j = C jo 1 + V bi
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Chapter 1-43

Small Signal Equivalent Model

Simplified model, which can only be used when the diode is forward biased. If Cd >>Cj CT=Cd +Cj Cd

Y = g d + j C d

Complete model series resistance

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Chapter 1-44

Photogenerated Current
h > Eg

When the energy of the photons is greater than Eg, the photons energy can be used to break covalent bonds and generate an equal number of electrons and holes to the number of photons absorbed.
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Chapter 1-45

Optical Transmission Photodiodes convert optical signals System

into electrical signals and are operated with a reverse-bias voltage.

LED (Light Emitting Diode) converts current to light.

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Chapter 1-46

Schottky Barrier Diode

A metal layer replaces the p region of the diode.

Schottky Barrier Diode

pn junction diode

Circuit symbol showing conventional current direction of current and polarity of voltage drop.
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Chapter 1-47

Comparison of I-V Characteristics

V(SB) 0.5V(pn)
The current of a pn junction diode is controlled by the diffusion of minority carriers. The current of a Schottky diode results from the flow of majority carriers over the potential barrier. In the Schottky diode there is no minority carrier storage, so the switching time from a forward bias to reverse bias is very short compared to that of a pn junction diode.
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Chapter 1-48

Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown

Zener Diode I-V Characteristics

Circuit Symbol

rZ =? ID IZk
constant-voltage reference

+ VD Usually operated in reverse bias region near the breakdown or Zener voltage, VZ.

IZmax

Note the convention for current and polarity of voltage drop.

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Chapter 1-49

Example 1.13
Given VZ = 5.6V rZ = 0 Find a value for R such that the current through the diode is limited to 3mA.

VPS VZ I= R VPS VZ 10V 5.6V = = 1.47 k R= 3mA I PZ = I ZV Z= 3mA 5.6V = 1.68mW

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Chapter 1-50

Test Your Knowledge 1.13

Given V (pn) = 0.7V V (SB) = 0.3V rf = 0 for both diodes Calculate ID in each diode.
VPS V

R 4V 0.7V I= = 0.825mA for the p - n junction diode 4k 4V 0.3V I= = 0.925mA for the Schottky diode 4k
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I=

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Chapter 1-51

Use the temperature dependence of the forward-bias characteristics to design a simple electronic thermometer.

Digital Thermometer

ID=ID1=ID2

1/T

T 1/T
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ID

VD2 VD1
Chapter 1-52

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Solution
Given: IS = 10-13 A at T = 300K

E g e = 1.12V

Assume: Ideal diode equation can be simplified.

I D I Se

VD VT Eg

n e
eVD1 kT1

VD 2 VT i

Eg kT

VD VT

I D1 e kT1 e = E g eV 1 D2 I D2 e kT2 e kT2 E g T2 Eg T2 T2 T2 VD 2 = + VD1 ( ) = 1.12(1 ) + VD1 ( ) ( )+ e T1 e T1 T1 T1 15V VD = I Se ID = R

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VD VT

EIEN307 I

Chapter 1-53

15V VD 13 = ID = A e at T = 300K 10 3 15 10 Through trial and error : VD = 0.5976V and I D = 0.960mA To find temperature dependence, let T1 = 300K. T VD = 1.12 0.522 V 300

VD VT

Thermometer cont

End of chapter 1.
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TC -1.8mV/C
EIEN307 I Chapter 1-54