Unit 5: Working With Matter - Energy and Change: Cquniversity

Unit 5: Working with matter energy and change
CQUniversity
Case study ...................................................................................................................................3 Objectives ...................................................................................................................................3 Density ........................................................................................................................................4 Force ...........................................................................................................................................5 Types of forces.................................................................................................................................... 6 Mass and weight..........................................................................................................................7 Pressure ......................................................................................................................................7 Work ...........................................................................................................................................9 Levers and muscle action ................................................................................................................... 9 Waves ....................................................................................................................................... 10 Wave types longitudinal vs transverse .......................................................................................... 11 Sound waves..................................................................................................................................... 13 Light waves....................................................................................................................................... 13 The electromagnetic spectrum ................................................................................................... 14 Nuclear radiation ....................................................................................................................... 15 Radioactive isotopes ........................................................................................................................ 15 Shielding from radiation ................................................................................................................... 16 Radiation safety ............................................................................................................................... 17 Effect of distance from source.......................................................................................................... 17 Intensity of radiation and the half-life ............................................................................................. 18 Activity 5-6 ................................................................................................................................ 19 Additional information .............................................................................................................. 19 Bibliography .............................................................................................................................. 20
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Case study
Mildred had extremely low bone density although she was only 55 years of age. Her reading of 580 mg/cm2 was in the osteoporotic range. Mildred had been aware of slight swelling around her knee over the last few weeks but it was only after the onset of pain following her afternoon walk that she decided to visit the local doctor to make sure everything was OK. The doctor requested an ultrasound and x-ray of the knee as he suspected tissue damage and a possible hairline fracture, common to those with such low bone density. Results however indicated a small tumour in the cartilage of the knee. Mildreds treatment: Following diagnosis Mildred underwent surgery to remove the tumour and a subsequent 6 week course of radiation therapy.
It is hoped that this unit will not only provide you with a definition of terms used in the physical sciences but also help you to understand the relevance of these terms in reference to the body and appreciate the application of physical science in medical imaging and radiation treatment.
Objectives
On completion of this section you should be able to apply knowledge of matter to define what is meant by the term density explain the relevance of pressure in the body define what is meant by force list different types of forces that the body is subjected to describe the different types of waves explain the medical application of light and sound waves describe radioactivity in terms of radiation types, shielding, half-life and application of radiation in medicine.
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Density
Density is a measure of the mass per unit volume of a material, usually expressed in g/cm3 or g/mL. (Notice that with these units density is in fact a measure of concentration!) The notion of density might be easier to understand if you consider the following examples: Imagine two 100 g samples of polystyrene; the first being a sample of expanded polystyrene and the second a sample of ordinary polystyrene. The second sample would be the denser of the two since it is the same mass as the other but in a smaller volume. Imagine 2 solutions of glucose; the first being 15 % w/v, the second 10 % w/v. Since concentration is a measure of the amount of matter in a given volume, the more concentrated glucose solution (15 %w/v) will be the denser of the two solutions.
You are invited to work through the following mini-practical which will highlight the effect of mixing solutions with different densities.
Mini-practical 5-1
Equipment: You will need a large (approximately 1 litre) glass or plastic jug, two smaller jugs, a spoon, salt, an egg and access to a kettle or hotplate. 1. Fill a large glass or plastic jug with water. 2. Pour half the water into a smaller container or jug. 3. Boil the other half in a kettle or saucepan. 4. Pour the hot water into the large jug and continue to add salt to it until the salt no longer dissolves. 5. Allow this solution to cool to room temperature (you should notice salt crystals falling out of solution). 6. Slowly pour the fresh (unsalted) water into the large jug, trying not to mix the salt and fresh water you may find it useful to pour the fresh water onto the back of a spoon. 7. Carefully place an egg into the water. 8. Record your observations 9. Can you explain why the egg floats where it does?
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What is happening? The egg seems to float in the middle of the water! Fresh water is less dense than salt water and so it floats on top. The egg is denser than fresh water, but not as dense as salt water and so it floats at the interface of the fresh and salt water
Activity 5-1
Keeping in mind the definition of density, predict whether coke would be denser than diet coke.
Go to the following web site to view the correct answer: http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/121Adensitycoke.html Notice in this site that there is a comparison of mass components of the two drinks, shown in Table 5-1. Table 5-1: Comparison of mass components of classic and diet coke. Classic Coke (355 mL) Water Sugar Nutra Sweet Total mass 355 g 39 g 0.0g 394 g Diet Coke (355 mL) 355 g 0g 0.1g 355.1 g
Density measurements are taken of bones to give an indication of the strength of bones and to identify osteoporosis and the risk of future bone fractures. Bone density is reported as g/cm2 and as a T-score or Z-score. The latter are scores that compare the result to that of young adults and people of the same age as the patient.
Force
A force can be considered as a push or a pull on an object or body. A force may act on a body in a number of ways: 1. It may change the state of rest of an object. If an object is at rest, any force acting on the object may cause the object to accelerate. 2. It may change the state of motion of an object. If an object is travelling in a state of uniform motion (i.e. in a straight line at constant speed), a force may cause that the object to: slow down speed up change direction.
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Types of forces
Specific types of forces are usually known by their names. For example: 1. Gravitational force is the force of attraction that holds all objects to the Earth (or other planets and moons). 2. Friction is the force acting between two surfaces in contact. (e.g. rubbing your hand on carpet) 3. Compression is a squashing force. (e.g. sitting on a cushion) 4. Tension is a pulling or stretching force (e.g. during muscle contraction). 5. Shear forces are those that are applied at an angle other than 90o to a surface (e.g. when slouching in a chair, your backside applies a shearing force to the seat of the chair). You are invited to work through the following mini-practical which investigates a type of force.
Mini-practical 5-2
Equipment: You will need two books of similar size 1. Interlock the pages of the two books, by allowing the pages to overlap, as evenly as possible 2. Try pulling the books apart
3. Record your observations 4. Can you explain what has happened what force do you think is involved? What is happening? The pages seem to be stuck together. The force that is holding the pages together is friction. By interlocking many pages, the magnitude of the friction force is greater than the force that you apply. The surface of the paper has many small indentations, which allow the pages to rub against each other.
Activity 5-2
What types of force would be acting on a patient lying in a bed?
Page 5-6
Mass and weight

A common misconception is that mass and weight are the same. Mass is a measure of the amount of matter in an object whereas weight is a measure of the pull of gravity on the object. Your weight depends on how much gravity is acting on you. Weight is in fact a force. On earth, we use the terms weight and mass interchangeably because the pull of gravity is the same wherever you may be. If the force of gravity were to change, such as on another planet or the moon, the weight of an object changes by the same ratio: i.e. if gravitational force was halved, the weight of an object would also halve. Mass would be the same no matter where the object is, but weight would vary with the effects of gravity. The strength of gravity on earth is 9.8 ms-2, which means, 9.8 metres per second per second. These units are SI units and relate gravity to the acceleration it gives to objects as they fall or are pulled by the earth.
Activity 5-3
For a fun exercise go to the following web site to determine your weight on the planets in our solar system. http://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/weight/ You may recall that in the unit Understanding chemistry the term mass was used in discussion about concentration since it was a measure of the amount of matter in the solution.
Pressure
Pressure may be defined as force per unit area (or the ratio of force to area). The force being exerted is most commonly (but not always) the weight of a solid, liquid or gas. A large force on a small area would result in high pressure, where as the same force acting on a large area would reduce the pressure. Consider Figure 5-1, where all three elephants are exerting the same force however the elephant in (c) is exerting greatest pressure since the force is applied to the smallest area, whereas the elephant in (a) is exerting the least pressure since the force is applied to the largest area.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 5-1: Pressures exerted by an elephant. (Taken from Hickman, R. & Caon, M. 1995)
Unit 5: Working with matter energy and change Page 5-7
The following mini-practical has been included to highlight the different pressure that results when a force is exerted on areas of various sizes.
Mini-practical 5-3
Equipment: You will need several heavy books, 5 Styrofoam or disposable cups and a rigid cutting board 1. Balance the cutting board on one Styrofoam cup. 2. Try adding the books on top of the board until the cup collapses. 3. How many books were you able to add? Perhaps you could determine the mass of books added.
4. Place the cutting board over 4 Styrofoam cups and add the books on top. 5. How many books were you able to add? Perhaps you could determine the mass of books added.
6. Can you explain the difference in number of books/ mass of books in each experiment?

What is happening? Spreading the mass of several books over 4 Styrofoam cups rather than one cup reduces the pressure on each cup. By using 4 cups instead of 1, more books can be placed in the pile.
The concept of pressure has many applications in the body particularly in relation to blood, spinal fluid and retinal fluid (eye). Most applications involve the pressure of liquids either at rest or flowing. Pressure in liquids at rest is referred to as hydrostatic pressure, (hydro meaning water and static meaning not moving). When we talk about liquids being at rest we mean that they are not flowing (i.e. they are static) and are enclosed in a vessel. Consider an IV drip bag containing a solution of salts for a patient that is suffering from dehydration. By placing the bag higher than the patient, hydrostatic pressure forces the solution into the patients bloodstream. There are two important principles about pressure in static liquids: Pressure due to a static liquid (i.e. a liquid at rest) is dependent on the height/depth of the liquid and also on the density of the liquid. For example a diver in a fresh water lake would be under more pressure at greater depth. Also, if the diver descended to the same depth in the ocean, he would feel greater pressure since the density of salt water is greater than that of fresh water.
Page 5-8
A change in pressure to a liquid enclosed in a vessel is transmitted equally to all parts of the liquid. This is known as Pascals Principle. For example, squeezing a corner of a fluid filled bag will increase the pressure on the whole volume of liquid, not just in that the corner.
When we talk about pressure in flowing liquids we are referring to hydrodynamic pressure, (hydro meaning water, dynamic meaning changing or moving). Hydrodynamic pressure is important in relation to the flow of blood through the blood vessels in the human body. Blood is a liquid travelling through a tube (the blood vessels). The rate of blood flow, called the cardiac output, is the volume of blood passing a point in the blood vessel per unit time. The rate of blood flow is determined by a number of factors: pressure gradient or pressure difference between the two ends of a blood vessel resistance to blood flow whether flow is smooth or turbulent.
Work
Work is an everyday word. We all think we know what constitutes work. Lifting a patient onto a bed or sprinting for 100 metres is work. Reading this study guide may be deemed work but it doesnt fit the physics definition of work! In scientific terms, the work done on an object is determined by multiplying the force exerted on the object by the distance the object moves in the direction of the force.
Levers and muscle action

Simple machines such as levers, pulleys, the wheel and axle, and ramps are designed to allow us perform work more easily. If some work has to be done against a very large force (such as the weight of a car) we may use a lever to help. Levers can make the job easier, although they dont reduce the total amount of work to be done. A lever is a rigid bar that can turn about a fixed point, the fulcrum, when a force is applied to it. The applied force, or effort, is used to move a resistance, or load. A lever allows a given effort to move a heavier load, or to move a load farther and faster, than it otherwise could. When a lever is used it makes the work easier to do even though it does not reduce the amount of work that is done since by definition work is force applied over a certain distance. There are many examples of levers in common use. Some examples are crowbars, wheelbarrows, forceps and jacks. Levers work in different ways as illustrated in Figure 5-2:
a) e.g. a pair of scissors
b) e.g. a wheelbarrow
c) e.g. a pair of tongs
Figure 5-2: Example of the way in which levers work.

The operation of most skeletal muscles involves the use of leverage and lever systems. In the human body, the joints act as fulcrums and the bones of the skeleton as the lever arms. The effort force is provided by the contraction of muscles and is applied at the insertion point of the muscle on a bone. The load that is moved is the bone itself, along with overlying tissues and anything else you are trying to move with that particular lever.
Waves
The concept of a wave is something that probably brings the image of a beach and surf to mind. But can you define a wave? A wave is disturbance that is able to transmit energy as it moves from one place to another. As the wave travels there is a regular periodic change in some aspect of the material through which the wave is travelling through. The ocean waves are due to movement of particles in the surface of water. The water particles move up and down as the wave moves forward. Other waves result in the variation of distance (like in a spring), temperature, pressure (sound waves) or electromagnetic field (light). A wave can be described by three terms: 1. Wavelength is the distance between two crests of a set of waves. This is usually given the symbol , the Greek letter lambda. Note that wavelength measures length as the word implies, it is measured in metres. 2. Amplitude is the distance of greatest disturbance from the rest position. We will use the letter A to represent the amplitude of a wave. 3. Frequency of a wave is the number of oscillations (or cycles) of the wave that occur in one second. This is the same as the number of wave peaks that pass a fixed point in one second. The SI unit for frequency is the hertz (Hz). The hertz has the same value as the number of cycles per second. Figure 5-3 shows a source S moving up and down. S produces a disturbance which in turn produces waves which moves along. Note that the wavelength, and amplitude, A, of the wave are marked on the diagram.
Figure 5-3: A typical wave

Activity 5-3
Go to the following web site to participate in some interactive wave activities! http://aspire.cosmic-ray.org/labs/waves/wave_basics/waves.htm
Wave types longitudinal vs transverse

Waves are also described with reference to how they propagate or travel with respect to the motion of particles. When a wave travels parallel to the movement of particles it is a longitudinal or pressure wave, (see Figure 5-4). Sound travels in longitudinal waves.
Figure 5-4: Longitudinal wave Another example can be seen in the concertina effect of cars rear-ending each other in heavy traffic. The energy from the first car is transferred to the second, and then to the third and so on. Each car moves very little, only forward in the direction of the wave to hit the car in front and then rebounds back to where it was (almost).
If the wave travels perpendicular to the movement, it is a transverse wave, (see Figure 5-5). Light travels in transverse waves.
Figure 5-5: Transverse wave

Another example of transverse wave is the Mexican wave which was often seen (but is now banned) at sporting events. Each person in turn stands up and then sits down with the result of a wave of people flowing across a stadium. People in this situation are moving perpendicular to the direction of the wave.
Activity 5-4
Use the following web site to view animations that highlight the difference between longitudinal and transverse waves. http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/waves/wavemotion.html Note that in this demonstration: Ocean waves are a combination of both transverse and longitudinal waves. Close to the water surface water particles move in circles, combining transverse and longitudinal characteristics but the wave being more transverse in nature. At greater depth, particles tend to move in smaller circles, the wave at this point being more longitudinal in nature.
Mini-practical 5-4
Equipment: You will need a slinky spring to create waves by: 1. Moving the first coil of the slinky perpendicular to the rest of the spring. Can you represent the wave motion pictorially?
What type of wave have you created?
2. Moving the first coil of the slinky parallel to the rest of the spring. Can you represent the wave motion pictorially?
What type of wave have you created?

Sound waves
Sound waves are longitudinal waves, which are due to movement of particles in a medium. Denser media (i.e. those with more particles in same volume) allow sound to travel faster, e.g. sound travels much faster in water compared to air. Since sound needs a medium with particles of matter to create pressure, sound does not travel in a vacuum. Sound moves as a longitudinal wave since it travels in the same direction as the motion of vibrating particles. In medicine, sound waves are used for ultrasound imaging. Ultrasonic imaging depends on reflection of sound from different media in the body. Denser parts of the body reflect more strongly, so a picture of the foetus, for instance, can be built up electronically, see Figure 5-6.
Figure 5-6: Ultrasound image of human foetus at 12 weeks.
Light waves
Heat radiation and light (of any colour) are both forms of electromagnetic radiation or electromagnetic waves. The nature of these waves is rather difficult to explain. In brief, they are a vibration of the strength of electric and magnetic fields in the space through which the waves travel. They travel at very great speeds through empty space300 000 kilometres per secondand almost as fast through air.
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The electromagnetic spectrum

The electromagnetic spectrum comprises a continuous range of wavelengths (and corresponding frequencies) from long-wavelength, low frequency radio waves to short wavelength, high frequency gamma rays. The energy of the wave increases as the frequency increases.
Figure 5-7: The electromagnetic spectrum The human eye responds to a narrow range of the vibrations in the electromagnetic spectrum. The visible section of the electromagnetic spectrum is light between wavelengths of 350 nm (indigoviolet light) and 750 nm (red). As the wavelength of light gets smaller than 350nm it is called ultraviolet light and at even shorter wavelengths in the electromagnetic spectrum there are X-rays and gamma-rays. As the wavelength of light gets longer than 750nm the light it is called infra-red light (or heat radiation). As wavelength increases further the microwave and radio wave parts of the electromagnetic spectrum are encountered. In medicine, electromagnetic waves are used in many applications. Gamma rays are used in radiation therapy, X-rays are used for imaging, visible light is used in combination with lenses for lasers and instruments such as endoscopes for inspection of body cavities and infra-red rays are used in heat treatments.
Activity 5-5
Use Figure 5-7 to determine which of the following pairs will have the highest energy. a) Microwaves or gamma rays
b) Ultraviolet or infrared light
c) X-rays or radiowaves
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Nuclear radiation
Nuclear radioactivity originates in the nucleus of the atom, in contrast to electromagnetic radiation. The nucleus of some isotopes may spontaneously undergo changes in which a new isotope is formed. When this occurs, radiation in the form of a stream of particles is emitted along with high-energy electromagnetic radiation. Substances that give off such radiations are said to be radioactive. The spontaneous emission of such radiations from the nucleus of an isotope is known as radioactivity. Scientists refer to isotopes that are radioactive as radioisotopes. When a radioisotope emits a particle or energy from its nucleus, it is said to disintegrate or decay. There is no doubt that radioisotopes have an important role both in health assessment and treatment, and in modern day sports science testing. In nuclear medicine, a radiologist uses radioisotopes to determine the size and shape of an organ, to locate the site of a tumour, or measure the metabolic activity of cells in tissues such as the thyroid glands, brain, kidneys and liver. Radiation therapy is frequently used in the treatment of cancer. In addition, radioisotopes are also used to measure the amount of substances such as drugs and hormones in blood and urine samples. Such techniques are employed in sports science laboratories around the world for assessing the hormonal status of athletes and for testing athletes for the taking of performance-enhancing substances.
Radioactive isotopes
In the unit Understanding chemistry, the term isotopes were defined as atoms of the same element that have different numbers of neutrons. Generally naturally occurring isotopes of elements with low atomic numbers (<19) have stable nuclei. Elements with higher atomic numbers (20 to 83) consist of a mixture of isotopes, some of which may have unstable nuclei. Elements with atomic numbers of 84 or higher consist of only radioactive isotopes. When the nucleus of an isotope is unstable, it is radioactive, which means that it will spontaneously emit radiation to become more stable. Different types of radiation are emitted from an unstable nucleus when a change takes place among protons and neutrons. Any particular radioisotope will decay in a predictable way to produce particular types of nuclear radiation. Energy is released, and a new, more stable nucleus is formed. The main types of nuclear radiation produced are: 1. alpha () particles 2. beta () particles and positrons (+) or electromagnetic energy in the form of 3. gamma () rays. These types of radiation each have different properties, different abilities to penetrate matter and present different hazards to living cells. They can also be used in medicine for different purposes. Note the difference between nuclear radiation that is emitted when the nucleus of an atom decays and other types of radiation we commonly encounter (electromagnetic radiation like infra-red or heat radiation, ultra-violet radiation, microwave radiation and light) that are not normally produced by decay of an atomic nucleus.
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Shielding from radiation

The intensity of different types of nuclear radiation can be reduced by shielding, i.e. by placing a barrier between the source and the area to be protected from the radiation. Note that different types of radiation require different types and amounts of shielding. Alpha particles are the heaviest and most highly charged of the radiation particles and are easily stopped. They travel only a few centimetres in the air before they collide with air molecules, acquire electrons, and become helium atoms. A piece of paper, clothing, or the dead cell layer of the skin can be used as protection against alpha particles. Laboratory coats and plastic gloves will provide sufficient shielding. However, if ingested or inhaled, alpha particles can bring about serious internal damage. Medically they are mostly used in implantation radiotherapy of cancer cells where they damage the tumour but do not penetrate far enough to affect other tissues. Beta particles are less easily stopped. They have a very small mass and move much faster and farther than the alpha particles, travelling as much as several metres through air. They can pass through paper and penetrate as far as 45 mm into body tissue. While external exposure to beta particles can burn the surface of the skin, they are normally stopped before reaching the internal organs. Thin sheets of metal (~ 1 mm thick) or plastic (~ 1 cm thick) can completely stop them, but X-rays may be generated in the process, and pose a hazard (secondary radiation). Heavy clothing such as laboratory coats and gloves are needed to protect the skin from beta particles. Gamma rays travel great distances through the air and pass through many materials, including body tissues. Only very dense shielding, such as lead or concrete is effective in stopping Gamma rays. These rays cannot be completely shielded as some rays will always penetrate the shield. However, with substantial shielding the intensity of radiation is reduced significantly. Because they penetrate so deeply, gamma rays can affect internal organs. Hence exposure to gamma rays can be extremely hazardous. Gamma particles are used in external radiotherapy where a beam of particles is focussed on a target, causing minimal damage to neighbouring tissues and in some types of imaging. Appropriate shielding for alpha, beta and gamma radiation is illustrated in the Figure 5-8.
Figure 5-8: Examples of shielding material needed to protect a person from , and radiation (taken from Timberlake, 1992)
Radiation safety
There is no completely safe application of nuclear radiation. The vital factors in minimising risk to radiation workers are: time - minimise exposure time distance - maximise the distance from the radiation source shielding use appropriate shielding for the type of radiation and monitoring use monitor badges to record radiation dose.
Effect of distance from source

For all nuclear radiation (i.e., alpha, beta and gamma radiation) that is not absorbed by collisions with shielding material, the intensity of the radiation declines as they travel farther from the source. The effect is most important for gamma rays (and X-rays) because for these types of radiation, shielding is less effective. The question is, How quickly does the intensity of radiation reduce with distance from the source? The greater the distance between a worker and a radioactive source, the smaller will be the exposure to radiation. The reduction of radiation with increasing distance from the source is governed by the inverse square rule, which tells us that the intensity of radiation received from a source is inversely proportional to the square of the distance from that source. This means that as the distance away from a radiation source increases, the radiation received decreases by a factor of the square of the distance. Study Figure 102. If you double your distance from the radiation source, the intensity of radiation drops to (1/2)2 or one-fourth of its previous value. Likewise, if you triple your distance from the radiation source, the intensity of radiation drops to (1/3)2 or one-ninth of its previous value. This is one of the reasons that dentists and X-ray technicians leave the room and stand behind a shield or lead-lined wall as they take an X-ray. As they are exposed to radiation every day, they must minimise the amount of radiation they receive.
Figure 101: Exposure to radiation decreases as the inverse square of the distance
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Intensity of radiation and the half-life

The intensity of nuclear radiation produced depends upon the instability of the radioisotope producing the radiation. Since the nuclei of radioisotopes keep emitting particles or energy, after a while all the atoms in the radioisotope become stable and the emission of radiation stops. The time it takes for all the radioactive atoms to decay (disintegrate) depends on the isotope of that element. For some, the nuclei are very unstable and they break down in a matter of thousandths of a second, hours or days. For others, its a matter of years, centuries, millennia or even longer. To measure the different rates of decay of radioisotopes, scientists use the idea of radioactive halflife (t1/2). A half-life is the time it takes for one half of a specific amount of a radioisotope to decay. In other words, half-life is the time for the radioactive strength of a radioisotope to fall by 50%. Half-life of a radioisotope is an indication of the rate at which the radioisotope decaysthe faster it decays, the more intense will be the nuclear radiation it produces for a given mass of sample. The graph in Figure 5-9, shows the gradual reduction in radiation strength as cobalt-60 nuclei decay. The half-life for cobalt-60 is 5.3 years. Notice that with each half-life period the radioactive strength is reduced by half. This type of non-linear decrease is another example of exponential decay (previously introduced in Unit 2).
Figure 5-9: A decay curve for cobalt-60 (60Co).
Page 5-18
Activity 5-6
a) Can you describe how nuclear radiation differs from electromagnetic radiation? b) A cancer patient had a 2 gram pellet of cesium-131 implanted to reduce the size of a tumour. If this isotope has a half-life of 10 days, how long will it take before the mass of cesium-131 is 0.125g?
Additional information
The following information about radioactive particles is provided for your interest only. alpha () particles. An alpha particle contains two protons and two neutrons. They are identical to the helium nucleus ( 4 2 He ).Uranium-238 and plutonium-239 are sources of alpha radiation. In comparison to beta particles they are very heavy. beta () particles. A negative beta particle is a high-energy electron. The beta particle is produced from an unstable nucleus when one neutron is converted into a proton plus an electron, and the electron is lost from the nucleus to become a beta particle. Iodine-131, phosphorus-32, and strontium-90 are all sources of beta radiation. positrons (+). A positron has a positive charge. This positive beta particle is produced when a proton turns into a neutron plus a positron within the nucleus, and the positron is lost from the nucleus. gamma () rays. Gamma rays are high-energy electromagnetic radiation but do not change mass number or atomic number. They carry energy away from the nucleus, but do not change mass number or atomic number. Cobalt-60 is a source of gamma radiation.
or electromagnetic energy in the form of
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Bibliography
Askham, B, 2008, Snow science: an alpine adventure, The Helix, Issue 120, June-July 2008, CSIRO Education, Dickson Hart, D, viewed 3rd December, DHD Multimedia Gallery, Hickman, R. & Caon, M. 1995, Nursing science. Matter and energy in the human body, 2nd edn, Macmillan Education Australia Pty Ltd., Melbourne Tramby, G., (ed), 2006, Friction tricks, The Helix, Issue 108, June -July 2006, CSIRO Education, Dickson Tramby, G., (ed), 2007, Where the river meets the sea, The Helix, Issue 111, Dec 2006-Jan 2007, CSIRO Education, Dickson
Henderson, T., The physics classroom tutorial - The nature of waves, viewed 2nd December, 2008 http://www.glenbrook.k12.il.us/gbssci/Phys/Class/waves/u10l1c.html Hipschman, R., Your weight on other worlds, viewed 2nd December, 2008, http://www.exploratorium.edu/ronh/weight/ Ophardt, C., Density a Physical Property, viewed 2nd December, 2008, http://www.elmhurst.edu/~chm/vchembook/121Adensitycoke.html Ramos, A, What are some things in everyday life that use hydrostatic pressure, viewed 2nd December, 2008, pressure.http://www.madsci.org/posts/archives/2002-03/1015982024.Eg.r.html Russell, D. Acoustic Animations, viewed 2nd December, 2008, http://www.kettering.edu/~drussell/Demos/waves/wavemotion.html
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Unit 5: Working With Matter - Energy and Change: Cquniversity

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Unit 5: Working With Matter - Energy and Change: Cquniversity

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Unit 5: Working with matter energy and change