INTRODUCTION

Nanorobotics is the emerging technology field creating machines or robots whose components are at or close to the scale of a nanometer (109 meters).More specifically, nanorobotics refers to the nanotechnology engineering discipline of designing and building nanorobots, with devices ranging in size from 0.110 micrometers and constructed of nanoscale or molecular components. The names nanobots, nanoids, nanites, nanomachines or nanomites have also been used to describe these devices currently under research and development. Nanomachines are largely in the research-and-development phase, but some primitive molecular machines have been tested. An example is a sensor having a switch approximately 1.5 nanometers across, capable of counting specific molecules in a chemical sample. The first useful applications of nanomachines might be in medical technology, which could be used to identify and destroy cancer cells. Another potential application is the detection of toxic chemicals, and the measurement of their concentrations, in the environment. Rice University has demonstrated a single-molecule car developed by a chemical process and including buckyballs for wheels. It is actuated by controlling the environmental temperature and by positioning a scanning tunneling microscope tip. Another definition is a robot that allows precision interactions with nanoscale objects, or can manipulate with nanoscale resolution. Such devices are more related to microscopy or scanning probe microscopy, instead of the description of nanorobots as molecular machine. Following the microscopy definition even a large apparatus such as an atomic force microscope can be considered a nanorobotic instrument when configured to perform nanomanipulation. For this perspective, macro scale robots or micro robots that can move with nanoscale precision can also be considered nanorobots. Nanorobots would constitute any passive or active structure (nano scale) capable of actuation, sensing, signaling, information processing, intelligence, swarm behavior at nano scale. These functionalities could be illustrated individually or in combinations by a nano robot (swarm intelligence and co-operative behavior). So, there could be a whole genre of actuation and sensing or information processing nano robots having ability to interact and influence matter at the nano scale. Some of the characteristic abilities that are desirable for a nanorobot to function are:

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i. Swarm Intelligence decentralization and distributive intelligence ii. Cooperative behavior emergent and evolutionary behavior iii. Self assembly and replication assemblage at nano scale and nano maintenance iv. Nano Information processing and programmability for programming and controlling nanorobots (autonomous nanorobots) v. Nano to macro world interface architecture an architecture enabling instant access to the nanorobots and its control and maintenance There are many differences between macro and nano-scale robots. However, they occur mainly in the basic laws that govern their dynamics. Macro scaled robots are essentially in the Newtonian mechanics domain whereas the laws governing nanorobots are in the molecular quantum mechanics domain. Furthermore, uncertainty plays a crucial role in nanorobotic systems. The fundamental barrier for dealing with uncertainty at the nano scale is imposed by the quantum and the statistical mechanics and thermal excitations. For a certain nano system at some particular temperature, there are positional uncertainties, which cannot be modified or further reduced. The nanorobots are invisible to naked eye, which makes them hard to manipulate and work with. Techniques like Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) and Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) are being employed to establish a visual and hepatic interface to enable us to sense the molecular structure of these nano scaled devices. Virtual Reality (VR) techniques are currently being explored in nano-science and bio-technology research as a way to enhance the operators perception (vision and hepatics) by approaching more or less a state of full immersion or telepresence. The development of nanorobots or nano machine components presents difficult fabrication and control challenges. Such devices will operate in microenvironments whose physical properties differ from those encountered by conventional parts. Since these nano scale devices have not yet been fabricated, evaluating possible designs and control algorithms requires using theoretical estimates and virtual interfaces/environments. Such interfaces/simulations can operate at various levels of detail to trade-off physical accuracy, computational cost, number of components and the time over which the simulation follows the nano-object behaviors. They can enable nano-scientists to extend their eyes and hands into the nano-world and also enable new types of exploration and whole new classes of experiments in the biological and physical sciences. VR simulations can

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also be used to develop virtual assemblies of nano and bio-nano components into mobile linkages and predict their performance. Nanorobots with completely artificial components have not been realized yet. The active area of research in this field is focused more on molecular robots, which are thoroughly inspired by natures way of doing things at nano scale. Mother Nature has her own set of molecular machines that have been working for centuries, and have been optimized for performance and design over the ages. As our knowledge and understanding of these numerous machines continues to increase, we now see a possibility of using the natural machines, or creating synthetic ones from scratch, using natures components. This chapter focuses more on molecular machines and explores various designs and research prevalent in this field. The main goal in the field of molecular machines is to use various biological elements whose function at the cellular level creates motion, force or a signal as machine components. These components perform their preprogrammed biological function in response to the specific physiochemical stimuli but in an artificial setting. In this way proteins and DNA could act as motors, mechanical joints, transmission elements, or sensors. If all these different components were assembled together in the proper proportion and orientation they would form nano devices with multiple degrees of freedom, able to apply forces and manipulate objects in the nanoscale world. The advantage of using nature's machine components is that they are highly efficient and reliable. Nanorobotics is a field which calls for collaborative efforts between physicists, chemists, biologists, computer scientists, engineers and other specialists to work towards this common objective. Fig. 1 details the various fields which come under the field of bio nanorobotics (this is just a representative figure and not exhaustive in nature). Currently this field is still evolving, but several substantial steps have been taken by great researchers all over the world and are contributing to this ever challenging and exciting field. The ability to manipulate matter at the nano scale is one core application for which nanorobots could be the technological solution. A lot has been written in the literature about the significance and motivation behind constructing a nanorobot. The applications range from medical to environmental sensing to space and military applications. Molecular construction of complex devices could be possible by nanorobots of the future. From precise drug delivery to repairing cells and fighting tumor cells; nanorobots are expected to revolutionize the medical industry in the future. These applications come under the field of nano medicine

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which is a very active area of research in nanotechnology. These molecular machines hence form the basic enablers of future applications. A majority of natural molecular machines are protein-based, while the DNA-based molecular machines are mostly synthetic. Nature deploys proteins to perform various cellular tasks from moving cargo, to catalyzing reactions, while it has kept DNA as an information carrier. It is hence understandable that most of the natural machinery is built from proteins. With the powerful crystallographic techniques available in the modern world, the protein structures are clearer than ever. The ever increasing computing power makes it possible to dynamically model protein folding processes and predict the conformations and structure of lesser known proteins. All this helps unravel the mysteries associated with the molecular machinery and paves the way for the production and application of these miniature machines in various fields including medicine, space exploration, electronics and military.

Fig 1: Bio nanorobotics a truly multidisciplinary field

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Chapter-01

NANOMEDICNE

It is the application of nanotechnology (engineering of tiny machines) to the prevention and treatment of disease in the human bodies. More specifically, it is the use of engineered nanodevices and nanostructures to monitor, repair, construct and control the human biological system on a molecular level. The most elementary of nanomedical devices will be used in the diagnosis of illnesses. A more advanced use of nanotechnology might involve implanted devices to dispense drugs or hormones as needed in people with chronic imbalance or deficiency states. Lastly, the most advanced nanomedicine involves the use of Nanorobots as miniature surgeons. Such machines might repair damaged cells, or get inside cells and replace or assist damaged intracellular structures. At the extreme, nanomachines might replicate themselves, or correct genetic deficiencies by altering or replacing DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) molecules. 1.1Introduce the device into the body We need to find a way of introducing the nanomachine into the body, and allowing it access to the operations site without causing too much ancillary damage. We have already made the decision to gain access via the circulatory system. The first is that the size of the nanomachine determines the minimum size of the blood vessel that it can traverse. We want to avoid damaging the walls of whatever blood vessel the device is in, we also do not want to block it much, which would either cause a clot to form, or just slow or stop the blood flow. What this means is that the smaller the nanomachine the better. However, this must

Fig1.1:- circulatory system

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Be balanced against the fact that the larger the nanomachine the more versatile and effective it can be. This is especially important in light of the fact that external control problems become much more difficult if we are trying to use multiple machines, even if they don't get in each other's way. The second consideration is we have to get it into the body without being too destructive in the first place. This requires that we gain access to a large diameter artery that can be traversed easily to gain access to most areas

Fig1.2 femoral artery of the body in minimal time. The obvious candidate is the femoral artery in the leg. This is in fact the normal access point to the circulatory system for operations that require access to the bloodstream for catheters, dye injections, etc., so it will suit our purposes. 1.2 Move the device around the body We start with a basic assumption: that we will use the circulatory system to allow our device to move about. We must then consider two possibilities: (a) carried to the site of operations,(b) to be propelled The first possibility is to allow the device to be carried to the site of operations by means of normal blood flow. There are a number of requirements for this method. We must be able to navigate the bloodstream; to be able to guide the device so as to make use of the blood flow. This also requires that there be an uninterrupted blood flow to the site of operations. In the case of tumors, there is very often damage to the circulatory system that would prevent our device from passively navigating to the site. In the case of blood clots, of course, the flow of blood is dammed and thus our device would not be carried to the site without the capability for active movement. Another problem with this method is that it would be difficult to remain at the site without some means of maintaining position, either by means of an anchoring.
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Chapter-1.2 2

NANO DEVICES

1.2.1 Propeller An electric motor that fit within a cube 1/64th of an inch on a side is used . This is probably smaller than we would need for our preliminary microrobot. One or several of these motors could be used to power propellers that would push (or pull) the microrobot through throu the bloodstream. We would want to use a shrouded blade design so as to avoid damage to the surrounding tissues (and to the propellers) during the inevitable collisions

1.2.2 Cilia/flagellae
We are using some sort of vibrating cilia cilia,

Fig1.3: cilia (Similar to those of a paramecium) to propel the device. A variation of this method would be to use a fin-shaped shaped appendage. While this may have its attractions at the molecular molecula level of operation, 1.2.3 Crawl along surface: Rather than have the device float in the blood, or in various fluids, the device could move along the walls of the circulatory system by means of appendages with specially designed tips, allowing for a firm grip without excessive damage to the tissue. It must be able to do this despite surges in the flow of blood caused by the beating of the heart, and do it without tearing through a blood vessel or constantly being torn free and swept away.

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Fig1.4:-Along the wall of vessel For any of these techniques to be practical, they must each meet certain requirements: The device must be able to move at a practical speed against the flow of blood. The device must be able to move when blood is pooling rather than flowing steadily. The device must be able to move in surges, so as to be able to get through the heart without being stuck, in the case of emergencies. The device must either be able to react to changes in blood flow rate so as to maintain position, or somehow anchor itself to the body so as to remain unmoving while operating.

Chapter-1.3

Movement of the device

The next problem to consider is exactly how to detect the problem tissue that must be treated. We need two types of sensors. Long-range sensors will be used to allow us to navigate to the site of the unwanted tissue. We must be able to locate a tumor, blood clot or deposit of arterial plaque closely enough so that the use of short-range sensors is practical. These would be used during actual operations, to allow the device to distinguish between healthy and

unwanted tissue. Another important use for sensors is to be able to locate the position of the microrobot in the body. First we will examine the various possibilities for external sensors.
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These will be at least partially external to the microrobot, and their major purpose will be twofold. The first is to determine the location of the operations site; that is, the location of the clot, tumor or whatever is the unwanted tissue. The second purpose is to gain a rough idea of where the microrobot is in relation to that tissue. This information will be used to navigate close enough to the operations site that short-range sensors will be useful

1.3.1 Ultrasonic
This technique can be used in either the active or the passive mode. In the active mode, an ultrasonic signal is beamed into the body, and either reflected back, received on the other side of the body, or a combination of both. The received signal is processed to obtain information about the material through which it has passed. In the passive mode, an ultrasonic signal of a very specific pattern is generated by the microrobot. By means of signal processing techniques, this signal can be tracked with great accuracy through the body, giving the precise location of the microrobot at any time. The signal can either be continuous or pulsed to save power, with the pulse rate increasing or being switched to continuous if necessary for more detailed position information.

1.3.2 NMR/MRI:
This technique involves the application of a powerful magnetic field to the body, and subsequent analysis of the way in which atoms within the body react to the field.

Fig1.4:- MRI It usually requires a prolonged period to obtain useful results, often several hours, and thus is not suited to real-time applications. While the performance can be increased greatly, the resolution is inherently low due to the difficulty of switching large magnetic fields quickly, and thus, while it may be suited in some cases to the original diagnosis, it is of only very limited use to us at present.

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1.3.3 X-ray:
X-rays as a technique have their good points and bad points. On the plus side, they are powerful enough to be able to pass through tissue, and show density changes in that tissue. This makes them very useful for locating cracks and breaks in hard, dense tissue such as bones and teeth. On the other hand, they go through soft tissue so much

Fig1.5:-Mobile X-ray more easily that an X-ray scan designed to show breaks in bone goes right through soft tissue without showing much detail. On the other hand, a scan designed for soft tissue cant get through if there is any bone blocking the path of the x-rays.

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Chapter-02

How nanobot work?

There are three main considerations scientists need to focus on when looking at nanorobots moving through the body. Navigation power Locomotion. Nanotechnologists are looking at different options for each of these considerations, each of which has positive and negative aspects

2.1 Navigation
Most options can be divided into one of two categories: 1. External systems. 2. Onboard systems. External navigation systems might use a variety of different methods to pilot the nanorobot to the right location. One of these methods is to use ultrasonic signals to detect the nanorobot's location and direct it to the right destination. Doctors would beam ultrasonic signals into the patient's body. The signals would either pass through the body, reflect back to the source of the signals, or both. The nanorobot could emit pulses of ultrasonic signals, which doctors could detect using special equipment with ultrasonic sensors. Doctors could keep track of the nanorobot's location and maneuver it to the right part of the patient's body. Using a Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) device, doctors could locate and track a nanorobot by detecting its magnetic field. Doctors and engineers at the Ecole Polytechnique de Montreal demonstrated how they could detect, track, control and even propel a nanorobot using MRI. They tested their findings by maneuvering a small magnetic particle through a pig's arteries using specialized software on an MRI machine. Because many hospitals have MRI machines, this might become the industry standard -- hospitals won't have to invest in expensive, unproven technologies.

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Doctors might also track nanorobots by injecting a radioactive dye into the patient's bloodstream. They would then use a fluoroscope or similar device to detect the radioactive dye as it moves through the circulatory system. Complex three-dimensional images would indicate where the nanorobot is located. Alternatively, the nanorobot could emit the radioactive dye, creating a pathway behind it as it moves through the body. Other methods of detecting the nanorobot include using X-rays, radio waves, microwaves or heat. Right now, our technology using these methods on nano-sized objects is limited, so it's much more likely that future systems will rely more on other methods. Onboard systems, or internal sensors, might also play a large role in navigation. A nanorobot with chemical sensors could detect and follow the trail of specific chemicals to reach the right location. A spectroscopic sensor would allow the nanorobot to take samples of surrounding tissue, analyze them and follow a path of the right combination of chemicals. Hard as it may be to imagine, nanorobots might include a miniature television camera. An operator at a console will be able to steer the device while watching a live video feed, navigating it through the body manually. Camera systems are fairly complex, so it might be a few years before nanotechnologists can create a reliable system that can fit inside a tiny robot. External systems that don't use tethers could rely on microwaves, ultrasonic signals or magnetic fields. Microwaves are the least likely, since beaming them into a patient would result in damaged tissue, since the patient's body would absorb most of the microwaves and heat up as a result. A nanorobot with a piezoelectric membrane could pick up ultrasonic signals and convert them into electricity. Systems using magnetic fields, like the one doctors are experimenting with in Montreal, can either manipulate the nanorobot directly or induce an electrical current in a closed conducting loop in the robot.

2.2 Power
Just like the navigation systems, nanotechnologists are considering both external and internal power sources. Some designs rely on the nanorobot using the patient's own body as a way of generating power. Other designs include a small power source on board

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the robot itself. Finally, some designs use forces outside the patient's body to power the robot. Nanorobots could get power directly from the bloodstream. A nanorobot with mounted electrodes could form a battery using the electrolytes found in blood. Another option is to create chemical reactions with blood to burn it for energy. The nanorobot would hold a small supply of chemicals that would become a fuel source when combined with blood. A nanorobot could use the patient's body heat to create power, but there would need to be a gradient of temperatures to manage it. Power generation would be a result of the See beck effect. The See beck effect occurs when two conductors made of different metals are joined at two points that are kept at two different temperatures. The metal conductors become a thermocouple, meaning that they generate voltage when the junctures are at different temperatures. Since it's difficult to rely on temperature gradients within the body, it's unlikely we'll see many nanorobots use body heat for power. While it might be possible to create batteries small enough to fit inside a nanorobot, they aren't generally seen as a viable power source. The problem is that batteries supply a relatively small amount of power related to their size and weight, so a very small battery would only provide a fraction of the power a nanorobot would need. A more likely candidate is a capacitor, which has a slightly better power-to-weight ratio. Another possibility for nanorobot power is to use a nuclear power source. The thought of a tiny robot powered by nuclear energy gives some people the willies, but keep in mind the amount of material is small and, according to some experts, easy to shield. Still, public opinions regarding nuclear power make this possibility unlikely at best. External power sources include systems where the nanorobot is either tethered to the outside world or is controlled without a physical tether. Tethered systems would need a wire between the nanorobot and the power source. The wire would need to be strong, but it would also need to move effortlessly through the human body without causing damage. A physical tether could supply power either by electricity or optically. Optical systems use light through fiber optics, which would then need to be converted into electricity on board the robot.

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2.3 Locomotion.
Assuming the nanorobot isn't tethered or designed to float passively through the bloodstream, it will need a means of propulsion to get around the body. Because it may have to travel against the flow of blood, the propulsion system has to be relatively strong for its size. Another important consideration is the safety of the patient -- the system must be able to move the nanorobot around without causing damage to the host. Some scientists are looking at the world of microscopic organisms for inspiration. Paramecium move through their environment using tiny tail-like limbs called cilia. By vibrating the cilia, the paramecium can swim in any direction. Similar to cilia are flagella, which are longer tail structures. Organisms whip flagella around in different ways to move around. Scientists in Israel created microrobot, a robot only a few millimeters in length, which uses small appendages to grip and crawl through blood vessels. The scientists manipulate the arms by creating magnetic fields outside the patient's body. The magnetic fields cause the robot's arms to vibrate, pushing it further through the blood vessels. The scientists point out that because all of the energy for the nanorobot comes from an external source, there's no need for an internal power source. They hope the relatively simple design will make it easy to build even smaller robots. Other devices sound even more exotic. One would use capacitors to generate magnetic fields that would pull conductive fluids through one end of

an electromagnetic pump and shoot it out the back end. The nanorobot would move around like a jet airplane. Miniaturized jet pumps could even use blood plasma to push the nanorobot forward, though, unlike the electromagnetic pump, there would need to be moving parts. Another potential way nanorobots could move around is by using a vibrating membrane. By alternately tightening and relaxing tension on a membrane, a nanorobot could generate small amounts of thrust. On the nanoscale, this thrust could be significant enough to act as a viable source of motion.

2.4 Teeny, Tiny Tools

Current micro robots are only a few millimeters long and about a millimeter in diameter. Compared to the nanoscale, that's enormous -- a nanometer is only one-billionth of a meter,

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while a millimeter is one-thousandth of a meter. Future nanorobots will be so small, you'll only be able to see them with the help of a microscope. Nanorobot tools will need to be even smaller. Here are a few of the items you might find in a nanorobot's toolkit: 2.4.1 Medicine cavity -- a hollow section inside the nanorobot might hold small doses of medicine or chemicals. The robot could release medication directly to the site of injury or infection. Nanorobots could also carry the chemicals used in chemotherapy to treat cancer directly at the site. Although the amount of medication is relatively miniscule, applying it directly to the cancerous tissue may be more effective than traditional chemotherapy, which relies on the body's circulatory system to carry the chemicals throughout the patient's body. 2.4.2 Probes, knives and chisels -- to remove blockages and plaque, a nanorobot will need something to grab and break down material. They might also need a device to crush clots into very small pieces. If a partial clot breaks free and enters the bloodstream, it may cause more problems further down the circulatory system. 2.4.3 Microwave emitters and ultrasonic signal generators To destroy cancerous cells, doctors need methods that will kill a cell without rupturing it. A ruptured cancer cell might release chemicals that could cause the cancer to spread further. By using fine-tuned microwaves or ultrasonic signals, a nanorobot could break the chemical bonds in the cancerous cell, killing it without breaking the cell wall. Alternatively, the robot could emit microwaves or ultrasonic signals in order to heat the cancerous cell enough to destroy it. 2.4.4 Electrodes Two electrodes protruding from the nanorobot could kill cancer cells by generating an electric current, heating the cell up until it dies. Lasers tiny, powerful lasers could burn away harmful material like arterial plaque, cancerous cells or blood clots. The lasers would literally vaporize the tissue. The two biggest challenges and concerns scientists have regarding these small tools are making them effective and making them safe. For instance, creating a small laser powerful enough to vaporize cancerous cells is a big challenge, but designing it so that the nanorobot doesn't harm surrounding healthy tissue makes the task even more difficult. While many

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scientific teams have developed nanorobots small enough to enter the bloodstream, that's only the first step to making nanorobots a real medical application.

2.5 Different approaches

2.5.1 Biochip: The joint use of Nano electronics, photolithography, and new biomaterials provides a possible approach to manufacturing nanorobots for common medical applications, such as for surgical instrumentation, diagnosis and drug delivery. 2.5.2 Nucleic Acid Robots (Nubots): Nubot is an abbreviation for "nucleic acid robots". Nubots are synthetic robotics devices at the nanoscale. Representative nubots include the several DNA walkers reported by Nadrian Seeman's group at NYU, Niles Pierce's group at Caltech, John Reif's group at Duke University, Chengde Mao's group at Purd 2.5.3 Positional Nano assembly: developing position ally-controlled diamond mechanosynthesis capable of building diamondoid medical nanorobots.

Fig2.1:- Nano BioChips

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Chapter-03

NANO NANOROBOTS AND NEMS

3.1 Background
Nanorobots, nanomachines, and other nanosystems discussed in this paper are objects with overall sizes on the order of a few micrometers or less in all three spatial directions di , and which are assemblies of nanoscopic com components with individual dimensions 1100 nm. Medical nanodevices trav aveling in the human body for therapeutic purposes have captured the publics imagination at least since the times of the movie Fantastic antastic Voyage (Twentieth Century Fox, , winner of the 1966 Oscar for best visual effects). fects). Order-ofmagnitude feasibility calculations indicate that nanorobots are not physically ysically impossible. They would be extremely useful not only in the medical field but also in applications such as: 1) monitoring and interacting with harmful microorganisms in the air or in water and 2) building intelligent surfaces with a controllable (programmable) structure, for example, e with variable rough- ness and friction. However, artificial nanorobots do not exist today, primarily because of the difficulties iculties in building the necessary nanostructures. The only extant nanorobotic systems are biological, and provide an existence proof that such systems are indeed feasible. generally, NEMS research involves design (which often is Nanorobotics and, more generall biologically inspired), prototyping, fabrication, programming, and applications such as biomedical nanotechnology. Robotics at any scale invol olves sensing, control, actuation and propulsion, power, communications, interfacing, and programming and coordination. In the following wing sections we discuss some of these issues, with an emphasis on actuation, which is a fundamental requirement for robotics. (We use the terms machine, motor, and actuator as synonymous in this paper.) .) We will often look toward biology, for instance to microorganisms such as bacteria, to see how nature has solved some of the problems that nanorobots will encounter.

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3.2 Sensors

Artificial sensors that are truly nanoscopic do not yet exist, as far as we know. Devices that exploit the change in conductivity of nanotubes or nanowires when they are exposed to specific substances are perhaps the closest to true nanosensors. Sensitivity to different chemical species can be achieved by suitably functionalizing (i.e., attaching chemical groups to) the sensing elements. Although the tubes and wires used in these sensors are several micrometers long, it should be possible to make them shorter and still keep their sensing capabilities. Chemical sensors based on microscopic cantilevers are being investigated by several research groups, and often called nanosensors, but they are really micro scale devices These sensors use two primary mechanisms; they either: 1) detect the deflection of a cantilever caused by surface stresses that arise when a chemical species binds to one of the two opposing sides of the cantilever or 2) measure the shift in the resonance frequency of a vibrating cantilever when its mass increases because of the deposition of the molecules being detected.

Tactile (i.e., force) sensing using functionalized SPM cantilevers is being investigated at the Laboratory for Molecular Robotics for applications in identification of marine microorganisms. Chemical sensing using similar techniques has already been demonstrated by Hinterdorfers group at the University of Linz [29]. It may be possible to miniaturize these approaches by using nanoscale cantilevers, but this has not been done yet, as far as we know. Cantilevers with resonance frequencies around 1 GHz have been developed recently by using lithographic processes [31], but are still too large to be considered nanoscale objects according to the definition used in this paper. In addition, sub micrometer cantilevers fabricated by lithographic techniques appear to have inherent elastic instabilities.

Fluorescent probes of nanoscopic dimensions have been demonstrated see, for example, [These probes can be injected into cells, and report on concentrations of chemicals inside the cells. However, a probe per se is not a sensor; it requires a light source and a fluorescence detector. These are normally of macroscopic dimensions, and it is unlikely that they can be miniaturized for use in autonomous or semiautonomous nanorobots. Perhaps more promising is an approach that exploits the change of conformation (i.e.,
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shape) of a protein when a binding event takes place [6]. The binding of a specific chemical species recognized by the protein causes motion about a hinge, which results in a change of distance between an electrically-active component and an electrode and, therefore, can be detected electrically. Bacteria may use sensors for such stimuli as magnetic fields or light, but mostly they sense chemical concentrations by using molecular transduction mechanisms. More genre- ally, much of the sensing at the nanoscale that is done in nature appears to be chemical. These chemical sensors re- quire contact between the receptors and the sensed chemi- cals. Macrorobot sensing strategies for navigation and other applications normally use sensor modalities such as sonar, which do not require physical contact with the sensed ob- jects. Robotic strategies that relied only on contact sensing have not been studied, as far as we know.

Fig3.1:-The central part of a rotary nanomachine

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3. 3 Communication

Communication among nanorobots by means of waves is they acoustic, electrical, or optical, is likely to be difficult because of the small antenna sizes. If we look at what nature does, we find that bees communicate directly by dancing; ants communicate by releasing chemicals (pheromones) that change the environment (this is called stigmergy in the robotics field); and bacteria also release chemicals, for example, to assess the number of similar bacteria near them. This bacterial behavior is called quorum sensing and uses a very simple strategy. If each bacterium releases a fixed amount of a given chemical, it suffices to measure the concentration of the chemical to find how many bacteria are in a neighborhood. The vast majority of the communications between small objects such as cells and sub cellular structures is done chemically, by using molecular recognition. As we noted above, in Section II-B, chemical signaling requires contact and poses interesting challenges for the design of robotic strategies

3.4 Programming and Coordination

Each nanorobot by itself will have limited capabilities, but the coordinated effort of a multitude will produce the desired system-level results. Coordination is needed across the boardfor communication, sensing, and acting and poses a major research challenge. The scale and dynamics of nanorobotic systems precludes centralized coordination and global sharing of state. Therefore, we need coordination schemes that are inherently distributed and based on localized inputs, algorithms, and outputs. In nature we find a range of approaches to the coordination of large numbers of cells or organisms. For example, bacteria show very limited coordination behavior; ants use elaborate algorithms; and the human immune system has an extremely complex coordination and (chemical) signaling scheme, which is still far from being completely understood. The remarkable capabilities of the immune system appear to be linked to characteristics that are not normally found in human-designed systems.

Immune receptor degeneracy (any receptor binds more than one ligand and conversely); Sensor degeneracy (a sensor responds to several stimuli, with different strengths and,
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therefore, several sensors respond to the same stimulus); Pleiotropism (an agent causes multiple effects); Effector redundancy (different agents have the same effect); Context-dependent decisions/actions; Random generation of new sensors/receptors.

Fig 3.2:-Top camera view in the virtual environment

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Chapter-4

Applications of Nano Robotics:

Nanorobots are used in medical industries for several purposes. They are:

Break kidney stones, Repair injured tissues, Blockage in coronary arteries cause heart attacks are cleared, Clear spinal and back problems, Used to find glucose demand in diabetes patient. Space colonization efforts would use nanorobots to construct projects on other planets by remote control using the environmental materials at hand. Sensors and cameras would be built by the nanorobots, and used to monitor the construction projects. Plans for space elevators entail constructing a cable leading from earth to Earth's orbit using carbon nanotubes as the material. Electric lifts would then run the length of the cable. The lightweight durability of carbon nanotubes makes them a likely material for constructing the satellites and space stations that will ride the lift.

Fig 3.3 Nanorobots can be used in blood cell to detect pathogens.

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Fig 3.4 Removal of Cancer

4.1 Some of the uses based on environment are:

To purify oxygen and carbon dioxide, To purify wastes in water, To check diagnose and reorganize biological structures.

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4.2 Advantages of Nanorobotics:

Some of the advantages of nanorobotics are:

Minimizes the risk, Minimizes the cost of surgery, Easy to operate, Operations failures are eliminated.

4.3 Disadvantages of Nanorobotics

Some of the disadvantages of nanorobotics are:

Cluster of different nanorobots with one another is harmful, Installation cost is high, Maintenance is difficult. Chemist object that an assembler would need an 10 robotics fingers to carry out operations and that there isnt room for them all.

This technology is still science fiction and an unfamiliar territory.

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Fig 3.5 The road map towards Nano robotics

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Chapter-5

Conclusion

The Nanorobotic future is very bright. Nowadays nanorobotics is developing faster day by day because of their use in medical industries. They cure many senior ill patients and renew their lives by the use of nanorobotics. HIV, cancer and other harmful diseases are also under progress for curing. The development of nanorobotics is endless and there is more advancement yet to come in future. The recent explosion of research in nanotechnology, combined with important discoveries in molecular biology have created a new interest in bio nanorobotic systems. The preliminary goal in this field is to use various biological elements whose function at the cellular level creates a motion, force or a signal as nanorobotic components that perform the same function in response to the same biological stimuli but in an artificial setting. In this way proteins and DNA could act as motors, mechanical joints, transmission elements, or sensors. If all these different components were assembled together they can form nanorobots and nano devices with multiple degrees of freedom, with ability to apply forces and manipulate objects in the nanoscale world, transfer information from the nano- to the macro scale world and even travel in a nanoscale environment. The future of bio nanorobots (molecular robots) is bright. We are at the dawn of a new era in which many disciplines will merge including robotics, mechanical, chemical and biomedical engineering, chemistry, biology, physics and mathematics so that fully functional systems will be developed. However, challenges towards such a goal abound. Developing a complete database of different bimolecular machine components and the ability to interface or assemble different machine components are some of the challenges to be faced in the near future. Finally, and perhaps most importantly, no actual working nanorobot has yet been built. Many theoretical designs have been proposed that look well on paper, but these preliminary designs could change.

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