Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
21 OCTOBER 1996
ST.LOUIS, MISSOURI
CONTENTS
CHAPTER 1 - INTRODUCTION
1-1 PURPOSE
1-2 SCOPE
1-3 DEFINITION OF ROTORCRAFT AND LIGHT AIRCRAFT
1-3.1 ROTORCRAFT
1-3.2 AIRCRAFT
1-4 INTENDED AUDIENCE
1-5 AIRCRAFT AND ROTORCRAFT QUALIFICATION
1-5.1 PURPOSE
1-5.1.1 AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION
1-5.1.2 SPECIFICATION COMPLIANCE
1-5.1.3 MILITARY QUALIFICATION
1-5.1.4 FIRST ARTICLE
1-5.1.5 FLIGHT SAFETY PARTS QUALIFICATION
1-5.1.6 STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
1-5.2 SCOPE
1-5.2.1 AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION
1-5.2.2 SPECIFICATION COMPLIANCE
1-5.2.3 MILITARY QUALIFICATION
1-5.2.4 FIRST ARTICLE
1-5.2.5 FLIGHT SAFETY PARTS QUALIFICATION
1-5.2.6 STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
1-5.3 GENERAL TECHNIQUES
1-5.3.1 TESTING
1-5.3.2 ANALYSIS
1-5.3.3 MODELING
1-5.3.4 SIMILARITY
1-5.4 DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES
1-5.5 SUSTAINMENT TECHNIQUES
1-6 QUALIFICATION ITEMS, TIMING, AND OBJECTIVES
1-6.1 INTRODUCTION
1-6.1.1 CONCEPT EXPLORATION AND DEFINITION (PHASE 0)
1-6.1.2 DEMONSTRATION AND VALIDATION (PHASE I)
1-6.1.3 ENGINEERING AND MANUFACTURING DEVELOPMENT (PHASE II)
1-6.1.4 PRODUCTION AND DEPLOYMENT (PHASE III)
1-6.1.5 OPERATIONS AND SUPPORT (PHASE IV)
1.6.2 NEW SYSTEM
1-6.2.1 ITEMS
1-6.2.2 TIMING
1-6.2.3 OBJECTIVES
1-6.3 MODIFICATION
1-6.3.1 ITEMS
1-6.3.2 TIMING
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
This chapter describes the purpose and scope of this handbook, introduces the concept of
air vehicle qualification, and provides an overview of qualification methods.
1-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
1-2
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
1-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Specification compliance validation nation and test that constitutes first article
is a comprehensive assessment of whether a validation is a subset of previous qualifica-
system performs in compliance with the tion to reconfirm performance and additional
specification requirements. The emphasis is testing to validate manufacturing processes.
on performance, and the quality assurance
portion of the system specification should 1-5.2.5 Flight Safety Parts Qualification
normally contain a compliance matrix that The scope of determinations and
indicates how compliance with each para- tests that are necessary for flight safety parts
graph of the specification is determined. qualification (FSPQ) is the detailed identifi-
The scope of a specification compliance cation of characteristics of parts that are
validation matches the specification. For critical to sustaining safe flight and the
example, a subsystem-level specification identification of tests for those characteris-
compliance validation would address the tics. FSPQ activities include analyzing the
subsystem-level specification requirements. design of flight safety parts, testing at the
component level for specific flight safety
1-5.2.3 Military Qualification characteristics of the part, and establishing
Military qualification may be inspection criteria and part tracking re-
achieved by establishing that an item pos- quirements.
sesses the required military utility by either
analysis or test. The scope of military 1-5.2.6 Structural Integrity Verification
qualification is the process by which an item Structural integrity verification en-
is tested for performance, reliability, and compasses the establishment of acceptable
maintainability in the full range of its ex- structural design criteria, adequate materials,
pected operating environments. Expected process and joining methods, design analy-
environments for military qualification in- ses, load analyses, stress analyses, damage
clude, but are not limited to, possible global tolerance analyses, vibration analyses, ma-
field conditions, i.e., extreme cold, sand and terials tests, full-scale static tests, fatigue
dust, altitude, etc.; weapon effects, such as tests, and flight and ground loads surveys.
blast, radiation and ballistic impacts; and
human interface and engineering considera- 1-5.3 GENERAL TECHNIQUES
tions in global military environments for op- Qualification may be performed at
erability and maintainability. the component, subsystem, or system level.
General qualification techniques include
1-5.2.4 First Article Validation testing, analysis, modeling, similarity
First article validation consists of (equivalency), and combinations of these
establishing that the article was manufac- techniques.
tured according to its applicable processes The techniques described may be
and procedures and that the manufactured applied individually or in combination de-
part meets its performance requirements in pending upon the specific circumstance of a
its specified environment. The critical as- program. The application of total quality
pect of first article validation is ensuring that management and concurrent engineering
the production manufacturing procedures principles and techniques to qualification
and processes can result in a product of the requires early involvement in the design
same performance level as the product re- process of not only the designers of the item
sulting from the prototype development and but also of those involved in the testing,
qualification effort. The scope of determi- manufacture, and support of the item. Ap-
1-4
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
1-6.1 INTRODUCTION
1-5.4 DEVELOPMENT TECHNIQUES The time span of a piece of military
Qualification techniques that apply equipment development can be viewed as a
primarily during the development portion of life cycle in which the item passes through
the life cycle of an item include analyses, various stages. Typically, these life cycle
modeling, prototyping, informal and formal phases are concept exploration and defini-
1-5
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
1-6
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
1-7
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
ing acceptable for the production of speci- procurement contract may stipulate that the
fied items. contractor developing an item is required to
participate in the selection and qualification
1-7.1 QUALIFIED PARTS LISTS (QPL) of alternate sources.
When a supplier has demonstrated
that he can consistently produce an item in 1-8 USE AS TEXTBOOK,
accordance with the requirements of an ap- REFERENCE, AND PREPARATION
plicable specification, that manufacturer's GUIDE
item is placed on the QPL for that specifica- This handbook has a number of in-
tion. The agency responsible for the particu- tended uses. First, as a textbook, it provides
lar specification establishes the criteria for an overview of airworthiness qualification
and determines compliance with require- programs and testing by describing the ele-
ments for QPLs. ments and procedures necessary for success-
ful accomplishment of an airworthiness
1-7.2 SOURCE-CONTROLLED ITEMS qualification program. Second, this hand-
The concept of source-controlled book provides a tutorial text on airworthi-
items is to use existing items known to be ness qualification for new personnel by
effective in the system being qualified with- providing "how-to" instructions on structur-
out detailed knowledge of the item or its ing an Airworthiness Qualification Program.
critical characteristics. This usually is ap- Finally, this handbook is intended to be a
plied to complex subsystems in which one reference for preparing each of the following
or more adequate products exist, typically documents: Airworthiness Qualification
involving critical proprietary processes that Plan (AQP), Airworthiness Qualification
are not practical to duplicate. Specifications (AQS), Contractor Flight
Release (CFR), Airworthiness Release
1-7.3 SPECIFICATION CONTROL (AWR), Statement of Airworthiness Qualifi-
ITEMS cation (SAQ), and Airworthiness Qualifica-
Specification control items are items tion Substantiation Report (AQSR) both in
that are certified by their manufacturer to terms of essential elements as described in
have been built and tested in accordance the appendices to the handbook and required
with an applicable specification. For elec- content as described in the body of this
tronic equipment the Defense Electronic handbook. The Department of Defense In-
Supply Center (DESC) conducts audits to dex of Specifications and Standards
ensure that a source meets the requirements (DODISS) (Ref. 2) is used to identify un-
of the specification or standard. classified federal and military specifications
and standard, QPLs, military handbooks,
and those industry documents coordinated
1-7.4 ALTERNATE SOURCES for Department of Defense (DoD) use. The
During the course of or subsequent DODISS is composed of an alphabetical
to the original qualification process, alter- listing and a numeric listing, and it contains
nate sources may be qualified by demon- procedures for ordering these documents.
strating that they can produce the item to a
performance and quality level equivalent to
that of the original source. The purpose of
alternate sourcing is to eliminate depend-
ency on a single source for a critical item. A
1-8
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
REFERENCES
1-9
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
1-6.3.3 OBJECTIVES
1-7 SOURCE QUALIFICATION
1-7.1 QUALIFIED PARTS LISTS (QPL)
1-7.2 SOURCE CONTROLLED ITEMS
1-7.3 SPECIFICATION CONTROL ITEMS
1-7.4 ALTERNATE SOURCES
1-8 USE AS TEXTBOOK, REFERENCE, AND PREPARATION GUIDE
5-9 TESTABILITY
5-9.1 GENERAL TESTABILITY FEATURES
5-9.2 AUTOMATIC TEST EQUIPMENT (ATE)
5-9.3 SELF-DIAGNOSTICS AND BUILT IN TEST (BIT)
5-9.4 NON-DESTRUCTIVE TEST AND EVALUATION (NDTE)
5-10 TEST-ANALYZE-FIX-TEST (TAFT)
5-11 DEFENSE SPECIFICATIONS, STANDARDS, AND HANDBOOKS
5-11.1 SPECIFICATIONS
5-11.2 STANDARDS
5-11.3 HANDBOOKS
5-12 MAKE OR BUY PLAN
5-13 SPECIAL TOOLING
5-14 STANDARDIZATION PROGRAM
5-15 PRODUCIBILITY
CHAPTER 6 - MODELING
SECTION I - PHYSICAL MODELS
6-1 INTRODUCTION
6-2 AERODYNAMIC MODELS
6-2.1 AIRFOILS AND TWO-DIMENSIONAL AERODYNAMIC
SHAPES
6-2.2 FLOW TANKS
6-2.3 WIND TUNNELS
6-2.4 FORCE MODELS
6-2.5 POWERED FORCE MODELS
6-2.5.1 AERO-INTERFERENCE MODELS
6-2.5.2 AEROELASTIC MODELS
6-2.6 PHYSICAL LAYOUT MOCK-UPS
6-3.1 ICING TUNNELS AND ICING MOCK-UPS
6-3 INERT GENERAL REDUCED SCALE MODEL
6-3.2 FUSELAGE MOCK-UP
6-3.3 CREWSTATIONS
6-3.3.1 CREWSTATION MOCK-UP
6-3.3.2 MODULAR RECONFIGURABLE CREWSTATION SIMULATOR 6-20
6-3.4 MISSION CREW, PASSENGER AND CARGO AREA
6-3.5 COMPUTER AIDED ENGINEERING SUBSTITUTION FOR
MOCK-UPS
6-4 FUNCTIONAL SUBSYSTEM MOCK-UPS
6-4.1 ELECTRICAL SYSTEM
6-4.2 PRESSURE SYSTEMS
6-4.2.1 HYDRAULIC SYSTEM
6-4.2.2 HIGH PRESSURE PNEUMATIC SYSTEMS
6-4.2.3 LOW PRESSURE PNEUMATIC AND VACUUM SYSTEMS
6-4.3 ENGINES AND DRIVE TRAIN, FLUIDS, AND
ACCESSORIES
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
SECTION II - SIMULATIONS
6-7 INTRODUCTION
6-7.1 ABSTRACT EMULATION
6-7.2 PHYSICAL EMULATION
6-8 SIMULATION BASES AND VALIDATION CRITERIA
6-8.1 TABULAR DATA MODELS
6-8.2 CHARACTERISTIC FUNCTION MODELS
6-8.3 TRANSFER FUNCTION MODELS
6-8.4 STATISTICAL FUNCTION MODELS
6-8.4.1 STATISTICAL RESULTS
6-8.4.2 MONTE CARLO RESULTS
6-8.5 ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCE (AI) MODELS
6-8.6 NEURAL NETWORK MODELS
6-8.7 COMPOSITE AND HYBRID BASES
6-9 EMULATORS
6-9.1 INTRODUCTION
6-9.2 SYSTEM EQUIPMENT
6-9.3 ENVIRONMENTS
6-9.4 EVENTS
6-9.5 INTELLIGENCE
6-10 SIMULATORS
6-10.1 INTRODUCTION
6-10.2 MISSION EQUIPMENT
6-10.3 FLIGHT SIMULATORS
6-10.4 MISSION FLIGHT SIMULATORS
6-10.5 BATTLE ENGAGEMENT SIMULATORS
6-11 SIMULATIONS AS SOFTWARE ENVIRONMENTS
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
6-11.1 HOST
6-11.2 HOST ENVIRONMENT
6-11.3 SYSTEM ENVIRONMENT
6-11.4 EMBEDDED SIMULATIONS
7-9.8 HUMIDITY
7-9.9 FUNGUS
7-9.10 ICING
7-9.11 SOLAR RADIATION (SUNSHINE)
7-9.12 SALT FOG
7-9.13 EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERE
7-9.14 LEAKAGE (IMMERSION)
7-9.15 LOW PRESSURE (ALTITUDE)
7-9.16 TEMPERATURE, HUMIDITY, VIBRATION, ALTITUDE
7-10 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENTS
7-10.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC INTERFERENCE (EMI)
7-10.2 ELECTROSTATIC DISCHARGE (ESD)
7-10.3 NUCLEAR ELECTROMAGNETIC PULSE (NEMP)
7-10.4 LIGHTNING
7-10.5 TEMPEST
7-11 OPTICAL/ELECTRO-OPTICAL QUALIFICATION TESTS
7-11.1 TARGETING SYSTEMS
7-11.2 PILOTAGE SYSTEMS
7-12 SURVIVABILITY QUALIFICATION TESTS
7-12.1 BALLISTIC TESTS
7-12.2 DIRECTED ENERGY TESTS
7-12.3 NUCLEAR HARDENING TESTS
7-12.4 NBC TESTS
7-13 COMPONENT TEST-ANALYZE-FIX-TEST
7-14 MATERIAL QUALIFICATION
7-14.1 STRUCTURAL ALLOWABLES
7-14.2 ENVIRONMENTAL RESISTANCE
7-14.3 SPECIAL PROPERTIES
7-14.4 PROCESS DEFINITION AND CONTROL
7-15 PROCESS QUALIFICATION
7-16 SPARES AND REPAIR PARTS QUALIFICATION
7-16.1 BUILD TO PRINT
7-16.2 SPECIFICATION CONTROL
7-16.3 SOURCE CONTROL
9-6.2.1 COMMON
9-6.2.2 FIXED WING
9-6.2.3 ROTARY WING
9-6.3 TRANSITION FLIGHT QUALITIES TESTS
9-6.4 AUTOROTATION OR UNPOWERED GLIDE
9-6.4.1 COMMON
9-6.4.2 FIXED WING
9-6.4.3 ROTARY WING
9-6.5 SPIN AND STALL CHARACTERISTICS
9-6.6 TAKEOFF
9-6.6.1 COMMON
9-6.6.2 FIXED WING
9-6.6.3 ROTARY WING
9-6.7 LANDING
9-6.7.1 COMMON
9-6.7.2 FIXED WING
9-6.7.3 ROTARY WING
9-6.8 HOVER
9-7 TOTAL SYSTEM VIBRATION TESTS
9-7.1 GROUND VIBRATION TESTS1
9-7.2 FLIGHT VIBRATION TESTS4
9-8 ACOUSTIC NOISE TESTS7
9-8.1 INTERNAL NOISE TESTS8
9-8.2 EXTERNAL NOISE TESTS0
9-9 CLIMATIC LABORATORY TESTS3
9-10 ICING FLIGHT TESTS7
9-10.1 CLEAR, DRY AIR FLIGHT9
9-10.2 SIMULATED ICING FLIGHT0
9-10.3 NATURAL ICING FLIGHT1
9-11 ELECTROMAGNETIC ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS (E3)
9-11.1 ELECTROMAGNETIC COMPATIBILITY4
9-11.2 ELECTROMAGNETIC VULNERABILTY7
9-11.3 LIGHTNING8
9-11.3.1 DIRECT EFFECTS TESTING8
9-11.3.2 INDIRECT EFFECTS TESTING9
9-11.3.3 STREAMERING TESTING0
9-11.4 STATIC ELECTRICITY TESTING0
9-11.5 RADIATION HAZARDS (RADHAZ)0
9-11.5.1 HERO TESTING1
9-11.5.2 HERP TESTING1
9-11.5.3 HERF TESTING2
9-11.6 TEMPEST TESTING2
9-11.7 ANTENNA COUPLING3
9-12 WEAPON SYSTEM EFFECTIVENESS TESTS4
9-12.1 GROUND TARGETS0
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-4 MAINTAINABILITY
10-4.1 PHYSICAL TEARDOWN AND MAINTAINABILITY
DEMONSTRATION
10-4.2 TECHNICAL MANUAL VALIDATION
10-4.3 TESTABILITY
10-5 DURABILITY
10-6 WARRANTY
10-6.1 GENERAL PERFORMANCE WARRANTY
10-6.2 RELIABILITY IMPROVEMENT WARRANTY
10-7 TRAINING AND TRAINERS
10-7.1 TRAINING
10-7.2 SYNTHETIC FLIGHT TRAINERS
(FLIGHT SIMULATORS)
10-7.3 BUILT-IN TRAINER/TRAINING
10-7.4 INTELLIGENT TRAINERS
10-7.5 COMBAT EVALUATION TRAINERS
10-8 TRANSPORTABILITY
10-9 MANPRINT
10-9.1 MANPOWER
10-9.2 PERSONNEL
10-9.3 TRAINING
10-9.4 HUMAN FACTORS
10-9.5 SYSTEM SAFETY
10-9.6 HEALTH HAZARDS
10-9.7 SOLDIER SURVIVABILITY
10-10 LOGISTICS
10-11 BATTLE DAMAGE ASSESSMENT AND REPAIR (BDAR)
10-12 CORROSION PREVENTION AND CONTROL PROGRAM
10-13 STANDARDIZATION AND INTEROPERABILITY
10-13.1 STANDARDIZATION
10-13.2 INTEROPERABILITY
10-14 SHIP BASED OPERATION COMPATIBILITY
10-14.1 SHIP FACILITIES
10-14.2 DYNAMIC INTERFACE
10-15 GROUND SUPPORT EQUIPMENT
10-15.1 SPECIAL TOOLS AND TEST EQUIPMENT
10-15.2 BORESIGHT EQUIPMENT
10-15.3 GROUND POWER UNITS
10-15.4 AUTOMATIC TEST EQUIPMENT (ATE)
10-16 TIE DOWNS AND MOORINGS
APPENDIX A
THE ELEMENTS OF AN AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION PLAN
(AQP)
A-1 INTRODUCTION
A-2 AQP CONTENTS
A-2.1 SCOPE
A-2.2 REFERENCES
A-2.3 TEST ACCOMPLISHMENT
A-2.3.1 TEST SPECIFICATION
A-2.3.2 TEST ARTICLE AND AVAILABILITY
A-2.3.3 TEST FACILITIES
A-2.3.4 TEST EQUIPMENT
A-2.4 TEST MANAGEMENT
A-2.5 DOCUMENT GENERATION
APPENDIX B
THE ELEMENTS OF AN AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION
SPECIFICATION (AQS) AND THEIR CONTENTS
B-1 INTRODUCTION
B-2 OBJECTIVES OF THE MAJOR ELEMENTS
B-3 MAJOR AQS ELEMENTS
B-3.1 SCOPE
B-3.1.1 SYSTEM SAFETY
B-3.2 APPLICABLE DOCUMENTS
B-3.3 DEFINITIONS
B-3.4 GENERAL REQUIREMENTS
B-3.4.1 TECHNICAL REVIEWS
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX C
ELEMENTS OF A CONTRACTOR FLIGHT RELEASE (CFR)
C-1 INTRODUCTION
C-2 CONTENTS
C-2.1 ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION
C-2.1.1 SUBJECT/SCOPE
C-2.1.4 TERMINATION
C-2.2 MAJOR ELEMENTS
C-2.2.1 REFERENCES
C-2.2.2 REVISIONS
C-2.2.3 CONFIGURATION
C-2.2.4 OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS, PROCEDURES,
LIMITATIONS, AND RESTRICTIONS
C-2.2.4.1 OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS
C-2.2.4.2 PROCEDURES
C-2.2.4.3 LIMITATIONS
C-2.2.4.4 RESTRICTIONS
C-2.2.5 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES, INSPECTIONS,
AND FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION
C-2.2.5.1 MAINTENANCE PROCEDURES
C-2.2.5.2 INSPECTIONS
C-2.2.5.3 FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION
C-2.2.6 APPENDICES
APPENDIX D
ELEMENTS OF AN AIRWORTHINESS RELEASE (AWR)
D-1 INTRODUCTION
D-1 INTRODUCTION
D-2 CONTENTS
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX E
ELEMENTS OF A STATEMENT OF AIRWORTHINESS
QUALIFICATION (SAQ)
E-1 INTRODUCTION
E-2 CONTENTS
E-2.1 ADMINISTRATIVE INFORMATION
E-2.1.1 EFFECTIVE DATE
E-2.1.2 ADDRESSEE
E-2.1.3 SUBJECT
E-2.2 MAJOR ELEMENTS
E-2.2.1 REFERENCES
E-2.2.2 PURPOSE
E-2.2.3 CONFIGURATION
E-2.2.4 AIRWORTHY OPERATION
E-2.2.4.1 OPERATING INSTRUCTIONS AND PROCEDURES
E-2.2.4.2 LIMITATIONS AND RESTRICTIONS
E-2.2.5 SUSTAINING AIRWORTHINESS
E-2.2.5.1 INSPECTIONS AND FREQUENCY OF INSPECTION
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX F
ELEMENTS OF AN AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION
SUBSTANTIATION REPORT (AQSR)
F-1 INTRODUCTION
F-2 CONTENTS
F-2.1 ELEMENTS OF: VOLUME I - AIRWORTHINESS
QUALIFICATION FINAL REPORT
F-2.1.1 INTRODUCTION
F-2.1.1.1 PURPOSE
F-2.1.1.2 APPLICABLE CONTRACTS
F-2.1.1.3 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
F-2.1.1.4 STATEMENT OF AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION F-4
F-2.1.2 DEFINITIONS
F-2.1.3 AIRCRAFT DESCRIPTION
F-2.1.4 AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION PROGRAM
F-2.1.4.1 PROGRAM SCHEDULE
F-2.1.4.2 TEST PROGRAM SUMMARY
F-2.1.5 STRUCTURAL DEMONSTRATION SUMMARY
F-2.1.5.1 DESIGN FLIGHT CONDITIONS
F-2.1.5.2 DESIGN GROUND CONDITIONS
F-2.1.5.3 DESIGN CRASH CONDITIONS
F-2.1.5.4 STRENGTH SUMMARY
F-2.1.6 COMPONENT LIVES
F-2.1.7 OPERATING RESTRICTIONS
F-2.1.8 QUALIFICATION DATA SUMMARY AND INDEX
F-2.1.8.1 CONTRACTOR DATA
F-2.1.8.2 GOVERNMENT DATA
F-2.2 ELEMENTS OF: VOLUME II - SPECIFICATION
COMPLIANCE BY PARAGRAPH
F-2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
F-2.2.2 PARAGRAPH COMPLIANCE LIST
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
CHAPTER 2
AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION PROGRAM
This chapter discusses the elements of airworthiness qualification programs. The Air-
worthiness Qualification Plan, Airworthiness Qualification Specification, and Airworthiness
Qualification Substantiation Report are discussed. In addition, discussions are included on air-
worthiness test management, standard and specification tailoring, survey versus demonstration
requirements, and the use of other airworthiness certification criteria.
2-1 INTRODUCTION TEMP form the basis for the test require-
Upon receipt of an approved Mission ments. Responsibility for the preparation of
Need Statement (MNS) a Test Integration a TEMP belongs to the program manager in
Working Group (TIWG) should be estab- cooperation with the members of the TIWG.
lished and chaired by a program manager The types of airworthiness tests that should
(PM). The composition and responsibilities be included in the TEMP, the test agency,
of the TIWG are described in subpar. 2- test hardware, and objective for each test are
5.2.1. Also the US Army Training and summarized in Tables 2-1 and 2-2. Chapter
Doctrine Command (TRADOC) should pre- 11 provides details for preparation of a
pare an Operational Requirements Docu- TEMP. Often the development of an Air-
ment (ORD). The ORD and System Threat worthiness Qualification Plan (AQP) paral-
Assessment Report (STAR), if any, should lels development of the TEMP. The AQP
be used to develop a system specification provides general guidance for required engi-
and a Test and Evaluation Master Plan neering analyses, formal inspections, design
(TEMP). Department of Defense Regula- reviews, safety assessments, contractor
tion (DoDR) 5000.2-R, Mandatory Proce- demonstrations, and all contractor and Gov-
dures for Defense Acquisition Programs ernmental qualification tests essential to de-
(MPDAPs) and Major Automated Informa- fining and implementing the procurement of
tion Systems (MAIS) Acquisition Program, an air vehicle.
(Ref. 1) establishes the requirement for a
TEMP. The TEMP is an iterative planning 2-2 AIRWORTHINESS
and scheduling document. The purpose of a QUALIFICATION PLAN (AQP)
TEMP is to serve as a management tool to An Airworthiness Qualification Plan
ensure that the necessary elements of a test is developed by the procuring activity and
program are defined, to ensure that adequate included in the request for proposal (RFP) to
coordination is effected among the agencies communicate the requirements of the Gov-
requiring test data, to ensure that adequate ernment for airworthiness qualification to
testing is planned for arriving at type classi- the contractor. The AQP is the basis upon
fication and production decisions, and to which the contractor prepares his Airworthi-
provide justification for test resources in- ness Qualification Specification (AQS) in
cluding the number of prototypes to be used response to the RFP. Appendix A, “The
during testing. The TEMP also provides the Elements of an Airworthiness Qualification
justification to combine tests, to conduct Plan”, describes the purpose, content, scope,
them concurrently, or to eliminate them in references, test accomplishment, test
order to avoid duplicate and unnecessary
testing. The critical technical parameters
and critical operational issues defined in the
2-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
2-2
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
management, and documentation generation (AQS) and Their Contents”, provides a de-
of the AQP. tailed discussion of AQS requirements.
2-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
define the pass-fail criteria against which the 2-4.1.2 Verification and Effect
system will be judged. Because of the sig- Verification and effect surveys are
nificant difference in the nature of surveys frequently conducted on modified systems
and demonstrations, the choice between the to determine the impact of the modification
two should be carefully weighed when es- and whether minimum performance charac-
tablishing the AQS requirements. teristics are still met. Such surveys are
usually partial samplings, not full and com-
2-4.1 SURVEYS prehensive tests. An example is to measure
A survey is the act of collecting in- baseline performance and any change in per-
formation, measuring, determining, and as- formance after a modification.
sembling data to define the characteristics or
capabilities of an item. A limited sampling 2-4.1.3 Survey for Analysis
of facts to indicate, extrapolate, or predict A survey for analysis is conducted to
what a complete collection of facts and collect data for analysis because there is no
analysis would reveal is also a survey. The practical method of directly measuring the
purpose of the survey is to determine the desired characteristic. A flight load survey
current state of the design with respect to is an example of a survey for analysis. The
established system performance require- survey provides data that may be compared
ments. The contractor’s obligation is to plan with design loads or stresses for flight con-
and conduct the test, to collect the data, and ditions in the maneuver spectrum defined for
to report the test results in accordance with the air vehicle. The load data may be used
the AQS. There is no obligation to correct to perform fatigue damage analysis and fa-
deficiencies by virtue of the survey require- tigue life calculations. The survey is correct
ments alone. A survey incurs an obligation and complete if valid data are acquired re-
to collect valid data but does not obligate gardless of the correlation with analytical
compliance with pass-fail criteria. Exam- results. The AQS may require the repeat of
ples of typical surveys are provided in Table certain surveys to support analytical re-
2-3. Three general categories of surveys are quirements when conditions
simple surveys, verification and effect sur- warrant. Such conditions may include
veys, and surveys for analysis. changes in the configuration or operating
conditions.
2-4.1.1 Simple Survey
A simple survey is a data collection 2-4.2 DEMONSTRATIONS
effort to establish baseline performance A demonstration is the act of proving
characteristics and the impact of the modifi- with measurements made during the actual
cation relative to this baseline. Simple sur- performance of the act or accepted analysis
veys are performed for specific reasons and that a requirement has been met. The dem-
collect limited amounts of data. The number onstrations are the proof required for ap-
of test runs and the amount of data collected proval of airworthiness qualification and the
are dependent upon the type of subsystem or basis for establishing safe operating limits
component being analyzed. A simple survey for rated, but not test rated, pilots in the ex-
would be a design support test to obtain en- pected operating environment. The obliga-
gineering design data. tion of the contractor is not only to conduct
the test and collect valid data but also to
meet contractually specified pass-fail
TABLE 2-3. EXAMPLES OF SYSTEM SURVEYS
2-4
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
EXAMPLE DESCRIPTION
Flight Load Loads data obtained throughout flight envelope for all critical components
Survey Provides data for preliminary estimate of fatigue lives
Determines whether resonant frequencies of critical components are tuned to the fre-
quencies of the primary exciting forces
Engine Vi- Flight and ground tests
bration Sur- Conducted to verify that engine vibrations do not exceed the allowable limit specified in the en-
vey gine model specification
Propulsion Flight and ground temperature monitoring
System Tem- Conducted to verify that engine(s) , engine accessories, engine fluids, airframe structure,
perature Sur- transmission system, gear brakes, heat exchangers, etc., do not exceed their allowable
vey temperature limits
Total System Flight and ground vibration monitoring
Vibration Conducted during accelerated and unaccelerated flight over the full range of the flight
Survey envelope and of the allowable rotor speeds
Provides data to substantiate compliance with vibratory comfort requirements and demonstrate air
vehicle is free from excessive vibrations affecting structural integrity or ability to perform its
mission
Crew Envi- Conducted to demonstrate compliance with new environmental requirements under all
ronment Sur- specified operating conditions and modes
vey Includes crew comfort considerations related to performance degradation and contamination
characteristics
Infrared (IR) Demonstrates that the IR signature is reduced to acceptable levels
Signature Documents its IR signature for use in countermeasure studies, tradeoffs, and require- ments
Survey
criteria per the AQS, system specification, air vehicle would be flown under specified
and statement of work. Inherent in that ob- conditions, data would be recorded, and a
ligation is that if initial demonstrations are determination would be made as to whether
unsuccessful, corrective actions must be the recorded vibration levels fall within the
implemented to eliminate the deficiencies, specified range of acceptability.
and the test must be fully or partially re-
peated, depending on circumstances. This 2-4.2.2 Action
cycle is referred to as “test, analyze, fix, Some specification requirements are
test”. It is important to state clearly the not quantitative in nature but require that a
contractual pass-fail and retest cycle criteria capability to perform a function be provided.
in the AQS to ensure that demonstration re- The adequacy of maintenance training and
quirements are fully delineated. procedures, as written in the manuals, is
demonstrated by having troops perform the
2-4.2.1 Testing procedures (by the book) on an actual air
Demonstration of system perform- vehicle. Qualitative maintainability re-
ance requirements may be accomplished by quirements are also demonstrated in this
direct measurement of a required character- manner. Demonstration of achievement of
istic. This method is appropriate for quanti- this requirement would be the accomplish-
tative requirements that are clearly measur- ment of the action or procedure under the
able. An example is demonstration of the specified conditions by a person or persons
achievement of specified vibration levels for representative—in terms of physical charac-
avionics equipment mounting points. The teristics, abilities, and training—of the crew
mounting points would be instrumented, the member populations.
2-5
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
system should be completed on the ground The extremely complex and interre-
prior to first flight. This test may be con- lated issues associated with the conduct of a
ducted with either a tied down air vehicle or development program require close coordi-
a simulated vehicle containing all required nation among numerous Government agen-
subsystems. In addition, the structural static cies. A Test Integration Working Group
test program should have demonstrated the should be established as a forum to effect
adequacy of the airframe for design limit coordination of and solve routine problems
loads. Included in this requirement is land- in the test and evaluation process. There are
ing gear drop testing. Further, sufficient members and associate participants. Also
component fatigue test data should be avail- there are many interface groups, such as the
able to assure that the service life of fatigue- Threat Coordinating Subgroup, Computer
critical components is adequate for initial Resources Working Group (CRWG), Man-
flight testing. power and Personnel Integration
Prior to initiation of ground tie-down (MANPRINT) Joint Working Group, Safety
test, the principal components of the drive Working Group, and Live-Fire Test and
system should have completed adequate Evaluation Working Group, that have a
testing including maximum rated torque and close tie with the TIWG. TIWG and the
speed and pertinent transient conditions. CRWG are described in the subparagraphs
Demonstration requirements for in- that follow.
dividual subsystems, as defined by pertinent
military specifications, may require an 2-5.2.1 Test Integration Working Group
analysis of system capability and perform- A TIWG is an integrated product
ance be submitted for approval together with team (See subpar. 4-6.9.) that is chartered to
appropriate subsystem drawings and de- structure the test and evaluation (T&E) pro-
scriptions prior to test initiation. Such gram and integrate the various T&E and
stipulations should not affect qualification milestone requirements. It is chaired by the
schedules. The analyses required are per- program manager or the materiel developer
formed during design of the system and (PM/MATDEV) and includes qualified rep-
must therefore be completed well in advance resentatives who have been entrusted to
of subsystem testing. speak for their parent organizations. The
The RFP for a specific model air purposes of a TIWG are to optimize the use
vehicle will typically indicate the number of of appropriate T&E expertise, instrumenta-
prototypes to be assigned to test and qualifi- tion, targets, facilities, simulations, and
cation programs. Should these RFP guide- models to implement test integration; to in-
lines not include specific assignments, such tegrate test requirements; to provide input to
as for structural testing, flying qualities and the PM/MATDEV to review and give pre-
flight performance testing, avionics and ar- liminary approval of the TEMP; to resolve
mament testing, the contractor should be cost and scheduling problems; and to ensure
required to define use of the assigned air T&E common goal planning, execution, and
vehicle in the proposed schedule. In addi- reporting. During the conduct of a devel-
tion to minimizing risk, proposal preparation opment program, the TIWG may conduct
for prototype use and test sequencing should risk assessments and may provide program
also consider cost and schedule impacts. modification recommendations because of
problem situations.
2-5.2 TEST INTEGRATION TIWG participants are selected to fill
the needs of the program they support. Gen-
2-7
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
AQS requirements. Also system perform- C provides a detailed discussion of the re-
ance specification requirements are cross- quirements for a contractor flight release.
referenced to the specific test procedures and
test reports, which substantiate the achieve- 2-5.7 AIRWORTHINESS RELEASES
ment of the requirement. Table 2-4, “Test An Airworthiness Release (AWR) is
vs Specification Matrix”, provides an ex- a technical document that provides interim
ample of the information to be included. operating and maintenance information nec-
essary for safe flight operation of an air ve-
2-5.6 CONTRACTOR FLIGHT hicle system, subsystem, and allied equip-
RELEASES ment. The significant difference between a
A Contractor Flight Release (CFR) is flight release for industry and an Airworthi-
a technical document and transmittal letter ness Release for Government operation of
signed by the appropriate PCO authorizing an Army air item is that of safety assurance.
an element of industry to operate an Army When an AWR is issued, the air vehicle is
air vehicle of an approved configuration known to be safe based on analyses, dem-
within prescribed limitations by using es- onstration of air vehicle and equipment, and
tablished procedures. The purpose of a CFR demonstration of limitations, or a determi-
is to control to a reasonable level the risk to nation has been made that the remaining
Government assets and the amount of liabil- risks are acceptable. An AWR is required
ity. A CFR is used when the Government prior to operation of a new air vehicle sys-
holds ground and flight risk and a contractor tem or a fielded air vehicle system that has
pilot is the pilot-in-command. When a CFR undergone a major modification. Also an
is issued, the air vehicle is believed to be AWR is required prior to operation of an air
safe, and it is believed that no undue risk is vehicle with Federal Aviation Administra-
being taken on the part of the flight crew, tion (FAA), US Air Force (USAF), National
the contractor’s management, or the Gov- Aeronautics and Space Administration
ernment. A CFR is usually required for ini- (NASA), or US Navy (USN) airworthiness
tial ground and flight testing, i.e., prior to approval if the air vehicle has been modified
initial engine run-up, rotors turning, ground without certifying agency approval. Finally,
resonance testing, etc., provided that the air an AWR is required anytime an Army pilot
vehicle and property are not covered by a is going to be the pilot-in-command of a
separate lease agreement. CFRs are not in- nonstandard configured air vehicle or an air
tended to be controlling configuration man- vehicle that has not been issued a Statement
agement documents, although they are re- of Airworthiness Qualification (SAQ). The
lated to approved configurations. As de- SAQ may be issued temporarily as an in-
scribed in AR 95-20, Volume 2, Govern- terim SAQ after qualification is essentially
ment Flight Representative Guidance, complete but pending final documentation
(Ref. 5), the Government Flight Representa- approval.
tive (GFR) is responsible for the surveil- Appendix D provides a detailed dis-
lance of all contractor flight operations in- cussion of the elements of an Airworthiness
volving Government air vehicles and other Release.
air vehicles for which the Government is
assuming some of the risk of loss or dam-
age. The GFR approves flight crew mem-
bers, qualification training, and the contrac-
tor’s flight operations procedures. Appendix
2-10
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
2-11
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
WBS = Work Breakdown Structure SOW = Statement of Work AQS = Airworthiness Qualification Specification PIDS = Prime Item Development Specifi-
cation
2-12
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
of risk. This technique of combining sever- seek to ensure that air vehicles operated un-
ity and probability is discussed further in der their cognizance are safe. They differ in
Chapter 3. A factor that enters into assess- that they serve different needs. In addition
ing severity is the ease with which corrective to safety the military agencies concern
actions for the undesirable event can be im- themselves with the military utility and ef-
plemented. Obviously, easy fixes have low fectiveness required by the various services.
severity. The amount of tailoring a decision AR 70-62, Research and Development Air-
maker allows should be related to the prob- worthiness Qualification of US Army Air-
ability and severity of risk. As the risk in- craft Systems, (Ref. 6) documents policy for
creases, the amount of allowed tailoring of airworthiness qualification of air vehicle
standards and specifications should de- systems, subsystems, and allied equipment
crease. undergoing development and for major
modifications to standard and nonstandard
2-6.2.3 Resources air vehicles. It also implements policy for
Achievement of full specification or issuance of airworthiness releases for flight
standard compliance may require an inordi- performance and operational flight evalua-
nate amount of resources. When a require- tion testing of domestic and foreign-made
ment is tailored on the basis of resource re- commercial air vehicles with potential mili-
quirements, it is necessary to determine the tary application, modified surrogate air ve-
value of the effort by means of economic hicles, and foreign military air vehicles.
analysis that considers the cost of test
specimens, facilities, and conducting tests. 2-7.1 CIVIL AGENCIES
This value must be compared with the cost The FAA or NASA certification
and benefit of other program activities to would be adopted for systems whose exist-
ensure that activity priorities are still valid. ing performance limits are similar in nature
Requirement specifications and standards to the military requirements because the air
are not generally tailored because of pro- vehicle was designed for a similar intended
gram funding constraints alone. However, use. Some Army rotorcraft were certified
tradeoffs should provide the most cost- under 14 CFR, Part 27, Airworthiness Stan-
effective system that meets the overall sys- dards: Normal Category Rotorcraft, (Ref.
tem performance requirements. If it is de- 7). Other aircraft were certified under 14
termined that tailoring to reduce cost by re- CFR, Part 23, Airworthiness Standards:
ducing resources is not prudent, the impact Normal Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter
of requesting additional funds or resources Category Airplanes, (Ref. 8) or 14 CFR,
must be assessed against negative impacts Part 25, Airworthiness Standards: Transport
on program viability if preestablished Category Airplanes, (Ref. 9). The extent to
thresholds would be breached. which the intended military use differs from
the previous certified flight envelope and
2-7 OTHER AIRWORTHINESS environment dictates the extent of partial or
CRITERIA ADOPTION complete requalification necessary.
In addition to the US Army, the US
Air Force, the US Navy, the Federal Avia-
tion Administration, and the National Aero-
nautics and Space Administration also pro-
vide airworthiness qualification and certifi-
cation. Their criteria are similar in that they
2-14
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
2-15
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
results of the airworthiness qualification ef- cation Standard A, if applicable, and nor-
fort and detailing specification compliance. mally completes the airworthiness qualifica-
Its purpose is to provide a single document tion program. The SAQ contains a descrip-
to trace the airworthiness qualification deci- tion of the configuration of the air vehicle,
sion. The report should be revised as needed operating instructions and procedures, limi-
to document subsequent modifications and tations and restrictions, and requirements for
airworthiness decisions. sustaining airworthiness. Appendix E con-
tains a detailed discussion of the SAQ.
2-8.1 VOLUME I—AIRWORTHINESS
QUALIFICATION FINAL REPORT
Volume I of the AQSR, Airworthi-
ness Qualification Final Report, summarizes
the qualification program and system per-
formance limits. It provides a description of
the air vehicle, a description of the airwor-
thiness qualification program including pro-
gram schedule and test program summary, a
structural demonstration summary, compo-
nent lives, operating restrictions, and a
qualification data summary and index for
both contractor data and Government data.
Appendix F, subpar. F-2.1, provides a de-
tailed discussion of the first volume of the
AQSR.
2-9 STATEMENT OF
AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION
(SAQ)
A Statement of Airworthiness
Qualification is a final AWR that is issued in
conjunction with the AQSR. The statement
is based on the final results of engineering
tests conducted on the air vehicle and its
subsystems or allied equipment. Issuance of
this statement coincides with type classifi-
2-16
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
REFERENCES
1. DODR 5000.2-R, Mandatory Procedures for Defense Acquisition Programs (MDAPs) and
Major Automated Information Systems (MAIS) Acquisition Program, 15 March 1996.
4. DA PAM 73-1, Operational Testing and Evaluation Methodology and Procedures Guide, 15
October 1979.
8. 14 CFR, Part 23, Airworthiness Standards: Normal Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Cate-
gory Airplanes, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
2-17
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
CHAPTER 3
SYSTEM SAFETY
This chapter presents the system safety aspects of air vehicle qualification. Top-
ics include the system safety process, safety and hazard analysis, and flight safety parts.
In addition, requirements are presented for the System Safety Program, System Safety
Management Plan, and System Safety Program Plan.
3-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-2
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8. Consideration is given to
safety, ease of disposal, and demilitari- 3-3.2 SYSTEM DELINEATION
zation of any hazardous materials asso- (BLOCK B)
ciated with the system. The boundaries of the system
9. Significant safety data are under consideration and its constituent
documented as “lessons learned” and are elements are defined clearly as early as
submitted to data banks as proposed possible and revised as required during
changes to applicable design handbooks the system life cycle. Such delineation
and specifications. (Ref. 2) establishes the limits for succeeding
steps in the process and reduces complex
3-3 SYSTEM SAFETY PROCESS systems to manageable parts. Any entity
The system safety process is can be labeled a “system” provided it is
shown graphically in Fig. 3-2 and de- accurately defined.
scribed in the subparagraphs that follow.
This process shows a logical approach to 3-3.3 IDENTIFICATION OF
attaining the system safety objectives in FLIGHT SAFETY PARTS
par. 3-2. The process is repeated as nec- (BLOCK C)
essary in an iterative fashion at every Flight safety parts are parts
level of complexity in the design of a whose failure or malfunction could result
system until the requisite assurance of in an unsafe condition. The handling of
the system hazard level is attained. An flight safety parts is discussed in
integral part of the system safety process par. 3-13.
is hazard tracking, which is a closed loop
system used to identify, monitor, and 3-3.4 SYSTEM HAZARD
eliminate hazards. Hazard tracking is ANALYSIS (BLOCK D)
developed early in the system safety The heart of system safety is the
process and is used throughout the proc- analysis of a system and its elements in a
ess to document and track hazards and methodical manner. Beginning with
the progress made toward resolution of preliminary hazard analyses of design
the associated risk. concepts and continuing through an in-
tegrated hazard analysis of the complete
3-3.1 KNOWN PRECEDENT system, this analytical process distin-
(BLOCK A, FIG. 3-2) guishes system safety from other sepa-
From the beginning a System rate, but closely interfacing, disciplines.
Safety Program should be based on the The contractor should select the meth-
experience and knowledge gained from odology and techniques for hazard
previous operations in correcting design analysis best suited for the particular
deficiencies that have resulted in the ac- system element under consideration and
cidental loss of or damage to materiel or for the applicable level of detail design.
injuries or death to personnel. Those
design features categorized previously as
having hazards are also identified, and
the hazards corrected if required. It is
essential that designers of future air ve-
hicles benefit from all previous experi-
ence that affects safe operation.
3-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
A Known Precedent
(Safety Experience
and Knowledge)
System
B Delineation
Identification of
C Flight Safety Parts
E
(Iteration)
Hazard Identification
(As Required)
Hazard Categorization
F and Evaluation
Action(s) to Eliminate
G or Control Hazards
H Modification of
System Element(s)
(Within Program Conastraints) Accident or Incident
Analysis
J
Efectiveness Evaluation
I of Action Taken
K
L Increased Safety Assurance Component and/or System
Test and Demonstration
M Airworthiness Qualification
3-4
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-5
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-6
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
available at the particular phase of the The system safety analyst must
program to ensure the analysis is as also be aware of those conditions that
comprehensive as possible, and is thor- have been proven by past experience to
ough and accurate. MIL-STD-882 (Ref. be hazardous for air vehicles. The con-
1) should be used as a guide for analy- sideration of hazards must not be limited
ses, methods, and techniques. Also to those conditions involving only hard-
MIL-HDBK-764, System Safety Design ware. Software is an important consid-
Guide for Army Materiel, (Ref. 2) may eration. Also the interactions of air ve-
be used as a guide. hicles with personnel who operate and
MIL-HDBK-764 describes tech- maintain them and those between per-
niques of analysis such as fault hazard sonnel and the environment in which the
analysis (FHA), fault tree analysis air vehicles are used provide potentially
(FTA), sneak circuit analysis (SCA), and hazardous conditions, which should be
failure, modes, effects, and criticality considered during design. Some exam-
analysis (FMECA) that have value for ples of possible interrelationships that
hazard analysis. In addition, Ref. 2 could lead to hazards are the height of
identifies analysis techniques, such as the main rotor above the ground and the
circuit logic analysis, interface analysis, location of the pilot with respect to the
mapping, Monte Carlo simulation, con- rotor path.
tingency analysis, environmental factors
analysis, critical incident technique, and 3-6 CLASSIFICATION OF
mock-ups, that can be used to support HAZARDS
these analyses. Since it is impossible to elimi-
nate or control all hazards, they are
3-5 KNOWLEDGE OF HAZARDS usually ranked by degree of severity, i.e.,
The system safety analyst should consequences in operation of the air ve-
have a thorough knowledge not only of hicle. Four hazard levels ranging from
air vehicle engineering but also of haz- negligible to catastrophic are defined and
ardous conditions. established in MIL-STD-882. These are
For example, major rotorcraft listed in Table 3-1 along with their effect
configurations—such as the type of ro- on personnel safety, examples of func-
tor, e.g., articulated or bearingless, the tional hazards, and definitions. Table 3-
method of directional control, and the 2 provides MIL-STD-882 probability
control system concept—have inherent levels along with an example of quanti-
safety implications. The tradeoffs used tative probabilities. Quantitative prob-
to reach a decision regarding these con- abilities should be developed for each
figurations should include system safety weapon system to meet specific program
considerations. In addition, hazards are requirements. For any given hazard a
more likely to be present at interfaces degree of severity and probability of oc-
between subsystems than within a single currence may be assigned. Table 3-3
subsystem. Some examples of possible shows how those two aspects of a hazard
interfaces that could lead to hazards are may be combined to arrive at a risk
fuel system to engine fuel lines, clear-
ance between components, and connec-
tors that can be improperly installed.
TABLE 3-1. HAZARD SEVERITY CATEGORIES
3-7
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
EXAMPLES OF
FUNCTIONAL EFFECT ON
DESCRIPTION CATEGORY HAZARDS PERSONNEL DEFINITIONS
CATASTROPHIC I System nonfunctional; not Personnel suffer death or Death, system loss, or
economically salvageable. serious or multiple injuries severe environmental
Total loss. precluding return to current damage.
duties.
CRITICAL II Major subsystem(s) no n- Personnel suffer serious or Severe injury, severe
functional. Hazard requires multiple injuries requiring occupational illness,
immediate corrective a ction. extended rehabilitation major system or env i-
before return to current ronmental da mage.
duties.
MARGINAL III Flyable aircraft; mission Personnel suffer injury Minor injury, minor
equipment or one of redu n- requiring short-term rec u- occupational illness, or
dant subsystems nonfun c- peration before return to minor system or env i-
tional. Hazard can be cou n- current duties. ronmental da mage.
teracted or controlled.
NEGLIGIBLE IV Mission capable with minor Personnel suffer minor Less than minor i n-
performance loss or no injury that does not interrupt jury, occupational
immediate effect. Deferrable current duties. illness, or less than
mai ntenance. minor system or env i-
ronmental da mage.
EXAMPLE: MEAN
OPERATING EXAMPLE: EXPECTED
GENERIC DEFINITION HOURS NUMBER OF OCCURRENCES
DESCRIPTION LEVEL (MIL-STD-882) BETWEEN PER 100,000 FLIGHT HOURS
OCCURRENCES
FREQUENT A Likely to occur frequently < 10 > 10,000
PROBABLE B Will occur several times in life 10 - 100 1000 - 10,000
of item
OCCASIONAL C Likely to occur sometime 100 - 1000 100 - 1000
during life of item
REMOTE D Unlikely but possible to occur 1000 - 10,000 10 - 100
in life of item
IMPROBABLE E So unlikely, it can be assumed > 10,000 < 10
occurrence may not be exper i-
enced
3-8
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
SEVERITY A B C D E
CATASTROPHIC I
CRITICAL HIGH
II
NEGLIGIBLE LOW
IV
SEVERITY A B C D E
CATASTROPHIC I
CRITICAL HIGH
II
NEGLIGIBLE LOW
IV
3-9
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
The decision authority matrix can be closely with the human factors engineer-
tailored upon authorization from the ing function.
“HIGH” risk hazard authority. Both ex- The final and least desirable
amples in Table 3-3 are tailored for choice is to prepare, disseminate, and
aviation. The tables are identical except enforce special operating procedures for
for the decision level authorities. an identified hazardous condition. How-
ever, these procedures are a weak link in
3-7 RESOLUTION OF HAZARDS achievement of system safety because of
Hazards are resolved through the inability to verify communication of
elimination or control. Documentation the procedure to the person who must
of actions is by means of substantiation operate in accordance with such proce-
of hazard resolution. These two aspects dures.
of system safety—hazard control and
substantiation—are addressed in the 3-7.2 SUBSTANTIATION OF
subparagraphs that follow. HAZARD RESOLUTION
Once each possible hazard has
3-7.1 CONTROL METHODS been analyzed for its significance and
MIL-STD-882 discusses methods resolution of the hazard is determined,
of resolving hazards. The first and most there is need for assurance that proper
desirable method is to eliminate an iden- corrective action has been taken. This
tified hazard by selection of a design in can be accomplished by inspections,
which the hazard does not appear. If additional analyses, and design reviews.
elimination of a hazard is impossible or Catastrophic, critical, and other identi-
uneconomical, the next step is to make fied hazards should not rely solely on
the design tolerant of the hazard. warnings, cautions, or procedures for
Three ways of making a design control of risk.
tolerant of identified hazards are stipu- A particular type of design re-
lated in MIL-STD-882 in descending view that can be effective for system
order of desirability. The first alterna- safety is an electronic mock-up review.
tive is to reduce the significance of the Functional mock-ups can also become an
hazard through the use of appropriate excellent method of identifying addi-
safety devices. Ideally, such devices tional potential hazards. Also an elec-
should not require human intervention tronic mock-up brings the subsystems
but should operate automatically if the together at an early stage, i.e., before in-
specified hazardous condition arises. terface problems become too expensive
The next choice is to place to change.
warning devices in the system to make Fig. 3-3, taken from MIL-
known to the crew the existence of a HDBK-764(MI) (Ref. 2), provides a
hazardous condition. These devices sample format for documenting the
would require human intervention to re- identification, risk assessment, and cor-
spond to the warning produced. Audio rective action for hazards. There are also
or visual indicators are commonly used automated hazard-tracking systems that
in these instances, but there is a limit to can serve this purpose.
the number of such devices that can be
effectively used in one system design.
Also such features must be coordinated
3-10
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-11
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
sidual hazard, a description of the hazard system safety risks associated with re-
and its severity and frequency, a source sidual hazards.
document or reference, alternative ac-
tions that could reduce the hazard level, 3-8.1 PURPOSE
and a recommendation from the project The purpose of the SSMP is to
office regarding risk acceptance. Addi- define formally the responsibilities and
tionally, the SSRA includes recommen- authorities related to the system safety
dations from the appropriate safety man- aspects of a program.
ager, the combat developer, and the ma-
teriel developer as to acceptability of the 3-8.2 CONTENTS
residual risk. Finally, the decision of the Typically, the SSMP defines the
appropriate acquisition manager is also internal management responsibilities of
recorded in the SSRA. the Government, schedule, and proce-
The Health Hazard Assessment dures for accomplishment of the system
(HHA) is performed by applying bio- safety management functions that fol-
medical and psychological knowledge low:
and principles to identify, evaluate, and 1. Coordinate and execute pro-
control the risk to the health and effec- cedures to assure appropriate interface
tiveness of personnel who test, use, or with other management functions, e.g.,
service the system. The results of the quality assurance, maintenance, research,
HHA should be included as an adden- and development.
dum to another required analysis report, 2. Establish an audit program to
such as the System Hazard Analysis Re- ensure that the objectives and require-
port. The HHA task and format should ments of system safety are attained.
not be confused with the Health Hazard 3. Perform liaison with other
Assessment Report (HHAR), which is agencies and commands as needed to
prepared by the Government using data attain system safety objectives.
provided by the HHA. 4. Ensure that enough competent
Fig. 3-4, taken from Ref. 4, persons are assigned to the system safety
shows a sample Safety and Health Data engineering and management programs
Sheet which might be used as part of the to assure proper implementation of sys-
internal control process of an organiza- tem safety.
tion to record health and safety actions. 5. Evaluate, as part of source
The Safety and Health Data Sheet along selection evaluation, the ability of the
with System Safety Risk Assessments contractor to include system safety as-
are also documentation requirements pects in the final product.
supporting the materiel release process. 6. Establish the policy and re-
quirements to develop system safety in
3-8 SYSTEM SAFETY sufficient detail to identify the safety and
MANAGEMENT PLAN health hazards of a system and to remove
The System Safety Management or control them.
Plan (SSMP) is a description of the 7. Prescribe procedures for man-
planned methods to be used by the Gov- agement participation in system risk ac-
ernment to monitor the contractor's sys- ceptance for residual hazards.
tem safety program and to manage the
3-12
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
2. Item does (does not) contain radioactive materials and (if it does) is properly licensed by
(NRC #______________________and/or DA Authorization #_______________________as appropriate).
3. Item does (does not) contain explosives/hazardous materials and (if it does) has the following
b. Range safety data (for inclusion in AR 385-62 or AR 385-63) was (will be) finalized
3-13
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-14
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
including disposal. It describes the risk devices or other special safety features.
assessment procedures and the hazard It describes the procedures used to en-
severity categories, hazard probability sure test information is transmitted to the
levels, and system safety precedence that procuring activity for review and analy-
should be followed to satisfy the safety sis, and it provides procedures used to
requirements of MIL-STD-882. It states ensure safe conduct of all tests.
the quantitative and qualitative measures The SSPP describes the tech-
of safety to be used for risk assessment niques and procedures of an audit pro-
including a description of the acceptable gram to be used by the contractor to en-
risk level. It describes closed-loop pro- sure the objectives and requirements of
cedures used to take action to resolve the system safety program are being ac-
identified hazards. complished.
With respect to hazard analyses, The SSPP describes the safety
the SSPP describes the analysis tech- training for engineering, technical, op-
niques and formats to be used in qualita- erating, and maintenance personnel. It
tive or quantitative analysis to identify describes the mishap and hazardous mal-
hazards, their causes and effects, hazard function analysis process including
elimination, or risk reduction require- alerting the procuring activity to hazard-
ments and how those requirements are ous conditions.
met. It describes the depth within the The SSPP identifies in detail the
system to which each technique is used, interface between system safety and all
including hazard identification associ- other applicable safety disciplines such
ated with the system, subsystem, com- as nuclear safety, range safety, explosive
ponent, personnel, ground support and ordnance safety, chemical and bio-
equipment, Government-furnished logical safety, laser safety, nonionizing
equipment (GFE), facilities, and their radiation safety, and any others. In ad-
interrelationship in the logistic support, dition, it identifies the interface between
training, maintenance, and operational system safety and all other support dis-
environments. It also describes integra- ciplines such as maintenance, quality
tion of the subcontractor’s hazard analy- control, reliability, human factors engi-
ses with overall system hazard analyses. neering, medical support (health hazard
With respect to system safety assessments), and any others.
data, the SSPP describes the approach to The SSPP can be submitted as
be used to research, distribute, and ana- part of a contractor’s proposal, or it can
lyze pertinent historical hazard or mis- be submitted shortly after the start of the
hap data. It identifies deliverable data contract.
by title and number. It identifies nonde-
liverable system safety data and de- 3-10 SAFETY ANALYSES AND
scribes the procedures used for access by ANALYSIS TECHNIQUES
the procuring activity and to retain data Safety analyses and analysis
of historical value. techniques, as described in MIL-STD-
The SSPP describes the verifica- 882 and MIL-HDBK-764, are the pre-
tion—test, analysis, inspection, etc.— liminary hazard analysis, the subsystem
requirements for ensuring that safety is hazard analysis, the system hazard
adequately demonstrated. It identifies analysis, and the operation and support
the certification requirements for safety hazard analysis. Although there are a
3-15
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-16
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-17
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-18
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-19
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-20
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-21
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
demonstrating the full life. Also an in- and overhaul intervals are adequate and
creased level of quality assurance should safe relative to actual use
be required for all FSPs even if previ- 3. To assess new parts continu-
ously qualified. See par. 3-13 for 100% ally to ensure minor design and manu-
inspection requirements, waivers, and facturing changes do not affect FSPs in a
deviations. detrimental manner
4. To confirm degraded mode
3-13.3 FLIGHT SAFETY PARTS limits or effects due to wear, corrosion,
RECORDS fretting, and damage
All flight safety parts should be 5. To ensure that repair proce-
given a serial number whenever possi- dures do not degrade the critical charac-
ble. Otherwise, lot or bag and tag pro- teristics
cedures should be substituted. All 6. To determine the impact on
manufacturing or inspection process FSPs of any previously unknown or
control requirements relating to the known degraded conditions
flight safety part should be traceable to 7. To ensure that processes are
the time and location of production. Re- adequate to control time-related internal
cords should provide the traceability re- procedures of previously approved ven-
quired to enable after-the-fact verifica- dors (if any) and that new vendors are
tion of all aspects of material, manufac- not impacting the integrity of the FSPs
ture, special processing, assembly, and 8. To ensure that undefined
inspection of critical characteristics. changes in rotorcraft usage, new envi-
These special records allow the rapid ronments, or long-term effects do not
recall of fielded suspect flight safety impact the integrity of FSPs.
parts if a deficiency in manufacturing or
processing is encountered. Typically, 3-13.5 FLIGHT SAFETY PARTS
these records are required to be kept by DISPOSITION
the manufacturer or delivered to the Flight safety parts that have been
Government for retention until the last removed from service because they fail
part in the record is removed from serv- inspection criteria, fail in service, or
ice. whose life limit has been reached should
be destroyed to preclude the inadvertent
3-13.4 FLIGHT SAFETY PARTS reinstallation of the part or its remanu-
SURVEILLANCE facture. This extra effort is necessary
The FSPs Surveillance Program because the reuse of such parts could
should include a formal process for lead to failures resulting in unsafe op-
sampling all FSPs on a recurring basis. eration of the air vehicle. Air vehicle
The surveillance effort should use data development programs should have a
obtained from the FSP Program for the disposition clause to control flight safety
following purposes: parts and prevent installation of noncon-
1. To confirm the validity of re- forming FSPs on production units.
quirements used during the initial design
and qualification of FSPs
2. To monitor the effects of use
on parts to demonstrate that replacement
3-22
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3-23
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
REFERENCES
3-24
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
CHAPTER 4
This chapter presents typical requirements for technical reviews, data, and
documentation necessary to support the qualification of rotorcraft and other air vehicles.
Information on technical reviews include program progress reviews, preliminary and critical
design reviews, flight and firing readiness reviews, software reviews, special technical
reviews, and integrated product team reviews (IPTs). Data and documentation requirements
are provided for component, subsystem, and system qualification.
4-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
TASK-DATA MATRIX
4-2
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-4
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-5
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
detailed test and evaluation plans to knowledge of the overall progress of the
ascertain schedule and resource contractor's activities. The contractor
implications. The TEMP should provide a should describe the status of his design
road map for integrated simulation, test, effort in terms of the number of drawings
and evaluation plans, schedules, and and specifications released versus a
resource requirements necessary to projected release schedule. The program
accomplish the test and evaluation progress review should include but not be
program. limited to a system requirements review
(SRR) where the system/segment
4-6 TECHNICAL REVIEWS AND specification (SSS), the proposed computer
AUDITS languages, and processing hardware
The PM decides how the program is architecture are reviewed; and also a
to be managed. The PM may choose to system design review (SDR) where the
have formal or informal periodic reviews, system/segment design document (SSDD)
or could rely on continuous integrated and a preliminary software requirements
product team reviews. Also, the PM could specification (SRS) are reviewed.
rely on the contractor to propose the type Estimates of software lines of code written
of reviews and audits to be used. The versus projections should also be
agenda for these reviews should be presented. The results of analysis work to
coordinated between contractor and substantiate that design requirements will
government representatives several weeks be met may be discussed. As the
prior to the meeting. Meetings should not development effort progresses, the
only provide for Government oversight; contractor would typically present test
but, should also provide insight. The results and planned testing activities. It is
objectives and typical requirements of the at these reviews that problems are
following type reviews will be discussed in identified either by the contractor or
this paragraph: Government representatives and that
Program Progress Reviews potential solutions are discussed and
Preliminary Design Reviews reviewed in subsequent meetings. The
Critical Design Reviews frequency of these reviews and the specific
Flight Readiness Reviews topics covered are strongly dependent on
Firing Readiness Reviews the stage of developments.
Special Technical Reviews
Software Reviews 4-6.2 PRELIMINARY DESIGN
Configuration Audits REVIEWS
Technical Interchange Reviews The preliminary design review
Integrated Product Team Reviews (PDR) is a formal review of the basic
design approach for a configuration item or
4-6.1 PROGRAM PROGRESS a functionally related group of
REVIEWS configuration items. It is conducted after
A Program Progress Review is a the development specifications are
periodic review conducted by the developed. During the PDR, special
contractor to present the status of the attention is directed toward interface
development program. It is at this review documentation, high risk areas, long lead
that Government representatives gain times, and system level trade studies that
4-6
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-7
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-8
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-9
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
information, weapon firing modes, firing and contractual issues and provide
inhibits for specific flight conditions, direction or guidance as necessary. As a
clearance, jettison analysis or jettison last example, a backlog of data may have
results, ripple firing effect on engine occurred which precludes the conduct of a
performance, firing impact zone safety test event until the data is reviewed. The
footprint, susceptibility to electromagnetic most efficient and expedient way to resolve
radiation emitters, ordnance compatibility the problem may be for the Government to
information, weapon system excursion review the backlogged data at a special
limits, primary and emergency weapon technical review. See integrated product
stores jettison information, provisions for team reviews.
protecting the crew from weapon gases,
and blast pressure distribution information. 4-6.7 SOFTWARE REVIEWS
The nature of the data and degree of detail In addition to the software PDRs
should be such that they will support the and CDRS, software also undergoes
anticipated weapon firing activities to be software specification reviews (SSRs),
authorized by the contractor flight releases SDRS, and software Test Readiness
and airworthiness releases. Additional Reviews (TRR). The SSR is a formal
firing readiness reviews should be review of computer software configuration
conducted when the proposed firing tests item (CSCI) requirements as specified in
differ significantly from those approved by the software specifications. The purpose of
previous firing readiness reviews. See the SSR is to review the software and
integrated product team reviews. interface requirements stated in the
software requirements specification (SRS)
4-6.6 SPECIAL TECHNICAL and the interface requirements
REVIEWS specification (IRS) for completeness and
Special technical reviews may be tractability to the system specification.
conducted any time that such reviews are The TRR is a formal review of readiness to
necessary for the proper progress of the begin formal CSCI testing. The purpose of
qualification program. For example, in the software TRR is to confirm that the
order to support his design activities, the computer software configuration item is
contractor may have decided to build a ready for formal qualification testing. See
mock-up for the purpose of identifying and integrated product team reviews.
demonstrating interface requirements
between subsystems. The most expedient 4-6.8 CONFIGURATION AUDITS
way for the Government to review the A configuration audit is an audit
results of the mock-up activities may be to conducted against a configuration item to
attend a special technical review convened ensure that it meets requirements. Two
for that purpose. As another example, a types of configuration audits could be
specific technical problem may arise which conducted, the functional configuration
would require a special technical review to audit (FCA) and the physical configuration
be conducted. The contractor would audit (PCA). The objective of the FCA is
present the problem and possible to verify that the configuration item's
alternative solutions. Government actual performance complies with its
reviewers would discuss the situation and hardware development or software
implications on technical, schedule, cost, requirement and interface requirements'
4-10
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-11
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-12
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-13
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-14
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Prisms are used to bend light into measured. For additional information see
specified angle but not focus it. Angles of Chapter 1, paragraph 1-5.2.5.
reflection and transmission in the prism are
controlled by the accuracy of angle 4-7.8 MATERIALS DATA
fabrication and quality of coatings.
Laser design uses optics - mirrors Relevant information for materials
and lenses to build cavity interferometers. and processes are usually used in the
Lasers can use crystal, diode, gas, or design and construction of Army air
organic liquids to produce stimulated vehicles can be found in ADS-13, Air
radiated emission. Terms used to define Vehicle Materials and Processes, (Ref. 9).
laser characteristics are wavelength, beam The design standard addresses the general
divergence, power output, pulsed or material data including: material
continuous wave, and pointing control of properties, corrosion protection
the beam. requirements, temperature effects,
Detectors convert optical radiation minimum gauge of materials, fracture
into electronic signals or images by the toughness, characteristics of steel,
pyroelectric, photo conductive or photo aluminum, magnesium alloys, organic
voltaic, etc., effect. Detectors are materials, fiber reinforced materials,
wavelength dependent and combinations of transparent materials, lubrication
detector systems can detect optical requirements, materials used for
radiation from the new ultra violet (0.3 survivability , radioactive materials, and
micron) through the long wave infrared process selection. The contractor should
(0.8 micron and longer). Characteristics of be totally responsible for design and for
detectors include signal to noise (SIN), satisfying the performance requirements of
noise equivalent power (NEP), or net the specification. For additional
equivalent temperature (NET), information concerning materials and
instantaneous field-of-view (IFOV), testing, see Chapter 7.
electrical bandwidth (BW), optical Relevant information pursuant to
responsitivity (R), and D-star performance. the establishment of data basis for
composite material properties and design
4-7.7 FLIGHT SAFETY PARTS DATA allowables can be in Chapter 7, paragraph
Detail specifications and 7-6, and also in ADS-35, Composite
engineering drawings might be required for Materials for Helicopters, (Ref. 10). The
flight safety parts. Critical characteristics design standard addresses material property
and the procedures necessary to ensure that requirements, generation of material
these critical characteristics have been allowables, design considerations, and
achieved should be identified. Commercial control of processing. Specific topics of
specifications and standards may be used discussion include:
in lieu of detailed military specifications 1. Physical properties : description,
and standards, unless no practical material content, density, glass transition
alternative exists to meet the user’s needs. temperature, moisture absorption,
The data should define all design specific flammability resistance
performance requirements, all as integrated 2. Mechanical properties : tensile
and as installed characteristics, and all key properties, compressive properties, flexural
functional and physical attributes to be properties, fatigue properties, creep
4-15
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-16
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
propulsion system cooling and exhaust torsional stability, and dynamic and
systems should be submitted, showing diagnostic system analysis.
temperature and pressure design limits for Relevant information pursuant to
fuselage and components, required airflow, defining the gas turbine engine
and heat generation. These analyses performance characteristics, ratings, and
should be submitted with schematic performance can be found in ADS-50-PRF,
drawings of these systems. Rotorcraft Propulsion Performance and
2. Propulsion system installation Qualification Requirements and Guideline
drawings , excluding fuel and oil tanks, (Ref. 14). Typical data requirements can
detailing the location, mounting, vibratory be found in ADS-25, Engine Performance
isolation, and access for inspection and Data,
maintenance of all systems and elements: (Ref. 15).
engine, auxiliary power plant, fuel,
lubrication, air induction, cooling, starting, 4-8.2 FUEL AND OIL SUBSYSTEMS 4-
propulsion controls, engine inlet anti-icing, 8.2 FUEL AND OIL SUBSYSTEMS
filtering or particle separator, accessory The type of datarequired for fuel
drives, infrared radiation suppression, and oil subsystems should be basically the
power transmission, and smoke abatement. same as that described for components in
For power transmission systems, including paragraph 4.7, except that installation and
gearboxes, drawings also will include schematic diagrams should also be
lubrication system, bearings, and gearing; required. Analyses for the fuel subsystem
typical views of transmission housing should include; but, not necessarily be
including mounting provisions; typical limited to include capacity, flow rates,
cross sections and details of clutch transfer rates, vulnerability, and fuel feed
mechanism, free-wheeling devices, rotor capabilities. Additional data for external
brake, shafting and shaft supports, and tanks should include analysis of transfer
torque-limiting devices. rates, and jettison capabilities. Data for the
Relevant information for propulsion oil subsystem and oil distribution
system ground and flight surveys and subsystem should include analyses of the
demonstration requirements can be found flow, filtering, cooling, and lubricating
in ADS-1B-PRF, Rotorcraft Propulsion capabilities. Maintenance data should be
System Airworthiness Qualification provided for the fuel and oil system. This
Requirements, Ground and Flight Test should include the requirements and
Surveys, (Ref. 12). Relevant information procedures for purging the fuel system
concerning the preparation and submittal of using nitrogen inerting systems.
test reports can be found in ADS-50-PRF Aerial refueling subsystem (as
(Ref. 14). tanker and/or receiver) data should include
Relevant information to assist in the refueling capability data such as aerial
definition of technical data required refueling envelope of altitude versus true
Propulsion System Technical Data for air airspeed, fuel transfer rate versus pressure
vehicle technical proposals can be found in at the reception coupling or receiver
ADS-9, , (Ref. 13). This document nozzle; weight and balance related
includes the requirements for system information, and tanker package and
analyses such as stress, fatigue, cooling, component descriptions.
4-17
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-18
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
main gear; and turnover angle with the Specific analyses that should be performed
most critical CG location. are:
4. Tiedown arrangement drawing, a. Preliminary load analysis , which
consisting of a plan view showing the should form the basis for selecting power
complete tiedown configuration; generation equipment and for design of
attachments to rotorcraft gear; fuselage, generation and distribution system
wing, and tail fittings; and angles b. Intermediate load analyses
extending to ground tiedown points incorporating significant load or power
5. Air vehicle jacking drawing, source changes subsequent to the submittal
showing location of jacks and air vehicle of the preliminary load analysis
jackpoints, including all fuselage and/or c. Final corrected load analysis ,
wing points, and wheel axle and/or strut which should be marked "Final Corrected"
points and will include all changes incorporated
6. Landing gear design report in the complete air vehicle. If no changes
7. Landing gear specification or have been made to data previously
specification control drawings, as submitted, a new cover sheet should be
applicable, for the wheel tire submitted stating no changes have been
a. Nose or tail wheel made. The values entered in this analysis
b. Nose or tail wheel tire should be measured values.
c. Nose shock strut 2. Wiring diagrams showing
d. Nose gear steering and shimmy sufficient equipment internal circuitry to
damper allow for understanding the system
e. Solid tail and/or bumper wheel function. A brief description of any system
f. Bumper wheel tire or equipment not having readily
g. Main wheel and brake assembly recognizable operating functions should be
h. Main wheel tire included with the following diagrams:
i. Main wheel shock strut a. Preliminary wiring diagrams ,
j. Anti-skid brake control system consisting of both elementary, single-line
k. Main and nose gear actuators functional diagrams and schematic
l Ski installations and/or functional diagrams of the power
emergency flotation gear distribution and lighting systems
m. Rotor brake b. Master wiring diagrams ,
n. Steering and damper. consisting of installation schematic wiring
diagrams giving information of
4-8.6 ELECTRICAL SUBSYSTEMS interconnection of components. This
The type of data required for should include identification of wires,
electrical subsystems should be basically connectors, junction points, terminal
the same as that described for components blocks, and equipment. Information
in paragraph 4.7, except that the following pursuant to the selection of wire and cable
data should also be required: is given in Appendix A of
1. AC and DC electrical load MIL-W-5088, Aerospace Vehicle Wiring,
analyses. Information pursuant to this (Ref. 17). Also, information pursuant to
purpose can be found in MIL-E-7016 , for assigning significant wire identification
Analysis of Aircraft Electrical Load and codes is provided in Appendix B of
Power Source Capability, (Ref. 16). MIL-W-5088.
4-19
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3. General arrangement drawings ESDD, the final ESDD should include test
of the electrical equipment installation data from the electrical hot bench testing.
showing the location of all major items of The testing should include, but not be
electrical equipment limited to, simulated fault conditions and
4. Exterior light installation measurements of the fault current
drawings showing location and visibility magnitude and duration for all possible
characteristics. Relevant information can fault conditions. Test results should verify
be found in MIL-L-6730, Aircraft Exterior the performance of all fault protection in
Lighting Equipment, (Ref. 18). the electrical subsystem including the
5. Nonstandard electrical source protection, bus feed, and bus-tie
equipment specifications and substantiating contractors. In addition, hot bench test
data. Relevant information can be found in data should verify that the power quality is
MIL-STD-7080 Selection and Installation in accordance with
of Aircraft Electronic Equipment, (Ref. MIL-STD-704, Aircraft Electrical Power
19). Characteristics, (Ref. 20) for all
6. Cooling requirements for operational conditions of electrical
electronic and avionics systems. subsystem (normal, abnormal, and
7. Specific information on the emergency). Basically this is a
electrical subsystem should be included in performance and interface standard;
the following electrical subsystem design however, a waiver is required to cite this
documents (ESDDs): standard.
a. Preliminary ESDD (prior to
electrical hot bench testing): 4-8.7 AVIONIC SUBSYSTEMS
(1) Complete descriptions and This category of equipment
diagrams that identify all source capacities includes electronics associated with
(under all conditions) and all possible communications, navigation, crewstation
distribution configurations. Automatic and controls and displays, aircraft survivability
manual electrical subsystem monitoring equipment, radar and visionics equipment,
and control of air vehicle and ground antennae, data buses and bus controllers,
power source. central processors, flight instruments, and
(2) Specific circuit identification the myriad of other air vehicle subsystems
and details including, normal and peak that have electronic boxes dedicated to
power consumption, wire size, all special functions, such as secure voice and
protective and switching devices between tempest controlled systems. Tempest is an
each load and its normal power bus, and unclassified short name referring to
the proposed grounding, types and ratings investigation and studies of compromising
of all protective and switching devices. emanations. This refers to unintentional,
(3) Fault current (magnitude and intelligence bearing signals that, if
duration) estimates for all sources and the intercepted or analyzed, will result in
current capacity of all bus feed and bus-tie disclosure of national security information
contractors in series with those sources. transmitted, received, handled, or
b. Final ESDD (subsequent to otherwise processed by any information
electrical subsystem hot bench testing): In processing system. It is sometimes used
addition to final revisions of the synonomously for the term compromising
information identified in the preliminary emanation, e.g., tempest tests and tempest
4-20
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-21
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-22
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Flight recorder data should include application (cone angle), etc. Achievement
a description of the storage medium, of performance and interface requirements
storage capacity, parameters monitored, should be validated by means of analysis
and the equipment's ability to withstand and test reports. Data should be provided
crash conditions. as to any flight restrictions applicable to
Nuclear, biological, and chemical hoist operation.
(NBC) protection provisions should be
described by schematic and layout
drawings, and functional descriptions 4-8.12 CARGO PROVISIONS
which provide the specific design features Cargo provisions should be
incorporated to provide NBC protection. described in term of schematics and
Specific protection levels should be layouts showing the openings and location
addressed. of the cargo compartments, their
Aviation life support equipment capacities, tiedown limits and
data should include the capability, locations,.floor loading restrictions, and
operation, and limitations of such balance considerations. Reports and
equipment. analyses should be provided to show that
the design satisfies specification
4-8.10 PASSENGER FURNISHINGS requirements.
The type of data required for
passenger furnishings should be basically 4-8.13 LAVATORIES AND GALLEYS
the same as that described for components The type of data required for
in paragraph 4.7, except that schematics lavatories and galleys should be basically
and layout drawings and reports and the same as that described for components
analyses which describe the functional in paragraph 4.7, except that the data
characteristics of these items should also should include schematics and layout
be provided. Intercom data should include drawings detailing location and operation,
system capabilities and interfaces with storage capacities, disposal provisions, and
electrical and communication subsystems. special corrosion prevention
Fire retardant properties of materials used considerations. Lavatory data should
in passenger furnishings should be include, but not be limited to; portable
described in terms of their placement in the water and waste tank capacity, operation
air vehicle and capability to withstand procedures, maintenance requirements, and
temperature extremes. Soundproofing fill and dump provisions and restrictions.
materials' data should be provided to show Galley data should include maintenance
their location and acoustic attenuation and operation data, storage location and
characteristics. capacities, and human factors analysis.
4-23
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-24
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-25
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-26
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-27
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
mathematical model and documentation and occupancy time required; describe the
showing model inputs, outputs, flow logic, scale and type of models to be constructed
and equations used may be used to and tested; and present the ranges of test
characterize aerodynamic properties. Data variables to be investigated.
obtained from models and simulations 1. Interim Letter Reports . These
should be validated, and the mathematical should be submitted immediately following
models should be delivered-as data. other completion of testing at each test facility.
reports include aerodynamic flutter, They should cover items, such as tests
aeroelastic stability, aerodynamic stability conducted, scope, contractor's observations
and control (natural frequencies, damping, of the tests, including any difficulties
and response of both aircraft and control encountered, significant results, and any
system), flying qualities, and ground conclusions or recommendations based on
resonance. Compound, tilt rotor, and other inspection of the available preliminary test
multimedia air vehicles require unique data results.
and description of the air vehicle's 2. Aerodynamic Test Data Reports .
transition mode characteristics. These should present the basic
Aerodynamic component drawings aerodynamic data and test results obtained
should include data on airfoil from the investigations conducted in
characteristics, aerodynamic center, plan contractor-furnished and private test
form area, span, aspect ratio, chord (tip to facilities. Aerodynamic test data obtained
root), sweep angle of quarter chord, from Governmental facilities will be
orientation with respect to fuselage provided by the facility. The reports
reference system, thickness (tip and root), should identify the configurations tested,
and control surface data. any differences from the configuration
Handling Qualities data is required tested and reported on previously, and from
for assuring that no limitations on flight the current air vehicle configuration.
safety or on the capability to perform Graphic presentation is desired with
intended mission will result from reference (if possible) to axes consistent
deficiencies in flying qualities. Relevant with the stability and control and estimated
information can be found in flying quality report.
ADS-33, Handling Qualities Requirements 3. Flutter Analysis Reports . These
for Military Rotorcraft, (Ref. 36). The data reports should compare the flutter and
provided should include response time, divergence limit speeds for the rotor blades
hover and low speed data, forward flight and for the fixed lifting and control
data, transition between rotor-borne and surfaces of the rotorcraft. Flutter analysis
wing-borne flight, controller reports for other air vehicles should include
characteristics, failures, transfer between the flutter and divergence limit speeds for
response types, and ground handling and all lifting and control surfaces.
ditching characteristics.
An aerodynamic data report should 4-9.6 WEIGHT AND BALANCE DATA
show the planned aerodynamic and flutter The contractor should establish a
investigation program and schedule. This system of weight control and reporting.
report should outline the purpose and scope Information pursuant to this purpose can be
of each proposed investigation; indicate the found in MIL-W-25140, Weight and
test facilities to be employed and test dates Balance Control System (for Aircraft and
4-28
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Rotorcraft), (Ref. 37). Weight and balance problems will exist, or submit sufficient
control and management generally includes data to enable full system modeling by the
data on intent, approach, and methods to be procuring activity. Modeling data includes
used to insure minimal weight and balance rotor and airframe compatibility, engine
variations within constraints of and airframe compatibility, and stores and
specification design requirements, program airframe compatibility. Compatibility data
cost and schedule. The MIL-STD-1374, includes data to show vibratory loads do
Weight and Balance Data Reporting Forms not exceed limits specified, resonant
for Aircraft (Including Rotorcraft), (Ref. amplifications are not present, and all
38) describes standard weight statements components and subsystems will meet their
and forms, Parts I, II, and III, for functional and reliability requirements
procurement of weight and balance data, when subjected to the vibration levels as
and for instructions for uniform installed on the air vehicle.
compilation of the required weight and Vibration test data includes
descriptive data. The ADS-16, Weight and airframe shake tests data, rotor blade and
Balance Substantiation Report Format and hub properties' determination data,
Technical Content, (Ref. 39) describes the component shake table tests data, flight
type of weight and balance data reporting vibration survey data, and production
typically required with the submission of a acceptance test data.
proposal. In general, weight and balance
data required for a proposal are the data 4-9.8 ACOUSTICAL NOISE DATA
describing the contractor's weight and Acoustical noise data include
balance management plan. The results of surveys of the internal and
ADS-19, Weight and Balance Status external acoustical environment
Report-Reason for Change (SRFC) Format indicating measurement locations and
and Technical Content, (Ref. 40) describes measured levels in terms of amplitude
the basic requirements for MIL-STD-1374, and frequency. The data should be
Part III, (Ref. 38) standard reasons for sufficiently detailed to substantiate
change to be used with the achievement of design requirements.
“Government/Contractor Responsibility Information pursuant to the determination
Changes Since Last Report" pages of the that an acoustical environment that will
Weight and Balance Status Reports. These not cause personnel injury, interference
reports of changes provides the with voice or other communication,
Government a means to monitor the weight cause fatigue, or in any other way
and balance management of the program. degrade way degrade overall system
4-9.7 SYSTEM VIBRATION DATA effectiveness can be found in MIL-STD-
Information pursuant to establishing 1472 (Ref. 23).
vibrational related requirements for
development and qualification of 4-9.9 CLIMATIC DATA
rotorcraft, subsystems and equipment to be Climatic tests are performed under
installed on rotorcraft, including external simulated conditions and in actual climatic
stores can be found in ADS-27 (Ref. 32). zones. Climatic data is used to
Early during the development, the demonstrate adequate safety of operation
contractor should submit modeling data and compliance with applicable
sufficient to show that no vibrational specifications, and formulate
4-29
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-30
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-31
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-32
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-33
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-34
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-35
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-36
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-37
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-38
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-39
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-40
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
TABLE 4-2
4-41
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-42
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-43
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-44
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-45
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
TABLE 4-3
Bibliography
None
4-46
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
REFERENCES
4-47
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-48
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-49
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
BW = bandwidth
CG = center of gravity
CI = configuration item
4-50
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-51
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
M = monthly
4-52
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
R = responsitivity
4-53
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
4-54
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
CHAPTER 5
QUALIFICATION ASSURANCE
The qualification assurance topics of hardware and software quality assurance, instru-
mentation and calibration, plans and reports approval, test witnessing, test facility validation,
simulation validation, testability, test-analyze-and-fix, procurement specifications, make or buy
planning, special tooling, standardization program, and producibility are addressed.
5-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION HANDBOOK
ELEMENT DESCRIPTION
Quality Program Management Organization
Initial quality planning
Work instructions
Records
Corrective action
Costs related to quality
Facilities and Standards Drawings, documentation, and changes
Measuring and testing equipment
Production tooling
Inspection equipment
Advanced metrology and requirements
Control of Purchases Responsibility
Supplier control
Purchasing Data
Manufacturing Control Materials and materials control
Production processing and fabrication
Completed item inspection and testing
Handling, storage, and delivery
Nonconforming material
Statistical quality control and analysis
Indication of inspection status
Coordinated Government and Government inspection at subcontractor or vendor facilities
Contractor Actions Government property
assurance. Contractors should be encour- are usually used to document the results of
aged to propose commercial means to satisfy inspections and tests and indicate the ac-
these elements. ceptability of work or products and the ac-
The quality program management tion taken in connection with deficiencies.
element prescribes typical means for effec- Corrective actions result from the discovery
tive management of the quality function. of situations that could result in delivery of
The organization and methods used for the defective supplies, services, technical data,
quality function are prescribed by the con- standards, or other elements of contract per-
tractor. Typically these are determined formance and could create excessive losses,
through initial quality planning. Early in the delays, or cost. The final aspect of quality
contract, the contractor conducts a complete management could include maintenance and
review of contract requirements to determine use of quality cost data.
the needs for special controls, processes, test The facilities and standards element
equipment, fixtures, tooling, and skills re- typically deals with establishing and main-
quired to assure product quality. Work in- taining baseline information against which
structions often provide the criteria needed product performance can be compared. Pro-
to perform the work functions and to super- cedures should be established to assure the
vise, inspect, and manage work. Records adequacy, completeness, and currentness of
5-2
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
5-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION HANDBOOK
contractor’s software quality program quired format and that each document
should ensure the quality of complies with the contract.
1. Deliverable software and its The Evaluation of the Processes
documentation Used in Software Development element
2. The processes used to produce could include an ongoing evaluation of
deliverable software software management, evaluation of soft-
3. Nondeliverable software. ware engineering, evaluation of software
Contractors should be required to define in system safety, evaluation of software quali-
their proposals and specifications the means fication, evaluation of software configura-
by which they will satisfy these objectives. tion management, evaluation of software
Ultimately, the contractor should be respon- corrective actions, evaluation of documenta-
sible for quality and performance. Several tion and media distribution, evaluation of
related commercial standardization docu- storage, handling, and delivery, and evalua-
ments are ASQC Q9001, Quality Systems— tion of other processes used in software de-
Model for Quality Assurance in Design, De- velopment.
velopment, Production, and Servicing, (Ref. The Evaluation of the Software De-
2) and IEEE STD 1298/SAA 3563.1, Soft- velopment Library element could be ac-
ware Quality Management System, (Ref. 6). complished by ensuring that
1. The library and its operation
5-3.1 SOFTWARE QUALITY comply with the contract and adhere to the
ASSURANCE PROGRAM ELEMENTS software plans
Table 5-2 identifies and describes 2. The most recent authorized ver-
typical elements of a Software Quality As- sion of materials under configuration control
surance Program. The contractor(s) should is clearly identified and is the one routinely
be encouraged to propose commercial means available from the library
to satisfy these elements. 3. The previous version of materials
The first element of a Software under configuration control is clearly identi-
Quality Assurance Program relates to fied and controlled to provide an audit trail
Evaluation of Software. This could be that permits reconstruction of all changes
achieved through ongoing evaluations of all made to each configuration item.
software to assure that The Evaluation of Nondevelopmen-
1. The software complies with the tal Software element could be accomplished
contract requirements, and emphasis is by assuring that
placed on reliability and software system 1. Objective evidence exists prior to
safety. its incorporation that it performs its required
2. The software adheres to the functions reliably and safely.
overall integrated plan. 2. It was placed under internal con-
The Evaluation of Software Docu- figuration control prior to its incorporation.
mentation element could entail an evaluation 3. The data rights provisions are
of the software portion of the integrated plan consistent with the contract.
to ensure it complies with the contract, with The Evaluation of Nondeliverable
other software plans, and with system-level Software element could be accomplished by
requirements. It could include the evalua-
tion of other software documentation to en-
sure that each document adheres to the re-
5-4
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
ELEMENT DESCRIPTION
Evaluation of Software Assurance that
Software bears no adverse sy stem safety impact.
Software complies with co ntract.
Software adheres to software plans.
Evaluation of Software Documentation Evaluation of software plans
Software plan compliance with contract
Software plan consistency with other software plans and
with system-level plans
Evaluation of Processes Used in Software Evaluation of
Development Software management
Software engineering
Software system safety
Software qualification
Software configuration manag ement
Software corrective actions
Documentation and media distr ibution
Storage, handling, and delivery
Other processes used in sof tware development
Evaluation of the Sof tware Development Assurance that
Library Library and operation comply with the contract and plans.
Most recent authorized version of materials under con-
figuration control are identified and avai lable.
Previous versions of materials under configuration control are
identified for audit trail pu rposes.
Evaluation of Nondevelo pmental Software Assurance that
Nondevelopmental software performs required func-tions r e-
liably and safely.
Nondevelopmental software was placed under internal co n-
figur ation control prior to use.
Data rights provis ions are co nsistent with contract.
Evaluation of Nondelive rable Software Assurance that
Software performs required functions.
Software was placed under internal configuration con-trol
prior to use.
Evaluation of Deliverable Elements of the Assurance that deliverable el ements
Software Engineering and Test Environ- Comply with contract and sof tware plans
ments Perform required functions r eliably and safely
Place under configuration co ntrol prior to use
Data right provisions are co nsistent with contract
Evaluation of Subcontra ctor Management Assurance that
Subcontractor-developed software and documentation satisfy
prime contract requirement.
Baseline requirements for subcontractor are estab-lished and
maintained.
Software quality program requirements are imposed on su b-
contractor.
Access for contractor review at subcontractor’s facility.
Contracting agency has right to review subcontractor.
5-5
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION HANDBOOK
ELEMENT DESCRIPTION
Evaluations Associated With Acce ptance Assurance that
Inspection and Preparat ion for D elivery All required software products are available for review.
All required procedures have been performed.
All deliverables have been updated to reflect all ap-proved
changes.
Participation in Formal Reviews and Audits Assurance that all review products are available and that all
required preparations have been made.
Presentation of evaluation of status and quality of each
development product.
Assurance that all action items resulting from review have been
performed.
evaluation of each nondeliverable software able to the contracting agency satisfy the
item used in the automated manufacturing of prime contract requirements.
deliverable hardware or in the qualification 2. A set of baseline requirements is
or acceptance of deliverable software, or established and maintained for the software
hardware could be evaluated to ensure that to be developed by the subcontractor.
1. Objective evidence exists prior to 3. Applicable software quality pro-
its intended use that it performs the required gram requirements are included or refer-
functions. enced in the subcontract or purchase docu-
2. It was placed under internal con- ments for the subcontractor.
figuration control prior to its use. 4. Access is available for contractor
The Evaluation of Deliverable Ele- reviews at subcontractor and vendor facili-
ments of the Software Engineering and Test ties.
Environments element could be accom- 5. The contracting agency has the
plished by the contractor's evaluation of right to review all software products and ac-
each deliverable element of the software tivities required by the subcontract at the
engineering and test environment to assure subcontractor facilities to determine compli-
that ance with the subcontract.
1. It complies with the contract and The Evaluations Associated With
adheres to the software plans. Acceptance Inspection and Preparation for
2. Objective evidence exists prior to Delivery element could be accomplished by
its use that it performs required functions. the contractor to assure that
3. It was placed under internal con- 1. All required software products are
figuration control prior to its use. available and ready for contracting agency
4. The data rights provisions are inspection.
consistent with the contract. 2. All required procedures have been
The Evaluation of Subcontractor performed and evidence of satisfactory
Management element could entail the con- completion of these procedures is available
tractor's evaluation of all subcontractor ac- for contracting agency inspection.
tivity to assure that 3. All deliverable software and
1. All subcontractor-developed documentation have been updated to reflect
software and related documentation deliver all changes approved by the contracting
agency and scheduled for inclusion.
5-6
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
The final element, Participation in fied conditions. The presence of this value
Formal Reviews and Audits, could require provides the basis for determining that a
that specification requirement has been met and
1. Prior to each review and audit, the therefore forms a basis for airworthiness
contractor assures that all required products qualification.
will be available and ready for contracting
agency review and that all required prepara- 5-4.1 INSTRUMENTATION PLANS
tions have been made. AND REVIEWS
2. At each formal review and audit A separate instrumentation plan
the contractor presents an evaluation of the should not be required by the PA; however,
status and quality of each of the develop- instrumentation requirements should be in-
ment products reviewed. cluded in the contract and Airworthiness
3. Following each formal review and Qualification Specification. The contractor
audit, the contractor assures that all soft- should be responsible for data reduction and
ware-related action items assigned to the analysis, which the PA should review and
contractor have been performed. approve. The criteria for instrumentation
selection includes tradeoffs between instru-
5-3.2 SOFTWARE QUALITY mentation cost, required accuracy, facility
ASSURANCE PROGRAM use and availability, and data reduction and
INCORPORATION processing requirements. The contractor’s
Just as with Hardware Quality As- proposal should detail its data collection
surance Program requirements, Software methods, proposed flight instrumentation
Quality Assurance Program requirements equipment, data reduction and processing
may be specified by reference in the con- requirements, and the proposed data reduc-
tract, system specification, or AQS. Any tion facilities equipment. Also the proposal
unique requirements applicable to the pro- and system specification should address the
gram may also be addressed in the contract, extent to which built-in test equipment
system specification, or AQS. If no re- (BITE) onboard the air vehicle will be used
quirement for a Quality Assurance Program as well as the requirements for external in-
exists in the contract, critical elements of the strumentation. Differences in instrumenta-
program should be specified in the AQS tion requirements during various test phases
should also be addressed.
5-4 INSTRUMENTATION AND Instrumentation reviews should be
CALIBRATION FOR TESTING conducted when instrumentation issues are
Instrumentation is the means by sufficiently complex to warrant direct inter-
which physical variables are measured. It is face between Government and contractor
comprised of sensors and data transmitting, personnel. Such issues might involve the
receiving, displaying and recording equip- use of Government facilities or the require-
ment. Calibration procedures involve a ment for highly specialized instrumentation.
comparison of the particular instrument with A thorough review of demonstration re-
(1) a primary standard, (2) a secondary stan- quirements is necessary to identify the pa-
dard with a higher accuracy than the instru- rameters to be measured and the instrumen-
ment being calibrated, or (3) a known input tation methods to be used for measurement.
source. The objective of instrumentation An integral part of this review is identifica-
and calibration is to collect evidence that a tion of the accuracy requirements for meas-
characteristic value is present under speci- urements since these will drive the com-
5-7
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION HANDBOOK
plexity, sophistication, and cost of the in- as the data is being gathered, or it may be
strumentation system. performed after the test. Real-time data
processing has the advantage of providing
5-4.2 FLIGHT TEST immediate feedback on test progress and
INSTRUMENTATION results and allows for a quick reaction to test
Air vehicle flight test instrumenta- progress. This advantage can greatly reduce
tion typically records air vehicle attitudes, the need for test time and facilities by allow-
rates, accelerations, pitot-static data, tem- ing on-the-spot correction of problems or
peratures, flow rates, and human-factors- other intervention by test personnel during
related parameters. Typical instrumentation the test. Certain data reduction processing
sensors include accelerometers, strain gages, requirements may be so computationally
temperature and pressure sensors, flow sen- intensive that they can be performed only
sors, position sensors, vibration sensors, and after completion of the test.
audio- and video-sensing devices. In addi- It is essential that prior to the test the
tion, instrumentation may be provided to data collection and processing system be
record cockpit switch settings and flight validated to ensure that valid results are gen-
crew activity. Output of electronic displays erated. Validity of data is determined by
may be recorded for analysis of system per- comparing data processing results with in-
formance. For onboard digital communica- dependently generated or determined data.
tion busses, bus monitoring devices monitor
and record bus traffic. The monitoring may 5-4.3 RANGE INSTRUMENTATION
be selective, in which case only specific Range instrumentation includes
types of bus messages are monitored, or it time-, space-, and position-information sen-
may capture all bus activity. sors; transponders; and range-time receivers.
Signals from sensors are passed Specialized range instruments are also used
through signal-conditioning circuits, such as to determine air vehicle acoustic, optical,
amplifiers and filters, prior to recording. infrared, and radar signatures. Instrumented
Recording may be performed onboard the targets, both moving and stationary, are re-
air vehicle or on the ground with telemetry quired to perform weapon system effective-
devices used to communicate the data from ness testing. The instrumentation system
the air vehicle to the ground. Often, a com- should be able to provide time-tagged in-
bination of both recording methods is used. formation relative to target position, veloc-
The recording medium may be either mag- ity, and acceleration. Meteorological condi-
netic (tape or disk), solid-state (flash mem- tions at the target area, such as visibility
ory, random access memory (SRAM), eras- conditions (which include both naturally oc-
able programmable read-only memory curring and man-made obscurants), tempera-
(EPROM)), or optical. Data may be re- ture, precipitation conditions, and atmos-
corded in either analog or digital formats. pheric attenuation at the specific wavelength
Digital recording allows the application of of the sensors under test should be recorded.
digital signal processing techniques, which Instrumentation should also be provided that
greatly enhance the capability for later data will allow determination of weapon impact
reduction. or weapon miss distances in both the cross-
Data processing is the activity that range and downrange directions. For tests
turns raw data into results, which may be involving missiles, the missiles may also be
compared with performance requirements. instrumented.
Processing may take place in real time, i.e.,
5-8
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
5-9
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION HANDBOOK
many draft versions with errors and omis- vey, or demonstration and prior to compo-
sions. Thus controlled release of test plans nent or subsystem disassembly following
and reports by a document control activity same, the test coordinator designated by the
provides a source of known version(s) of the procuring activity shall be notified in suffi-
documents approved for use. This proce- cient time to witness the test or disassembly.
dure assures that the correct tests are per- If the test interpretation requires specific
formed and that an accurate record of the engineering knowledge, the test coordinator
test conducted and its results are available to shall be notified by the contractor a mini-
document the qualification. mum of five (5) working days prior to the
test. No designated test will be conducted
5-6 TEST WITNESSING without the test coordinator or his represen-
The test witness is responsible for tative being present. Deviation from these
reviewing the plans of test(s) and the con- procedures is subject to case-by-case ap-
tract requirements (system specifications, proval of the procuring activity.
etc.) and for being familiar all aspects of the The test coordinator should be re-
test(s) to be witnessed. As a Government sponsible for ensuring that a qualified wit-
representative, the test witness is responsible ness is present during the important phases
for verifying the contractor's test report. As of a test program. For tests that are consid-
early as possible, the witness should inform ered a significant part of the qualification
the test coordinator of any special require- program, the test witness(es) generally
ments in the areas that follow (if applicable): should be provided by the procuring activ-
1. Specific documentation and data, ity.
e.g., plans, reports, and drawings, that will
be used in witnessing activities 5-7 TEST FACILITY VALIDATION
2. Special briefings unique to his The objective of test facility valida-
areas of interest tion is to assure that the contractor's test fa-
3. Portion of the test to be wit- cility is adequate for achieving its airworthi-
nessed. ness qualification functions. The criteria
The test witness should review and counter- used to establish a requirement for test facil-
sign the test report prepared by the contrac- ity validation depends on the extent to which
tor. This constitutes verification of the the airworthiness qualification objectives are
scope and details of the test and that the test dependent on the adequacy of the test facil-
was conducted with or without deviations ity and the degree of previous use of the
from the Government-approved test plans. facility by the contractor for similar pur-
It does not necessarily indicate concurrence poses.
in the conclusions presented. The witness or Generally, a test facility may be vali-
observer should provide an evaluation of the dated by defining its intended function and
test to the test coordinator and should also showing evidence that it is properly
discuss any requirements for special witness- equipped and staffed for that intended func-
ing reports with the coordinator. tion. Equipment considerations should in-
A generic AQS requirement for test clude test fixtures, stimulus capabilities,
witnessing follows: measurement capabilities, data pro-cessing
Based on the contractor's master test capabilities, tools, support equipment, inter-
schedule, the procuring agency will desig- face equipment, and suitability of the facility
nate those tests that require Government to conduct flight-test operations.
witnessing. Prior to any required test, sur-
5-10
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
5-11
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION HANDBOOK
5-12
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
stages of development and use—during the electromagnetic (eddy current) testing to in-
development stage, when it is produced, af- spect welds, measure coating thickness, and
ter storage, and after repair. determine electrical conductivity; ultrasonic
testing; ultrasonic contact inspection of
5-9.3 SELF-DIAGNOSTICS AND weldments; radiographic inspections; ultra-
BUILT-IN TEST (BIT) sonic adhesive bond testing; temper etch in-
Self-diagnostics and built-in test re- spection; fluorescent penetrant methods;
fer to the capability to determine the opera- magnetic particle methods; and halogen leak
tional status of an item while installed in the detection methods.
system. BIT may be of a continuous nature The use of NDTE should be inte-
or initiated by the operator or maintainer. grated into the design process to ensure that
Continuous, or on-line, BIT places demands the materials, manufacturing techniques, and
on the system and should therefore be lim- other design characteristics are compatible
ited to immediate detection of critical func- with the NDTE techniques used to monitor
tions. Operator- or maintainer-initiated, off- the integrity of flight-critical parts.
line, BIT is usually used for fault isolation
purposes. Advantages of BIT capability 5-10 TEST-ANALYZE-FIX-TEST
over ATE testability include the fact that (TAFT)
BIT allows instantaneous performance The test-analyze-fix-test (TAFT)
monitoring; eases the burden on the opera- sometimes also referred to as “test-analyze-
tor; reduces the requirements for shop fa- and-fix” (TAAF), is central to the qualifica-
cilities, equipment, and personnel; and gen- tion process. Airworthiness qualification is
erally reduces life cycle cost. more than just testing and reporting the re-
Properly designed and functioning sults, good or bad. The TAFT principles
BIT contributes to the objectives of the air- ensure that the qualification program not
worthiness qualification process by assuring only uncovers deficiencies in a system but
that the system is performing acceptably also provides a mechanism for identification
during development, during operation, and and incorporation of fixes required to com-
after repair. plete and pass qualification. TAFT require-
ments should be included in Airworthiness
5-9.4 NONDESTRUCTIVE TEST AND Qualification Plans (AQP) and Airworthi-
EVALUATION (NDTE) ness Qualification Specifications.
The objective of nondestructive test A TAFT program identifies and cor-
and evaluation is to determine the integrity rects performance-related problems or defi-
of parts by measurement or inspection with- ciencies and reliability problems. Integral to
out damage or destruction. The test is in- TAFT is a closed-loop data collection sys-
tended to reveal conditions at or beneath the tem that captures the circumstances of oc-
exterior surface of a part or material that currence of the problem or deficiency. The
cannot be evaluated solely by visual exami- appropriate contractor organization is as-
nation with or without magnification or by signed the responsibility to identify the
dimensional measurement. In general, cause of the problem or deficiency and to
NDTE should be used to determine the develop the necessary corrective action.
condition of materials, whereas BIT and Upon incorporation of the corrective action,
ATE should be used to determine the condi- the performance of the system is monitored
tion and functionality of electronics. NDTE to ensure that the problem does not recur.
techniques include but are not limited to
5-13
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION HANDBOOK
5-14
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
ability with existing items. For a general ing a design criteria standard should be con-
specification to be designated a sidered.
“performance specification”, the require- DoD design criteria standards should
ments in its associated specification, specifi- be developed to specify military-unique de-
cation sheets, or MS sheets should also be sign or functional criteria that must be ad-
stated as performance requirements. hered to during development of systems,
“Detailed specifications” may consist subsystems, equipments, assemblies, com-
of all detailed requirements or a blend of ponents, items, or parts. These design crite-
perfor-mance and detailed requirements. To ria are not primarily related to requirements
the greatest extent possible, detailed specifi- that affect interchangeability, interoperabil-
cations should be in terms of performance. ity, interconnection, compatibility, or com-
They should specify materials, design or munications. Adherence to these design
construction requirements, or “how to” re- criteria standards, however, will affect the
quirements only to the extent necessary to manufacturing of a product. Some examples
ensure the adequacy, safety, and inter- include military-unique design selection,
changeability of the item being acquired. nuclear blast protection, safety requirements,
and human factors requirements.
5-11.2 STANDARDS DoD standard practices should be
MIL-STD-962, Department of De- developed when it is necessary to specify
fense Standard Practice for Defense Stan- procedures on how to conduct nonmanufac-
dards and Handbooks, (Ref. 11) provides turing functions. Standard practices should
definitions and format and content direction. be developed only for services that, at least
DoD standards should be prepared only some of the time, are obtained via contract
when it is necessary to capture military- from private sector firms. Standard prac-
unique requirements. Non-Government tices should not be used if non-Government
standards should be used to describe com- standards are the typical commercial vehicle
mercial or industry practices, processes, and used to procure a particular type of service.
methods. There are five types of DoD- Test method standards should be de-
prepared standards: interface standards, veloped to specify specific test methods,
standard practices, test method standards, procedures, or protocols. Military test
manufacturing process standards, and design method standards should reflect test meth-
criteria standards. ods that are unique to the DoD such as tests
DoD interface standards should be for the high levels of shock encountered in
developed to specify the physical, func- the landing of an air vehicle on an aircraft
tional, or military operational environment carrier. A DoD test method standard should
interface characteristics of systems, subsys- be developed only if it reflects a military-
tems, equipments, assemblies, components, unique requirement.
items, or parts to permit interchangeability, The DoD strongly discourages de-
interconnection, interoperability, compati- velopment of manufacturing process stan-
bility, or communications. Many, if not dards. The role for DoD process standards
most, standards have interface elements. To is limited to situations in which the DoD
be designated an interface standard, estab- alone has the technological expertise to
lishing mandatory interface requirements specify a military-unique process.
should be the primary function of the docu- The DoD also strongly discourages
ment. If interface criteria are just one of development of management process stan-
many design criteria requirements, develop- dards. It is not the policy of the DoD to
5-15
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION HANDBOOK
create standard management approaches decisions are primarily affordability and cost
across all programs and all contractors. related. As such, make or buy plans and
Contractors should be allowed the flexibility decisions do not affect airworthiness qualifi-
to manage programs in innovative ways that cation decisions. It is primarily a program
can improve quality, reduce costs, and intro- issue. See FAR Subpart 15.7, Make or Buy
duce the latest technological advances. Programs, (Ref. 14) and DFAR Subpart
215.7, Make or Buy Programs, (Ref. 15).
5-11.3 HANDBOOKS
MIL-STD-962, Department of De- 5-13 SPECIAL TOOLING
fense Standard Practice for Defense Stan- One of the critical functions in assur-
dards and Handbooks, (Ref. 11) provides ing repeatability in the manufacturing and
definitions and format and content direction assembly cycle is tool control. The tools
for handbooks prepared either by Govern- used in the manufacturing and fabrication
ment activities or under contract. Hand- cycle must have the capacity to reproduce
books are developed following the processes each detail, subassembly, and assembly in
described for standardization documents in accordance with the accepted design con-
DoD 4120.3-M, Defense Standardization figuration. As engineering design changes
Program, Policies, and Procedures, (Ref. are proposed, they should be reviewed for
13) except there will not be any interim their impact on applicable tooling. The
handbooks. The procuring activity (PA) quality assurance function should be inti-
should not cite handbooks as requirements mately involved in establishing the need for,
in solicitations, contracts, or any type of proofing, and controlling special tooling.
technical document. Rather than develop Detailed specifications covering the
mandatory standards that require a single fabrication of tools to be employed in the
approach when other approaches may also manufacture and assembly of an air vehicle
be acceptable, a handbook offers an oppor- should be provided. In addition, detailed
tunity to preserve institutional memory and process instructions for the use of the tools
offer solutions that have worked without in production, for recheck and/or recalibra-
mandating those solutions. Handbooks are tion, and for inspection of the parts produced
good for providing lessons learned; classify- by the tool should be developed.
ing items, materials, or processes; defining Master tool control normally is the
terms; listing abbreviations or acronyms; only practical method of coordinating tool-
providing interpretation; offering different ing and ensuring interchangeability. The
technical options; and any other type of accuracy and ease with which mating as-
guidance information. If a handbook is cited semblies fit or are individually interchange-
as a requirement, contractors may disregard able are dependent on the control of size,
the requirement and interpret the contents as shape, and matching interface conditions at
guidance only. attachment points.
A program of inspection and tool
5-12 MAKE OR BUY PLAN verification to be used in the manufacture of
Make or buy plans are not required the contract end-item should be developed.
during research and development. Also
these plans are not required if prototypes or 5-14 STANDARDIZATION PROGRAM
hardware is involved, but no significant A properly conducted standardiza-
follow-on production under the same con- tion program facilitates the achievement of
tract is anticipated. Further, make or buy airworthiness qualification and quality as-
5-16
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
5-17
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION HANDBOOK
5-18
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
REFERENCES
1. ASQC Q9000.1, Quality Management and Quality Assurance Standards—Guidelines for
Selection and Use, American Society for Quality Control, Milwaukee, WI, 1 August 1994.
2. ASQC Q9001, Quality Systems—Model for Quality Assurance in Design, Development, Pro-
duction, Installation, and Servicing, American Society for Quality Control, Milwaukee, WI,
1 August 1994.
3. ASQC Q9002, Quality Systems—Model for Quality Assurance in Production, Installation,
and Servicing, American Society of Quality Control, Milwaukee, WI, 18 July 1994.
4. ASQC Q9003, Quality Systems—Model for Quality Assurance in Final Inspection and Test,
American Society of Quality Control, Milwaukee, WI, 18 July 1994.
5. ASQC Q9004, Quality Management and Quality System Elements—Guidelines, American
Society of Quality Control, Milwaukee, WI, 18 July 1994.
6. IEEE STD 1298/SAA 3563.1, Software Quality Management System, The Institute of Elec-
trical and Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, NY, 1992.
7. ISO 10012.1, Quality Assurance Requirements for Measuring, International Organization for
Standardization, Geneva, Switzerland, 15 January 1992.
8. ANSI Z540-1, Laboratories, Calibration, and Measuring Test Equipment, American Na-
tional Standards Institute, New York, NY, 27 July 1994.
9. MIL-STD-2165A, Testability Program for Systems and Equipments, 1 February 1993.
10. DARCOM-P 34-1, Built-in Test Design Guide, 19 March 1981.
11. MIL-STD-962C, Department of Defense Standard Practice for Defense Standards and
Handbooks, 20 October 1995.
12. MIL-STD-961D, Department of Defense Standard Practice for Defense Specifications, 22
March 1995.
13. DoD 4120.3-M, Defense Standardization Program Policies and Procedures, July 1993.
14. FAR, Subpart 15.7, Make or Buy Programs, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC,
1991.
15. DFAR, Subpart 215.7, Make or Buy Programs, Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC, 1991.
16. MIL-HDBK-402A, Guidelines for the Implementation of the DoD Parts Control Program,
14 May 1993.
17. MIL-HDBK-727, Design Guidance for Producibility, 13 February 1990.
5-19
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
CHAPTER 6
MODELING
SECTION I
PHYSICAL MODELS
6-1 INTRODUCTION
Models and mock-ups are used extensively during air vehicle design and development.
Scale models are generally used early in the design to investigate aerodynamic effects and
interactions using wind tunnels and flow tanks. Results of scale model testing provide the
designer insights into the aerodynamic characteristics of the air vehicle being developed. The data
obtained from models may be used to predict flight limitations, performance, and handling quality
characteristics. For example, a powered force model (PFM) could be used to determine whether
the horizontal stabilizer design is adequate to provide positive longitudinal stability.
At an early stage in the development cycle, a full-scale air vehicle mock-up or computer-
aided engineering substitute should be fabricated to function as a design tool to determine the
optimum air vehicle configuration. Computer-aided substitutes are capable of a degree of
functional realism that is comparable to a physical mock-up.
This mock-up should be capable of demonstrating the compatibility of the ground handling,
maintaining, loading, and operating requirements of the air vehicle and its equipment. Particular
regard should be given to crew and passenger stations, cargo and weapon provisions, equipment
arrangement, and propulsion system installations. Visibility for the flight crew, lighting, effective
clearances, and personnel safety also should be considered. Individual subsidiary mock-ups may
be required for specific areas such as crew stations and lighting. Also functional mock-ups should
be fabricated for most subsystems.
The full-scale mock-up may be used to assist in packaging and in arrangement tradeoff
studies for selected components. Such a mock-up offers a three-dimensional presentation for
other engineering disciplines, such as maintainability, reliability, producibility, and system safety,
to evaluate and plan subsequent test demonstrations. Mock-ups are routinely used as design tools
to establish effective arrangements or to resolve subsystem interface problems as they affect form,
fit, and function.
6-1
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-2
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
the flow around the object. When properly scaled for fluid differences, flow tanks can be used to
visualize the airflow around the object. They can also be used to visualize the airflow
aerodynamics of wingtip vortices around a wing and flow about the main rotor and tail rotor.
These types of preflight data are useful for predicting flight characteristics, such as separation
turbulence and interference, prior to actual flight experience. The objective is to detect any defect
or design deficiency and to evaluate fixes.
Dvρ
Rn = , dimensionl ess (6-1)
µ
where
Rn = Reynolds number, dimensionless
D = characteristic length, m (ft)
v = air velocity, m/s (ft/s)
ρ = air density, kg/m (slug/ft )
3 3
Matching Reynolds numbers is no guarantee of perfect similarity; however, since the wind tunnel
conditions are not completely uniform and include wall effects not encountered in the free air,
model and actual air vehicle matching is seldom achieved. Examples of measured parameters
obtainable from wind tunnel testing include lift and drag characteristics, flow pressures and
separation characteristics over control surfaces, and general pressure/velocity distributions.
Tunnel characteristics that could affect results must be considered during test design. Examples
of typical tunnel characteristics that should be considered include test section size, maximum
velocity capability, inherent tunnel turbulence, and temperature/humidity control. Some of these
facility-dependent characteristics enable valid measurements only at specific facilities. Table 6-1
lists several major facilities and their capabilities. Additional information on wind tunnel
6-3
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
locations and capabilities may be obtained from Ref. 1. The aerodynamic data collected from
wind tunnel tests provide another significant building block in the substantiation of qualification
characteristics by providing essential aerodynamic information. With the advancing capabilities of
computational fluid dynamics (CFD), it appears possible to reduce the amount of wind tunnel test
time required for future development programs.
6-4
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
types of data that can be measured from these models include air inlet and exhaust area pressures
at all flight attitudes and velocities, flow pressures and separation characteristics over control
surfaces, and weapon exhaust gas flow.
6-5
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-6
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
FACILITY SIZE, m (ft) SPEED MINIMUM LIQUID WATER DROPLET SIZE, TYPE*
TEMPERATURE, °C (°F) CONTENT, g/m3 µ m (µ in.)
NASA Lewis Research Center 1.83 × 2.74 0-240 kt –28.9 0 to 2 10 to 30 1
Cleveland, OH (6 × 9) (–20) (394 to 1181)
Naval Air Propulsion Test Center 7.01 × 7.01 0 to Mach 0.9 –20 1 to 2 15 to 25 1
Trenton, NJ (23 × 23) (–4) (591 to 984)
Naval Air Propulsion Test Center 5.18 0 to Mach 2.4 –20 1 to 2 15 to 25 1
Trenton, NJ (17) diameter (–4) (591 to 984)
Naval Air Propulsion Test Center 4.42 0 to Mach 2.4 –20 1 to 2 15 to 25 1
Trenton, NJ (14.5) diameter (–4) (591 to 984)
Naval Air Propulsion Test Center 0.61 70 to 75 mph –30 0.1 to 3 15 to 50 1
Philadelphia, PA (2) diameter (–22) (591 to 1968)
Lockheed, California 0.76 × 1.22 50 to 186 kt –21 0.7 to 4 7 to 35 1
Burbank, CA (2.5 × 4.0) (–5) (276 to 1378)
Lockheed, CA 0.76 × 0.76 50 to 210 kt –18.9 0.7 to 4 7 to 35 1
Burbank, CA (2.5 × 2.5) (–2) (276 to 1378)
The Boeing Company 4.57 × 6.10 0 to 200 kt –34.4 down to 5 15 to 25 1
Seattle, WA (15 × 20) (–30) (591 to 984)
National Research Council of Ottawa 0.30 × 0.30 0 to Mach 0.9 –40 0 to 3 15 to 60 1
Ontario, Canada (1 × 1) (–40) (591 to 2362)
National Research Council of Ottawa 1.37 ×1.37 0 to 200 mph –25 0 to 3 15 to 60 1
Ontario, Canada (4.5 × 4.5) (–13) (591 to 2362)
National Research Council of Ottawa 1.56 × 2.44 0 to 500 mph –25 0 to 3 30 to 60 1
Ontario, Canada (5 × 8) (–13) (1181 to 2362)
National Research Council of Ottawa 16.75 × 3.05 hover ambient 0 to 0.9 30 to 60 2
Ontario, Canada (55 × 10) (1181 to 2362)
Eglin Air Force Base, FL 9.14 × 9.14 0 17.8 0.5 to 20 15 to 90 4
(30 × 30) (0) (591 to 3543)
C-130 Tanker, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base N/A up to 150 kt ambient 0.1 to 1.1 80 to 100 3
Dayton, OH (3150 to 3937)
KC-135 Tanker, Wright-Patterson Air Force Base N/A up to 500 kt ambient 0.1 to 1.1 80 to 100 3
Dayton, OH (3150 to 3937)
US Army Helicopter Icing Spray System (HISS), CH-47 N/A up to 120 kt ambient 0.1 to 1.1 80 to 100 3
Edwards Air Force Base, CA (3150 to 3937)
6-7
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-8
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
shape, and location. Actual safety belts, shoulder harnesses, parachutes, emergency kits, life rafts,
seat pads, and back pads should be installed, when applicable. The eye position, seat reference
point, and measurement techniques related to vision, controls, and displacements designed for the
crew should be identified. Flight controls should be operable through their normal envelope,
although they need not operate their respective rotors or surfaces. Control friction devices should
be mocked up, and stops installed to limit all control movements to those anticipated for the
actual air vehicle. The neutral positions of the cyclic control should be simulated. Control locks,
when applicable, and means for adjusting the directional control and brake pedals should be
included in the mock-up. Cockpit canopies (including framing), hatches, windows, etc., should be
mocked up in sufficient detail that the overall field of view from the cockpit is depicted accurately.
Provisions should be made for evaluators and test observers to stand outside the mock-up on each
side of the cockpit on removable platforms and walkways.
To the extent possible, transparencies provided within the mock-up should be within the
optical quality limits established for the air vehicle. Radii of curvature, thickness of panels, and
framing widths for windshields and other transparencies in the cockpit should simulate those of
the actual air vehicle. Adverse weather and/or night vision aids should be mocked up. Individual
paper, cardboard, plastic, or metal dials representing all required instruments should be mocked
up. The individual dials and panels as a whole should be capable of easy relocation. Extra panels
with dials that also can be relocated easily should be provided apart from the mock-up. All
furnishings and equipment essential to performing crew station tasks should be available in the
mock-up for demonstration purposes.
6-9
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
system in order to represent the latest approved configuration. The present state of CAE systems
allows a reduced need for physical mock-ups. CAE can be effectively used as a substitute for
subsystem form and fit. Design information from CAE can be shared by all disciplines from
conceptual design through production. Physical mock-ups may still be required when operational
maintenance procedures have to be established and demonstrated or as otherwise determined
during the design, development, and qualification process. Physical mock-ups are also used for
functional subsystem mock-ups, which are discussed in par. 6-4.
6-10
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
may not fully duplicate operational characteristics, etc. In addition, cost is often a major
limitation.
6-11
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
operational criteria. Functional mock-ups should be fabricated for all hydraulic subsystems, such
as rotor and propeller controls, turrets, door actuators, landing gear, and weapons subsystems.
The mock-ups should incorporate actual hydraulic system components with associated
plumbing including main and emergency pumps, reservoirs, accumulators, filters, controls, and
sufficient piping to show clearances. The hydraulic plumbing should approximate actual air
vehicle requirements in terms of lengths, diameters, bends, and fittings, i.e., “production-type”
lines and hoses. Also hydraulic mock-ups should include the actuator controller and software (if
any).
Limitations of the hydraulic subsystem mock-up for substantiation of qualification
requirements include the inability to simulate all environmental factors, actual air vehicle hardware
may not always be available, prototype hardware may not exactly duplicate performance
characteristics, and cost of fabrication might limit exact duplication of physical characteristics.
For example, seals might function very well on a test stand yet deteriorate rapidly in a dusty
environment, and/or a simulated pressure source may not duplicate pressure fluctuations found in
flight.
6-12
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
10. All pneumatically operated doors and closures are flush with surrounding surfaces
within limits specified.
11. Simulated normal flight operating conditions or any possible inadvertent operations
will not cause system malfunctions.
12. Subsystems normally operated by the pneumatic system can be operated during an
emergency.
A major limitation of the mock-up for qualification purposes is its inability to simulate
environmental considerations such as vibrations and various climatic conditions. Also pressure
spikes and fluctuations might vary considerably from actual airborne conditions.
6-4.3.1 Engine
A functional subsystem mock-up for an engine is a facility and test bed (rig) that includes
all that is needed for development and preflight qualification of the engine and its components.
An engine mock-up of this type usually consists of a concrete enclosure— called a cell or a
blockhouse— for operating personnel and controls, engine mounting rig, engine controls,
instrumentation, data recorders, fuel system and source, exhaust duct, noisesuppressors or
equivalent, power absorber, and safety devices. The test setup should be assembled so that all of
6-13
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
the components are arranged inthe proper spatial relationship. Accessories, such as particle
separators (if any), should be installed to determine component arrangement and effects on the
engine, external configuration, and performance. Instrumentation should be installed to measure
pertinent parameters, such as compressor revolutions per minute (rpm), turbine rpm, pressures,
lubricant temperature, flow rates, and torque. Components, such as reduction gearboxes, starters,
starter generators, chip detectors, sensors, and oil coolers, also require unique test rigs and
fixtures. These test rigs and fixtures are usually the property of the engine manufacturer or
vendor furnishing the component. Typically, they may include a motor, pump, variable drive
gearbox, fuel source, heat exchanger, load simulator, test instrumentation, gages, data recorders,
and means for mounting the test article.
6-4.4 ROTOR SYSTEM The functional subsystem mock-up requirements for rotor system
mechanical rotor and controls, rotor and electronic controls, and whirl test articles are discussed
in this subparagraph. Many modern-day air vehicles use some form ofhydromechanical or
electrohydraulic controls. Hydromechanical systems are discussed in subpar. 6-4.4.1, and
electrohydraulic systems are included in subpar. 6-4.4.2.
6-14
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-15
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
subpar. 6-4.4.1. Rotors are rarely positioned directly by electric motors. Because of the large
forces involved, such motors would be too large and heavy. For this reason, hydraulic actuators
remain the preferred method to position rotor blades. Typically, they position the blades by
placing forces on a swash-plate assembly that in turn moves pitch change links, blades, and rotor
path. Gyroscopic effects are considered in the geometry. To set the position of the swash plate
precisely, the hydraulic actuators are incorporated into a servomechanism containing an electronic
(sometimes digital) compensation network, which steers the actuators to the correct position.
Actuator position is measured by means of electronic sensors, such as linear variable differential
transformers (LVDTs). The rotor and electronic control functional mock-up should incorporate
these features.
Rotor forces, etc., can be simulated via the same means used for mechanical and
hydromechanical subsystem functional mock-ups. This mock-up is useful for preflight
qualification. In addition to the functions accomplished by rotor and mechanical mock-ups,
limited software qualification is possible, although its effectiveness is limited by environmental
effects. Also gains, rates, and loading can be approximated only during ground test controlling
the movement of a hydraulic actuator assembly; see subpar. 6-4.5.
Flight control integration testing should be accomplished first and followed by power
system integration testing. Computer and related software and firmware are tested by electronic
simulation and bench test. Air vehicle tie-down testing or powered system integration test stands
are the most complete means of ground testing. A power system integration test stand is
sometimes called an iron bird. It duplicates most of the dynamic systems of the air vehicle, but it
will not fly. Software can be verified during power system integration testing and flight testing.
Actual operating conditions are approximated by this stand; however, aerodynamic and
aeroelastic characteristics cannot be fully evaluated on the ground. The aforementioned testing is
useful for preflight qualification. However, its effectiveness is limited by environmental effects.
Gains, rates, feedback loops, resonance conditions, etc., canonly be estimated and
approximated during ground testing. Optimization of gains, rates, and constants usually requires
flight testing. Also electromagnetic vulnerability testing requires use of very specialized facilities.
Subpar. 6-4.5 provides additional information concerning electronic control system functional
mock-up requirements.
6-16
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
the importance of qualification tests, it also makes these tests difficult and possibly hazardous to
perform.
Rotor system whirl tests are conducted prior to the first flight of the rotorcraft. As a
minimum, the aerodynamic calibration of main rotor static thrust performance and the stress and
motion surveys over the design range of combinations of collective and cyclic pitch and rotor
speed should be obtained. Fig. 6-4 shows a typical whirl test rig.
6-17
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
vehicle system specification for data communication to the maximum extent possible. Information
concerning typical requirements and concepts of operation may be found in Society of
Automotive Engineers Standard AS 15531, Digital Time Division Command/Response Multiplex
Data Bus, (Ref. 4).
The use of “clean” laboratory power and grounds, different physical arrangement of the
component, shielding differences, and differences in cable lengths between the mock-up and the
actual hardware may affect the validity of the mock-up results. Therefore, the mock-up should
be as production representative as possible to reduce the impact of these variables.
6-18
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
produced on the air vehicle limits the utility of such a mock-up. All systems require some form of
shielding. Digital and fly-by-light systems require qualification of software and hardware. Cost is
a major limitation, especially with fly-by-light systems and mock-ups.
6-19
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
If armor protection is specified, the mock-up should include the armor protection of the
engine(s), auxiliary power unit(s) (APU), controls, wiring, and liquid-carrying lines, as well as
flight crew stations. These mock-ups may also be used for operational testingtraining and
maintenance demonstrations.
The targeting, fire control, armament and stores functional mock-up should be used for
checking out electrical components interface, software, firmware, human factors, and for
preliminary electromagnetic and compatibility checks. Typically, the mock-up might be limited by
its limited ability to duplicate operational environments. Algorithms and weapons simulators
might not duplicate actual performance. Target simulation is only an approximation. Clean
laboratory power and less than exact physical arrangement of wires, cables, etc., might influence
the results.
6-20
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
characteristics can be approximated. Clearance under load cannot be evaluated, and aerodynamic
and other environmental factors cannot be inexpensively duplicated.
6-21
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
The mock-up should be used for preliminary qualification of lighting, instruments, and
displays. Preliminary qualification should include an evaluation of night vision compatibility
characteristics. Early detection of problems is important. The use of prototype hardware,
simulated displays, nonfunctional displays, and simulated cockpit arrangements and the
nonavailability of the various light-amplifying devices for evaluation purposes limit the use of the
mock-up for preflight qualification. Environmental effects and reflection of the airframe are not
easy to duplicate. Reflections from a simulated disk in lieu of a rotating hub and blade assembly
will not produce the modulated reflections of a rotating system. Also a simulated disk or a
simulated hub and rotor system is not apt to have the same reflective properties. Typically,
reflections and the modulating effects of a turning hub and blade assembly have not resulted in
significant lighting problems.
6-22
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-23
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
assure that the emergency escape paths are not compromised by external fuselage projections,
such as pitot heads or antennas, which might injure the personnel or impede their exit from the air
vehicle.
A crashworthiness inspection should be conducted using the checklist in USAAVSCOM
TR 89-D-22, Aircraft Crash Survival Design Guide, Vol. I, DesignCriteria and Check Bits,
(Ref. 6). The specifications, standards, and other documents referenced in the aircraft detail
specification should be the criteria upon which judgments of contractual compliance are made.
Design areas that do not comply with the detail specification or system description and other
problem areas should be documented as either deficiencies or shortcomings on the form
prescribed by the procuring activity. If it is practical, recommended design solutions to mock-up
problem areas should be incorporated into the mock-up during the inspection.
If required, mock-up approval should be granted upon the contractor's compliance with
the required changes and/or approved deviations, as specified by the procuring activity. The
contractor should provide photographs of the approved mock-up. Table 6-3 provides a sample
checklist for a seats and furnishings mock-up review.
6-24
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
SECTION II
SIMULATIONS
6-7 INTRODUCTION
Simulations are the physical or mathematical emulation of characteristics of the physical
equipment, its environment, events related to the equipment, or intelligence. The objective of a
simulation is to reproduce certain aspects of the real world as part of the airworthiness
qualification process. Qualification by simulation is desirable when the achievement of real-world
situations is either prohibitively expensive, requires obsolescent time frames, or is dependent on
remote or unpredictable natural occurrences. The qualification that is feasible to be performed
through simulation is dependent upon how representative the simulation is of the actual system
and its environment.
6-25
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-26
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
simulation because exact closed form solution equations for them do not exist. When
nonlinearities are insignificant, a system may be described by using linear differential equations.
These can also be organized into dynamic equations; however, they can also be left in the order in
which they appear in the system being modeled. Doing this, the particular elements (or equations)
described by differential equations are organized into transfer functions. Transfer function models
are used to analyze dynamic system characteristics. The transfer function of a continuous system
is described in the S-plane by Laplace transforms. The transfer function of a system is the ratio of
the Laplace transform of the time-varying input to the system and theLaplace transform of the
time-varying output of the system. Thus, by applying the method used to find the inverseLaplace
transform, system characteristics can be determined based on the transfer function and theLaplace
transform of the input function. Transfer functions have the characteristic that for a system in
series (The output of the first component becomes the input to the second component.), the
transfer function of the system is the product of the transfer functions of the components. Since
the process of taking theLaplace transform is a mathematical integration process and the inverse
Laplace transform is a contour integral in the complex plane, these transformations can be readily
performed digitally or by use of electronic analogs. Usually outputs from transfer function models
include frequency response characteristics.
Sampled data systems (usually digital) use Z-plane analysis techniques, which are similar
to (because they are derived from)Laplace transform techniques. These analysis methods apply
to linear systems, and any significant deviation from the linear assumption by the real-world
system negates the use of this approach.
6-27
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
standard deviation, which is sometimes referred to as sigma. These two parameters may be
estimated from a sample by calculating the sample mean and sample standard deviation. The
mean is a measure of the central tendency of the data, i.e., what is the most likely value of a
random variable drawn from that population. The standard deviation is a measure of the
dispersion of the data about their most likely or mean value. For a random variable drawn from a
normal distribution, there is a 0.50 probability that it will fall below the mean, a 0.1587 probability
that it will fall below the mean minus one sigma, and a 0.0013 probability that it will fall below the
mean minus three times sigma. These are usually referred to as the average, expected minimum,
and three-sigma values. Sometimes a five-sigma value (referred to as “Murphy's Law”) may be
calculated. This corresponds to a 0.0000002867 probability of occurrence. These values must be
used with caution, especially at the extreme three- and five-sigma points because their validity
depends on how well the true physical characteristics correspond to a normal distribution.
6-28
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
condition y exists, and condition z exists, a likely result of these conditions is situationb.”. A
large body of such rules can be very quickly evaluated for a specific situation, and the expert
system then arrives at likely conclusions concerning the situation. Expert systems are useful to
state these rules formally and develop an experience base. As the number of rules to be processed
becomes large, the processing time increases. This aspect may limit the applicability of the
method when time-critical situations are involved. A properly developed expert system might be
useful as a replacement for a human expert or to arrive at conclusions much more rapidly than a
human. Rule-based expert system applications applicable to the airworthiness qualification
include performance data analysis, event result prediction, and diagnostic aids.
Logical inference engines are subsets of an expert system. A logical inference engine
attempts to find a pattern in cause and effect data. A patient teacher is a system that is initially
tolerant of faulty output. Skillful opponent is an application from game theory. Artificial
intelligence has not yet been applied to qualification at the system level. However, AI can and
should be used for other work, such as battlefield and threat simulations, vulnerability analysis,
survivability analysis, and logical modeling. See subpars. 6-10.5 and 6-11-3. An expert system is
limited by the expertise built into the system; therefore, it should not be used for life or death
decisions. More advanced computers should make more difficult and complex modeling possible.
6-29
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-9 EMULATORS
6-9.1 INTRODUCTION
Emulators are designed to duplicate the behavior, properties, or performance of another
system and are often used to generate inputs for other models and simulations. The aspect being
emulated may be the system equipment, an environment, an event, or intelligence, as discussed in
the subparagraphs that follow. A physical emulator tangibly interacts with the remainder of the
system and effectively replaces the subsystem it emulates. Abstract emulators provide the
information to assess what the interaction would be under specific conditions in order to allow
system designers to predict what the interaction would be if the emulated situation were present.
As discussed in subpars. 6-7.1 and 6-7.2, emulators may be either abstract or physical.
6-9.3 ENVIRONMENTS
Some environmental parameters may be critical to the qualification process, yet due to the
nature of the environment, the qualification process may require the use of emulations.
6-30
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-9.4 EVENTS
As with emulation of environments, emulation of events is useful when the natural
occurrence of an event is random and it is not practical to wait for its occurrence or when the
occurrence of the event must be carefully timed in order to monitor the system response. For
example, in order to assess the testability of a system, a failure event must occur that exercises the
capabilities of the system. To wait for the natural occurrence of all possible failure events in order
to determine testability, real-time performance would not be practical. The occurrence of failure
events may be emulated through a process of fault insertion either physically or through
appropriate stimulus of the system. Determination of the number and types of events to be
emulated could be derived from a statistical modeling of the failure frequency of the emulated
faulty component or through a MonteCarlo simulation. Use of statistical versus MonteCarlo
models is discussed in subpars. 6-8.4.1 and 6-8.4.2. Event emulations must be validated for use in
meeting qualification requirements. Validation issues include ensuring the correct statistical
model is being used to represent the system being qualified. In addition, event emulations may
not be totally satisfactory to meet all qualification requirements because certain events, which
might actually occur naturally, would be avoided in an emulation environment. These would
include events that could cause damaging secondary failures or would create a hazardous
situation. Other simulated events include the occurrence of emergency conditions or actions by
the enemy.
6-9.5 INTELLIGENCE
Intelligence emulation involves emulation of skills, judgment, knowledge, and applied
doctrine. This type of emulation is one of the more complex types of emulations because of the
difficulties involved in modeling human behavior.
This type of emulation may be used to represent the actions of a friendly or adversarial
person in a larger simulated environment. This could be achieved using prerecorded scenarios,
artificial intelligence, or neural networks. It would be useful in a qualification effort when
assessments require consistent emulation of human activities. (Seesubpar. 6-8.5.) Validation of
these emulations requires determination of the extent to which the emulation accuratelyrepresents
the real world in relation to how it is intended to be used.
6-31
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-32
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
testing
6-33
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-10 SIMULATORS
6-10.1 INTRODUCTION
A simulator is a physical model and simulation of a weapons system or piece of equipment
that is not a prototype but which replicates some major aspects of the operation of the equipment.
It may include elements of imbedded computer hardware and software associated with these
operations or the environment immediately impacted by the equipment itself, but which is reactive
only to the manipulation of the single piece of equipment. Simulators are intended to expose
equipment developers, operators, and maintainers to specific aspects of system operation without
the necessity of the actual system. Simulators may be used to evaluate and assess system
characteristics as well as training.
6-34
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-35
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
6-11.1 HOST
The host is the processor that executes the subsystem or system software program. ften
O
the host processor is simulated on a mainframe computer, which allows software development
and system performance assessment prior to availability of the host processor hardware. The
mainframe computer is programmed to simulate the planned host processor, and the simulation
6-36
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
should allow assessment of throughput capacity, timing, and memory requirements. It also is
useful because it provides interface compatibility with the host environment emulator. The
simulation allows the user to display and modify simulation parameters, set breakpoints and
control tracing, display simulation reports, perform simulation output analysis, and generate
graphic displays at execution time. Queuing analysis techniques are often used in the simulation
for the analysis of the host processor. The development of high-detail, large-scale simulation
models can become very time-consuming to construct and maintain. When funds and schedule
are limited, it may be more useful to develop small-scale models that allow high-level design
decisions and would thus provide only preliminary preflight software qualification data.
6-37
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
allow testing of software design implementation. When properly implemented and validated, they
can provide information that supports preflight software qualification. However, full qualification
requires flight test.
6-38
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
REFERENCES
1. W. H. Rae, Jr., and A. Pope,Low-Speed Wind Tunnel Testing, 2nd Ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., New York, NY, 1984.
2. MIL-M-8650C, Mock-Ups, Aircraft, General Specifications for, 24 September 1991.
3. MIL-STD-850B, Aircrew Station Vision Requirements for Military Aircraft , 23 November
1984.
4. AS 15531, Digital Time Division Command/Response Multiplex Data Bus , Society of
Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, November 1995.
5. MIL-STD-46855, Human Engineering Requirements for Military Systems , Equipment, and
Facilities, 26 May 1994.
6. Aircraft Crash Survival Design Guide, Vol. I, Design Criteria and Check Bits
,
USAAVSCOM TR-89-D-22A, US Army Aviation Systems Command, St. Louis, MO, 1989.
7. Virtual Prototyping: Concept to Production, Defense Systems Management College Press,
Fort Belvoir, VA, March 1994.
8. The Defense Modeling and SimulationOffice (DMSO), Web site URL http://www.dmso.mil/
LIST OF ACRONYMS
AI = Artificial Intelligence
APU(s) = Auxiliary Power Units
CAE = Computer-Aided Engineering
CAM = Computer-Aided Manufacturing
CFD = Computational Fluid Dynamics
FOD = Foreign Object Damage
HISS = Helicopter Icing Spray System
HUD = Heads Up Display
IO = Input-Output
PFD = Powered Force Models
PFM = Powered Force Models
TDT = Transonic Dynamics Tunnel
DMSC = Defense Modeling and Simulation Office
ARPA = Advanced Research Agency
BDSD = Battlefield Distribution Simulation Development
6-39
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
CHAPTER 7
COMPONENT QUALIFICATION
7-1
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
COMPONENT EXAMPLES
Structural (including dynamic Rotor blades
components) Driveshafts
Castings
Crew seats
Electromechanical Generator (alternator)
Fuel boost pump
Oil cooler fan
Rocket or missile launcher
Hydromechanical Landing gear Oleo strut
Flight control actuator
Rotor brake
Landing gear retraction cylinder
Mechanical Rotor hub
Transmission
Overrunning clutch
Electrical Voltage regulator
Anti-icing and deicing element
Generator
Transformer-rectifier
Circuit breaker
Avionic Radio
Intercom
Mission computer
Navigation equipment
Control or display unit
Stability or flight control system
Weapons processor
Armament interface unit
environmental conditions, including the
vehicle. Included are such items as castings electromagnetic environment.
that form part of the primary structure,
armor components, fuel and oil tanks, and 7-2.3 COMPONENT QUALIFICATION
transparent areas. For critical dynamic MATRIX
components, determination of the service life The component qualification matrix
based on fatigue loads is the basis for provides a way to depict the components
qualification. that will undergo component qualification
3. Endurance Tests. Endurance and the specific qualification tests to which
tests show the life adequacy of components these components will be subjected. This
subject to wear and/or deterioration with matrix may be in two parts, one to show
use. preinstallation qualification requirements and
4. Environmental Tests. one to show preflight qualification
Environmental tests demonstrate that the requirements. Table 7-2 depicts the
equipment can be properly stored, operated, combinations of test types for the listed
and maintained in the anticipated component types.
7-2
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
*1 = preinstallation requirement
2 = preflight requirement
7-3
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-4
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-3.5 SPECIAL PROCEDURES FOR to reduce the proliferation of parts within the
FLIGHT SAFETY PARTS Department of Defense (DoD) by ensuring a
It is the policy of the US Army to new part is not designed if one already exists
acquire high-quality, proven, reliable, and in the inventory that will meet the
safe flight safety parts. Flight safety parts requirements. MIL-HDBK-402, Guidelines
that require engineering testing (fatigue, for the Implementation of the DoD Parts
endurance, interchangeability, etc.) are Control Program, (Ref. 1) provides
procured only from sources whose part has assistance for implementation of a parts
met the engineering test requirements. In control program and contains the
addition, a flight safety part must undergo an information considered necessary to tailor or
acceptable inspection, as indicated in streamline effectively the PCP requirements
Chapter 3. The processes used to identify to suit specific acquisitions.
and qualify FSPs are also described in One of the advantages of using
Chapter 3. All inspection records should parts from a Qualified Products List (QPL) is
identify the specific FSPs and critical that the testing for that part or component
characteristics inspected and record the has already been performed; thus that cost
results of measurements and/or inspections, need not be incurred again. However, it is
the date of inspection, the identity of the necessary to determine the qualification level
inspector, and the required inspection of the standard part and assess the degree to
certification. When FSPs are required to be which the previously performed qualification
serialized, all operations and inspections testing satisfies the new requirements for the
affecting a critical characteristic should be part. Partial requalification may be required
traceable to the serialized item. to ensure that the part is fully compatible
with the new application.
7-4 PARTS CONTROL PROGRAM
A parts control program (PCP) 7-5 FUNCTIONAL QUALIFICATION
provides a means TESTS
Functional qualification tests are
discussed in this paragraph. Table 7-3 shows
examples of functional tests and
specifications for various component types.
*Commercial standards and specifications suitable for the intended purpose should be used in lieu of the military
standards and specifications. Otherwise, a waiver is required from the Milestone Decision Authority.
7-5
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-6
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
weight (SDGW) or maximum alternate gross Analyses should show that structural
weight (MAGW). These terms are defined components have been designed so that
in Ref. 4. Definitions of structural failure for natural frequencies wn are not coincident
metallic and nonmetallic components for with forcing frequencies wf (Ref. 10).
both limit load and ultimate load tests are in Generally, a 10 percent frequency margin is
HSIP, Vol. I. Material strengths should be required. As a minimum, flutter analyses for
based on MIL-HDBK-5, Metallic Materials all lifting surfaces should be performed by
and Elements for Aerospace Vehicle the contractor to verify these tolerances, and
Structures, (Ref. 7) MIL-HDBK-17, Plastic stability testing should also be performed as
for Aerospace Vehicles, Part 1, Reinforced required.
Plastics, (Ref. 8) or other sources approved The contractor should analyze the
in advance by the PA. Typical other sources effects of vibration on structural integrity.
include coupon tests of composite materials Vibration transmitted to the structure from
for which no strength data are available. the rotor systems should be treated as a
Damage tolerance is defined by superimposed load since Ref. 10 cites these
HSIP, Vol. I, (Ref. 2) and MIL-STD-1530 vibrations as the cause of many structural
(Ref. 3) as the ability of a structure to resist cracks. Preliminary analyses are used later
failure due to the presence of flaws, cracks, to compare with actual rotorcraft vibration
or other damage for a specified period of to validate those analyses and update them as
unrepaired usage. Damage tolerance is necessary.
typically achieved by means of redundant Weapons effects as the result of
load paths, low stress levels, good fatigue operation of armament and blast loads
characteristics, and slow crack propagation should also be considered superimposed
rates. Additional information on damage loads. These effects should be considered for
tolerance is included in The Fundamentals of loads imposed on the ground and in flight
Aircraft Combat Survivability and Design when weapons effects excitations could
(Ref. 9). impact aeroelastic stability margins.
Durability of the rotorcraft structure
is defined by HSIP, Vol. I, as the ability of a 7-6.1.2 Fatigue Integrity
structure to resist cracking (including stress Detailed fatigue integrity criteria and
corrosion and hydrogen-induced cracking), procedures should be established by the
corrosion, thermal degradation, contractor based on predicted component
delamination, wear, and the effects of foreign loadings. Typical methods of prediction may
object damage for a specified period of time. involve cumulative fatigue damage by
The rotorcraft system specification Palmgren-Miner cycle-ratio summation
and structural design criteria should address theory or Manson's method, (Ref. 11) or
prevention of static and dynamic aeroelastic other methods proposed by the contractor
instabilities. However, static and dynamic and approved by the procuring activity.
aeroelastic instabilities cannot be addressed Regardless of the methods used, the
at the component level. contractor should clearly quantify all
Detail structural criteria should assumptions used in fatigue life predictions
include as a performance requirement that and should submit the fatigue testing plans,
component natural frequencies wn (as procedures, and reports to the procuring
installed) should not be coincident with the activity for approval. These plans and
forcing frequencies wf of the rotorcraft.
7-7
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
procedures should include provisions for strength summary and operating restrictions
requalification of modified components. report. As the development flight tests
The contractor should continuously continue, actual flight load spectrum
monitor the status of fatigue-critical information may require revision of analyses
components to ensure that structural and restrictions.
integrity is maintained. Ideally, this process Following entry into service,
should continue from design through the additional flight load surveys may be
service life of all air vehicles until disposal. performed as missions and tactics change.
As a minimum, this continuous monitoring This situation is discussed in the following
should take the form of failure analyses of subparagraph.
defective fatigue critical components,
comparison of assumed and actual flight 7-6.1.4 Structural Integrity Maintenance
spectrum loads, and updates to fatigue life The contractor should define the
predictions required by changes in service means to ensure that the structural integrity
use (Ref. 10). Changes in service use are of the rotorcraft can be maintained during its
common for rotorcraft since military tactics, intended useful life. The methods used to
operational tempos, and missions may accomplish this should include individual
change drastically from development to rotorcraft tracking, updates to flight loads,
operation of the systems. and failure analyses. Individual rotorcraft
This element of HSIP is similar to tracking can provide information useful to
structural integrity maintenance with the the prediction of structural flaws,
exception of inspection intervals and determination of inspection intervals, and
procedures and individual rotorcraft economic repair criteria. This tracking
tracking. The development of these topics is requires a data collection program that
described in subpar. 7-6.1.4. monitors rotorcraft individually throughout
their lives. These data management systems
7-6.1.3 Structural Integrity Verification should allow the procuring activity to
The contractor should ensure that identify flight safety parts (defined and
structural integrity of the rotorcraft is explained in subpar. 3-13), and support
verified through tests and analyses prior to surveillance testing of those parts, schedule
first flight and continuously throughout overhauls, and manage the fleet; the data
development. Component qualification tests provided to the contractor should allow a
and analyses include but are not limited to designer to verify and substantiate the design
determining dynamic frequencies and modes, (See Ref. 5.). As a minimum, the history of
static strength, fatigue life, and damage FSP should be tracked by their serial
tolerance. As mentioned previously, tests number. Tracking for each serially
and/or analyses should be repeated for numbered component should involve the
components modified as a result of following information as a minimum:
unsuccessful testing. 1. Process, specifications, and
Typically, first-flight structural materials used
integrity requirements include but are not 2. Manufacturing inspection
limited to a static test to limit load for critical procedures
airframe components, landing gear drop test, 3. Service history
ground modal survey and ground resonance 4. Failure data
shake tests, stress analyses, and a preliminary 5. Disposition information.
7-8
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-9
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-10
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
main rotor system should be considered at 125% of the normal rated torque while
thoroughly in the design stages and analyzed installed in the gearbox assembly. Usually,
and identified to ensure the critical areas are 10 million cycles at overload torque are
included in the test program. accomplished.
2. Antitorque Rotor System. This 7. Engine Mount. Any portions of
system is similar to the main rotor system, the engine mounting system, including
and the components selected for fatigue airframe-mounted attachments determined to
testing should be based on the identified be fatigue critical during the flight load
critical areas. Fatigue testing should be survey, should be fatigue tested.
conducted on the hub, blade root end, 8. Other Components. Fatigue tests
tension-torsion reaction system, and basic should be conducted on any other structural
blade section. component for which fatigue loads are found
3. Main Rotor Control System. to be critical. Attachments and mountings,
Fatigue testing of the control system such as those for horizontal and vertical
components forward of the boost system (if stabilizers, landing gear, and armament,
installed) usually is not required because should be investigated during the flight load
such a system isolates the oscillatory loads survey to determine the need for additional
that originate in the rotor system. Fatigue fatigue tests. Particular attention must be
testing should be performed on all given to analytically identifying the
components from the boosters up to and mountings located in the antinode vicinity of
including the pitch control arm. In the the fundamental fuselage modes. Location
absence of a control boost system, all control of such mountings should then be confirmed
system components subject to critical fatigue by vibration test.
loading should be fatigue tested. The laboratory fatigue test of
4. Antitorque Rotor Control System. rotorcraft components can be accomplished
This system is similar to the main rotor in various ways. The methods used most
control system; fatigue testing should be often are spectrum and S-N testing, i.e.,
performed on all components from the testing that results in curves of stress versus
booster system to the pitch control arm or on number of cycles to failure. In spectrum
all components subject to critical fatigue fatigue testing, in-flight load conditions are
loading. reproduced as closely as possible. The
5. Power Drive Systems. Fatigue relative magnitude and distribution of test
testing of the power train system loads should be based on measured flight
components should be accomplished and loads. Because the flight load survey may
should include the main rotor mast, not be completed when the fatigue test
transmission input shaft, antitorque rotor program is initiated, the first tests may be
driveshaft, miscellaneous power takeoff started with loading conditions based on
shafts, and gear flanges. computed loads or the flight loads measured
6. Transmission, Gearbox, and on prototype hardware.
Associated Components. Fatigue testing of The test parts should beinstrumented
the basic gearbox case, other critical gearbox with strain gage locations identical to those
housings, and their local supporting structure used in flight test. Strain gages are not
should be accomplished. Also qualification required if the test loads applied to the
testing of gears, shafts, etc., typically components can be verified with acceptable
includes but is not limited to fatigue testing accuracy by other means. Oscillatory loads
7-11
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
should be applied to each specimen in from 4 to 8 Hz. The tail rotor frequency
increments of the measured flight loads; the (also one per rev) usually is in the range of
load distribution should be representative of 15 to 30 Hz.
all flight conditions. In some cases it may be Each fatigue test setup has unique
necessary to superimpose gust loads on the features based on the design of the air
fatigue loading spectrum. vehicle. For example, rotor system
The preferred method of fatigue components may be subjected to four loads
testing is the S-N technique because service simultaneously: centrifugal force, flapwise
lives can be determined from S-N data for bending, chordwise bending, and torsion.
any load condition. Variables that Loadings should be verified by analysis and
significantly influence the test results, such as by use of strain gages installed on the
number of specimens, methods of applying component, as appropriate. Force and
loads, and data scatter limits, should be moment distributions should be verified
approved by the procuring activity. during testing and compared with design and
Because spectrum testing involves flight distributions.
reproducing in the laboratory load amplitude Most critical areas are located at
and frequency distributions directly joints or transitions. Strain gages, however,
proportional to those encountered in flight, it should be located in relatively uniform
may be considered a more exact basis for the sections. Installations adjacent to joints
initial determination of service life. and/or rapid transitions should be avoided
However, it is not possible to determine because these local stress concentrations will
whether alteration of mission profiles or the influence the strain gage output and result in
frequency of alternate missions, or any other improper readout.
change in the air vehicle flight spectrum has Use of stress analysis techniques such
an effect on the component service life as stress coat, photo stress, and plastic
without retesting in the altered spectrum. models should be encouraged. These
Therefore, spectrum testing, should be used techniques are not used for detailed analysis
only when specifically approved by the but to determine rapidly the critical areas and
procuring activity. approximate strain magnitudes. These
Fatigue test specimens should be of critical areas can then be checked with
production configuration and quality. The appropriately located strain gages.
number of specimens to be tested should be ADS-24 (Ref. 14) provides
proposed by the contractor and approved by information useful to determining the
the procuring activity. structural demonstration criteria, and ADS-
Comparison of available fatigue test 29 (Ref. 6) provides information useful to
data with the effect of loading frequency on determining structural performance criteria
metallic materials indicates that tests for rotorcraft. The data obtained during this
conducted within a frequency range factor of demonstration are used to verify that loads
10 gives similar results. Test load frequency used in the structural analysis and static tests
of application, therefore, should be kept are not exceeded during flight and to
within a factor of 10 of the normal operating substantiate fatigue life calculations.
frequency of application.
For the main rotor normal operating 7-6.4 COMPOSITE STRUCTURES
frequency (one per rev) is dependent on the Structural testing of composite
rotor rotational speed and usually ranges components is essentially the same as for
7-12
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-13
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-14
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-15
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
ENVIRONMENT PURPOSE
Temperature Determine the ability of the component to be operated and stored under hot and cold
High temperature temperature conditions.
Low temperature
Temperature shock
Acceleration Assure that equipment can structurally withstand the expected forces due to accelera-
tion without degradation during and following exposure.
Shock Determine the ability of the component to withstand the infrequent, nonrepetitive
shock of handling, transportation, and service.
Sand and Dust Determine the ability of the component to be operated and stored in blowing sand and
dust.
Gunfire Determine the ability of the component to withstand and operate under gunfire vibra-
tion conditions.
Rain Determine the effectiveness of protective covers or cases, the ability to perform in the
rain. Determine equipment damage or performance degradation caused by the rain.
Humidity Determine the resistance of the component to a warm, humid atmosphere.
Salt Fog Determine the resistance of the component to an aqueous salt atmosphere.
Fungus Assess the extent to which the component will support fungal growth or how fungal
growth affects performance.
Icing and Freezing Rain Demonstrate the ability of the component to operate properly in freezing rain, mist, or
sea spray.
Low Pressure (Altitude) Determine whether components can withstand and operate in a low-pressure environ-
ment, such as storage at high altitude, air shipment, and rapid decompression.
Solar Radiation Determine the effects of solar radiation on equipment, such as component expansion
(Sunshine) and contraction, and changes in strength and elasticity.
Vibration Determine the ability of the component to function within the steady vibration envi-
ronment to which it will be subjected during its operational life.
Explosive Atmosphere Demonstrate the ability of equipment to operate in a flammable atmosphere without
causing an explosion or to contain such a reaction.
Leakage (Immersion) Determine whether an item designed to be watertight can be immersed without
leaking into its container; determine other possible effects of immersion in water.
Temperature, Humidity, Identify the failures that temperature, humidity, vibration, and altitude in combination
Vibration, and Altitude can induce in electronic equipment.
7-16
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-17
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-18
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
moving parts, exothermal reaction (thermite this process for each of three orthogonal
effect) of clay particles (with aluminum axes.
oxide) at high temperatures that produces
heat which could cause high-temperature 7-9.7 RAIN
corrosion and produce extremely hard, The purpose of rain (water intrusion)
erosive particles. testing is to determine
Blowing sand and dust tests consist 1. The effectiveness of protective
of mounting the component in an appropriate covers or cases in preventing the penetration
chamber; adjusting air velocity, temperature, of rain
and particle concentrations to specified 2. The capability of the test item to
levels; operating the items for the specified satisfy its performance requirements during
time period; and inspecting its condition after and after rain exposure
the test. Areas requiring careful inspection 3. The physical deterioration of the
include bearings, grease seals, and lubricants. test item caused by rain water.
In the atmosphere, rain interferes
7-9.6 GUNFIRE with or degrades radio communications,
The purpose of gunfire tests is to limits radar effectiveness, limits air vehicle
assure that the equipment mounted in an air operations by restricting visibility, damages
vehicle with onboard guns can withstand the air vehicles in flight, affects artillery and
vibration environment caused by the missile launching, degrades or negates
overpressure pulses emitting from the gun optical surveillance, decreases the
muzzle as well as reactive recoil forces. effectiveness of personnel in exposed
Also the potential for corrosive damage to activities, causes some fuzes to function
airframe and engine surfaces attributable to prematurely, and inhibits visibility through
weapon emissions should be investigated. optical devices. On impact, rain erodes
The vibration resulting from repetitive gun surfaces. After deposition, water degrades
blast pulses might be as large as two orders the strength of some materials, promotes
of magnitude above normal flight vibration corrosion of metals, deteriorates surface
levels. Gunfire vibration might cause the coatings, and can render electrical or
structure and equipment to respond in a electronic apparatus inoperative or
violent manner, and emissions might be dangerous. After penetration into
ingested directly into the cockpit and engine. containers, water causes malfunction of
This response can cause intermittent electrical equipment; may freeze inside
electrical contact, catastrophic electrical equipment, which may cause delayed
failures, hydraulic malfunctions, structural deterioration and malfunction by swelling or
fatigue failures, and a possibility of engine cracking of parts; causes high humidity,
failure. which can in time encourage corrosion and
Gunfire tests consist of mounting the fungal growth; and causes slower burning of
test item on a vibration shaker, operating the propellants.
test item in accordance with its Rain tests may be conducted in
specifications, applying the vibration blowing rain conditions, drip conditions, or
exposure in accordance with specified levels water tightness conditions. In each case the
and durations, operating the item under the item is placed in an appropriate chamber,
vibration exposure conditions, and repeating exposed to the specified test condition for
the appropriate time, and operational checks
7-19
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
and visual inspections are conducted during (products of natural origin are most
and after exposure. susceptible to this attack) or indirect attack
on materials. Damage from indirect attack
7-9.8 HUMIDITY includes
The purpose of humidity tests is to 1. Fungal growth on surface deposits
determine the resistance of components to of dust, grease, perspiration, and other
the effect of a warm, humid atmosphere. contaminants causes damage to the
Typical problems that can result from such underlying material even though that material
exposure are swelling of materials due to may be resistant to direct attack.
moisture absorption, loss of physical 2. Metabolic waste products, i.e.,
strength, changes in mechanical properties, organic acids, excreted by fungi, cause
degradation of electrical and thermal corrosion of metals, etching of glass, or
properties in insulating materials, electrical staining or degrading of plastics and other
short circuits due to condensation, binding of materials.
moving parts due to corrosion or fouling of 3. The products of fungal growth or
lubricants, oxidation and/or galvanic adjacent materials that are susceptible to
corrosion of metals, loss of plasticity, direct attack come in contact with the
accelerated chemical reactions, chemical or resistant material.
electrochemical breakdown of organic In addition, fungal growth can cause
surface coatings, deterioration of electrical physical interference with
components, degradation of image 1. Electronic and electrical systems
transmission through glass or plastic optical by creating undesirable electrical conducting
elements, absorption of moisture by paths across insulation materials or may
explosives and propellants, accelerated affect the electrical characteristics of
biological activity, deterioration of critically adjusted electronic circuits
hygroscopic materials. 2. Optical systems by adversely
Humidity tests involve placing the affecting light transmission through the
test item in an appropriate test chamber, optical system, blocking delicate moving
adjusting the chamber to specified parts, and changing nonwetting surfaces to
temperature and relative humidity conditions, wetting surfaces with resulting loss in
cycling the chamber conditions through performance.
specified values, and conducting operational Lastly, fungal growth on equipment
checkouts of the component both during and can cause physiological problems, e.g.,
after the exposure. allergies, or be so aesthetically unpleasant
that users will be reluctant to use the
7-9.9 FUNGUS equipment.
The purpose of fungus tests is to Fungus test procedures involve
assess the extent to which the component preparing fungi cultures, applying them to
will support fungal growth or how the fungal the test specimens and control specimens,
growth may affect performance or use of the incubating the test items for specified time
component. Fungal growth impairs the periods, and inspecting them to determine
functioning or use of equipment by changing the extent of fungus growth, if any.
its physical characteristics. This may be in
the form of direct attack as the fungi break
the material down and use it as food
7-20
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-21
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
equipment to the effects of an aqueous salt to prove that a flame reaction occurring
atmosphere. Methods to minimize corrosive within an encased equipment will be
effects using protective schemes or handling contained and will not propagate outside the
are described in ADS-13, Air Vehicle test item.
Materials and Processes, (Ref. 19). Low levels of energy discharge or
The effects of exposure to an electrical arc from devices as simple as
environment in which there is an aqueous pocket transistor radios can ignite mixtures
salt atmosphere can be divided in three broad of fuel vapor and air. A hot spot on the
categories: corrosion effects, electrical surface of a hermetically sealed, apparently
effects, and physical effects. Corrosion inert equipment case can ignite fuel vapor
effects include corrosion due to and air mixtures. Fuel vapors in
electrochemical reaction, accelerated stress compartments can be ignited by a low-
corrosion, and formation of acidic or alkaline energy discharge such as a spark from a
solutions following salt ionization in water. shorted flashlight cell or switch contacts.
Electrical effects include impairment of For testing the operation of a
electrical equipment due to salt deposits, component in an explosive environment, the
production of conductive coatings, and test involves
corrosion of insulating materials and metals. 1. Preparing the chamber for test
Physical effects include binding of the 2. Sealing the chamber with the test
moving parts of mechanical components and item mounted inside
assemblies and blistering of paint due to 3. Raising the chamber temperature
electrolysis. to a specified level
The salt fog test procedure involves 4. Adjusting the chamber air
adjusting the chamber temperature to 35°C pressure to a specified level
(95°F) and conditioning the test item for at 5. Injecting the required quantity of
least 2 h. The item is then exposed to a n-hexane into the test chamber
continuous atomized solution of appropriate 6. Circulating the test atmosphere to
salt composition for a period of 48 h. The allow for complete vaporization of fuel and
item is then stored in a standard ambient development of a homogeneous mixture
atmosphere for 48 h. At the end of the 7. Operating the test item
drying period, the test item is operated and 8. Increasing the air pressure slowly
results are documented. in the test chamber to simulate an altitude
Because of the limited duration of the change
salt fog exposure, the test is limited in 9. Checking the potential
predicting long-term resistance to corrosion explosiveness of the air-vapor mixture by
and deterioration. Therefore, better test attempting to ignite the mixture with a
methods to determine corrosion spark-gap or glow plug ignition source
susceptibility for a particular program or 10. Documenting the results.
application are needed.
7-9.14 LEAKAGE (IMMERSION)
7-9.13 EXPLOSIVE ATMOSPHERE Leakage (immersion) tests are
The explosive atmosphere test is conducted to determine whether materiel is
conducted to demonstrate the ability of a constructed to be immersed in water without
component to operate in flammable leakage of the water into the enclosure.
atmospheres without causing an explosion or
7-22
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-23
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-24
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-25
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-26
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-27
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-28
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
dose rate, thermal radiation, and nuclear air of the corrective action and to uncover any
blast. Typically, these environments are remaining deficiencies. This cycle is
simulated. For additional information continued throughout the component
concerning electromagnetic pulse and its qualification program. Schedule constraints
effects on electronic components, see subpar. may not always allow the testing to stop for
7-10.3. Also see ADS-11 (Ref. 32) for each anomaly uncovered. This practice,
additional guidance. however, can result in deferral of corrective
action incorporation and increase program
7-12.4 NBC TESTS risk due to uncertainties concerning the
Simulant tests should be performed effectiveness of the corrective actions.
to reproduce an NBC contamination TAFT should be included in the
environment relationship to the threat Airworthiness Qualification Plan (AQP) and
environment. If NBC surety material (actual AQS to ensure early incorporation of
agent) tests are necessary, test methods corrective actions and elimination of
should be described and their relationship to weaknesses prior to production.
the simulant test correlated. Any
assumptions made in the interpretations of 7-14 MATERIAL QUALIFICATION
the NBC survivability criteria are usually The requirement to qualify materials
identified in the test plan along with their as part of the airworthiness qualification
impact on the test design, procedures, and process is discussed in the subparagraphs
results. Component live-agent tests of the that follow. This requirement is especially
NBC filter(s) should be conducted to verify important to the use of new materials, such
the filter absorption capability at the as plastics and composite materials, or to
maximum permissible concentration applications of new materials.
specified. Live agents are actual agents.
Typically, tests should be performed on the 7-14.1 STRUCTURAL ALLOWABLES
basic materials and on them in their intended Material design allowables are those
operating configuration to assure NBC strength requirement properties of materials
contamination and decontamination used in the design. For new materials and
survivability. new material applications, design allowables
are generally not available in widely
7-13 COMPONENT TEST-ANALYZE- published references and must be determined
FIX-TEST experimentally. When it is necessary to
The principles of test-analyze-fix-test develop data for materials, the test materials
(TAFT), sometimes referred to as test- and processes should be the same as those
analyze-and-fix (TAAF), are equally intended for use in the production air vehicle
applicable at the component, subsystem, and and should represent a minimum of three
system levels. The TAFT cycle consists of batches of material. The statistical
subjecting the component to its intended significance of experimental data should be
operating environment and operating it. As identified, and the effects of the following
failures occur or performance deficiencies should be established:
are identified, analyses are performed to 1. The variation in material
determine the root cause, and corrective properties due to the variation allowed in the
actions are developed and implemented. time, temperature, and pressure of the cure
Testing is resumed to verify the effectiveness
7-29
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
cycle to be used for the final component environmental resistance tests must also be
must be established. determined.
2. The degradation due to the
combined effect of temperature and humidity 7-14.3 SPECIAL PROPERTIES
should be established. An experimental New materials, such as composite
knockdown factor may be determined to materials, may have special properties that
account for this effect. The method and require testing and documentation prior to
criteria to determine an environmental factor use. During the curing process, if
should be approved by the procuring activity. undesirable curing products are generated, it
ADS-35 (Ref. 5) provides guidance is important to identify those products and
to determine tensile, compressive, flexural, their effects. Composite materials may
shear, fatigue, creep, damage tolerance, and undergo dimensional changes after
bearing strength properties. The procedures manufacture due to not only the expected
described in this ADS are for the temperature effects but also other factors
characterization of organic matrix composite such as humidity conditions or age.
materials and are generally in accordance Outgassing may have detrimental effects
with the guidelines in MIL-HDBK-17 (Ref. such as forming deposits on optical surfaces
8). and degrading optical performance.
7-30
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-31
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
forms the basis for this demonstration, and in 7-16.3 SOURCE CONTROL
addition to being performed on the first Source control items are items that
article produced, it may also be required of a can be procured only from an approved
vendor after a break for production or in the source. For source control items in-system
production of new lots. qualification testing must be performed
initially since source control implies that
there are unknown and intangible
performance characteristics that cannot be
determined by testing the repair item in
isolation from its next higher assembly. This
situation is an undesirable one because it also
presents diagnostic and repair problems in
the field. A first article test forms the basis
for this demonstration, and in addition to
being performed on the first article
produced, it may also be required of a
vendor after a break in production or for the
production of new lots.
7-32
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
REFERENCES
7-33
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-34
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-35
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
7-36
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
CHAPTER 8
SUBSYSTEM QUALIFICATION
8-1
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
further discussion of the differences between may reference this ADS as a source of
surveys and demonstrations. information but should not require
Environmental and electromagnetic compliance. The contractor is responsible
interference (EMI) qualification tests are for design. These data provide a basis for
normally performed at the component level. technical proposal presentations, for their
Chapter 7 provides discussion and guidance evaluation, and for evaluation of analytic
on performing these tests. In some cases it reports. The ADS prescribes that a general
might also be desirable to perform tests at description of the overall propulsion
the subsystem level to account for factors subsystem should be submitted to define
such as interconnecting cables and the configuration, arrangement, and functional
ground plane. Electromagnetic compatibility relationships. It requires the analysis of the
(EMC) and electromagnetic vulnerability rotorcraft drive subsystem’s torsional
(EMV) tests are always performed at the stability showing both gain margin and phase
system level. Chapter 9 provides discussion margin throughout the operational envelope.
and guidance on performing electromagnetic It also requires air vehicle manufacturers to
environment effects (E3) tests. supply all installation performance losses
including the total installed effect of the
8-2 ENGINE, TRANSMISSION, AND losses on engine performance. For the
DRIVE SUBSYSTEM engine and auxiliary power unit (APU)
QUALIFICATION starting subsystem, a detailed description is
The engine, transmission, and drive required and should include schematics to
subsystem airworthiness and typical show component location and associated
qualification test objectives are to hardware used in the installation. Any
demonstrate that these subsystems satisfy the special operating procedures should be
performance and interface requirements of defined and include both normal and extreme
the air vehicle, detail, and airworthiness temperature cases. Required fuel subsystem
qualification specifications. The qualification data necessary to verify fuel system design
requirements fall generally under the are required as well. For propulsion system
categories of efficient power output and cooling, engine and APU compartment
transmission capability under specified cooling analyses and transmission and
operating conditions and at specified gearbox cooling analyses are required.
reliability levels. Additionally, data describing the exhaust and
Typical test objectives include the infrared (IR) suppressor subsystem; the
measurement and performance engine air induction subsystem; the fire
demonstration of horsepower, torque, detection, extinguishing, and protection
specific fuel consumption, efficiency, and subsystem; the bleed air and pneumatic
reliability. Specific parameters are discussed subsystem; the heating and cooling
in the subparagraphs that follow. (environmental control) subsystems; the
Aeronautical Design Standard drive subsystem; and the APU are needed.
(ADS)-9, Propulsion System Technical ADS-39,
Data, (Ref. 1) may be used as a source of Prequalification/Substantiation
information to determine the data needed to Requirements for Alternate Manufacturing
evaluate the contractor’s capability to meet Sources of Helicopter Drive System
specified interface and performance Components, (Ref. 2) provides requirements
requirements. The procuring activity (PA) for validating that drive system components
8-2
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-3
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Engine, (Ref. 4) US Air Force MIL-E- subsystem that produces the poorest
87231, Turbojet and Turbofan Aircraft performance.
Engines, (Ref. 5) are additional sources of 9. A shaft power absorber with
information. A triservice performance characteristics specified by the contractor.
specification will replace these documents. ADS-25 (Ref. 6) indicates that
performance ratings should be in accordance
8-2.1 ENGINE PERFORMANCE with Tables IA, IB, IIA, and IIB of AV-E-
The engine performance 8593 (Ref. 10) and should be provided in the
airworthiness and typical qualification test user’s manual or engine specification. The
objectives substantiate that the engine first stage turbine rotor inlet conditions for
subsystem and its installation into the each rating established at 1.2 km, pressure
airvehicle meet the performance altitude static, 35°C (95°F) conditions
requirements of the system specification. should be constant for all atmospheric and
ADS-25, Engine Performance Data, Mach number conditions except when
(Ref. 6) defines the required format for limited by fuel flow, compressor
presentation of gas turbine engine aerodynamics, or torque limits. The
performance characteristics, ratings, and delivered shaft power and fuel consumption
performance data. ADS-25 (Ref. 6) requires for 75% maximum continuous power at 70%
that unless otherwise specified, engine of rated delivered shaft speed, 0.41 Mach
performance characteristics are to be based number, 6.0-km standard conditions should
on be specified.
1. A fuel having a lower heating In addition, ADS-25 (Ref. 6)
value of 42,565 kJ/kg and otherwise indicates that engine performance data
conforming to MIL-T-5624, Turbine Fuel, should be presented in two forms: one in the
Aviation, Grades JP-4, JP-5, and JP-5/JP- form of standard atmosphere curves and the
8ST, (Ref. 7) and oils conforming to MIL-L- other, a computer program suitable for use
23699, Lubricating Oil, Aircraft Turbine with a digital computer. The computer
Engine, Synthetic Base, NATO Code #0- program is required to be the primary and
156, (Ref. 8) and MIL-H-7808, Lubricating forms part of and is to be identified in the
Oil, Aircraft Turbine Engine, Synthetic applicable engine specification. The
Base, (Ref. 9). performance data are required to cover the
2. US Standard Atmosphere, 1976 operating envelope of the engine.
(geopotential altitude) ADS-26, Engine Installation Data,
3. No inlet air distortion (Ref. 11) is an interface document that
4. An inlet pressure recovery of describes installation and interface
100% information required for turboshaft engines.
5. The designated exhaust pipe It addresses
6. No customer bleed air extraction 1. Item diagrams
7. No accessory power extraction 2. Interface definition including
other than that required for continuous drawings and installation interfaces
engine operation 3. Moments of inertia
8. The engine control subsystem 4. Engine mounts
specified for the engine and performance 5. Ground handling mounts
predicted on the tolerance of the control 6. Engine stiffness
7. Pads and drives
8-4
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-5
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-2.3 ENGINE, TRANSMISSION, AND engine and rotor torque. Fig. 8-1 provides a
DRIVE VIBRATION typical format for the summary of propeller
DETERMINATION vibratory stress.
Typical engine, transmission, and
drivetrain airworthiness and qualification test
objectives include validation that
performance requirements, such as critical
speeds, operational and design limit
misalignment, and resonance frequencies,
etc., have all been satisfied. Also included
are validations that engine components and
drivetrain natural frequencies are sufficiently
removed from propeller frequencies, rotor
and blade operational frequencies, weapons
rates of fire, and starter-generator switching
rates, etc. Typically, the contractor conducts
a free vibratory test of the engine to obtain
the frequency response characteristics,
natural frequencies, and mode shapes.
Special intake or exhaust duct configurations
or other kits that significantly change engine
mass and other characteristics are also
investigated. Rotor subsystems, engine
controls, and combustion subsystems all
introduce lags that decrease the stability of
the drivetrain. Torsional instabilities result in
unwanted vibrations; hence the contractor
should demonstrate by test that there are
adequate gain and phase margins throughout
8-2.4 ENGINE, TRANSMISSION, AND
the operational envelope. Objectively, stable
DRIVE ENDURANCE
gain margins should be available at
The engine, transmission, and drive
frequencies corresponding to a phase angle
subsystem preflight airworthiness and typical
of –180 deg and main rotor and tail rotor
qualification test objective is to substantiate
resonance at any operating condition. Stable
that these subsystems can be operated at
phase margins, measured at the gain
their required performance levels throughout
crossover frequency, should be demonstrated
the anticipated life of the subsystems without
at all flight conditions. Also testing should
catastrophic failures. The endurance test
demonstrate acceptable transient response
setup should duplicate to the greatest extent
characteristics and steady state error
possible the actual operating conditions and
characteristics of the control subsystem. The
environment of the engine and drive
contractor should propose a test plan to
subsystems. This setup should be essentially
achieve these objectives. Typical
the same as the performance test setup
measurements include frequencies,
described in subpar. 8-2.2. The extended
amplitudes, direction, pedal positions,
time, or endurance, tests are usually based on
collective positions, fuel flow, strains, and
anticipated flight spectrum conditions.
8-6
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
These tests are used not only to substantiate during these tests include speed, power,
the life of the subsystem, but the results of torque, and specific fuel consumption.
these tests can also be used to establish
limitations of the subsystems and to identify 8-2.6 FIRE DETECTION AND
failure modes and inspection criteria. EXTINGUISHING
Typical test measurements include The airworthiness and typical
the data necessary to establish and maintain qualification test objective for the engine and
the required test spectrum, such as engine auxiliary power unit mounted fire detection
and rotor torque, fuel flows, engine and and suppression subsystem is to demonstrate
rotor speeds, and frequencies and amplitudes ultimately that an engine or APU fire can be
of vibration levels. Endurance tests typically reliably detected and suppressed. Also some
include specified inspection intervals to means should be provided by which to check
determine wear patterns and to inspect for the fire detection and suppression subsystem
indications of impending failure. to assure its availability when needed.
Subpar. 9-3.6 provides a discussion
8-2.5 AUXILIARY POWER UNIT of a system-level qualification requirement
The auxiliary power unit for fire detection and extinguishing.
airworthiness and qualification test objective The parameters to be assessed during
is to substantiate that the subsystem will qualification testing include but are not
satisfy specified performance requirements, limited to sensor and suppression capability.
such as performing reliably at the required The sensors should be capable of detecting a
power levels and under the required fire condition without initiating false alarms
environmental conditions. during normal operation. Fire suppression
ADS-17, Power Units: Aircraft capabilities to be determined by test are the
Auxiliary Gas Turbine, Type IV, (Ref. 13) ability of the subsystem to provide fire
provides general requirements for gas- extinguishing materials in sufficient quantity
turbine-type APU. Qualification and at a sufficient rate to suppress the fire.
requirements include a 200-h endurance test. The proper location of fire sensors and
The first 100 h of test should be conducted extinguishers must also be addressed.
using fuel conforming to MIL-T-5624 (Ref.
7) Grade JP-4 and oil conforming to MIL-L- 8-3 FUEL SUBSYSTEM
7808 (Ref. 9). The second 100 h should be QUALIFICATION
conducted using fuel conforming to MIL-T- The fuel subsystem includes all
5624 (Ref. 7) Grade JP-5 and oil conforming components whose primary function is to
to MIL-L-23699 (Ref. 8). An altitude test store, supply, sense, or control fuel in the air
that consists of operation and air starting vehicle. The fuel subsystem airworthiness
checks at selected conditions should be and typical qualification test objectives are to
performed. Further, tests to demonstrate demonstrate the operating characteristics of
performance capability at low temperature the subsystem both on the ground and
and tests to demonstrate the use of throughout the flight envelope. These
emergency fuels are typically required. objectives include but are not limited to the
These tests should include starting capability ability of the subsystem to store and
and engine operating temperatures. Typical distribute the fuel in a manner that allows
measurements for auxiliary power units made achievement of air vehicle system-level
requirements.
8-7
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-8
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
adverse impact on the dynamics of the air failure might result in a low flow rate or no
vehicle. fuel flow. The effects may vary for different
Measurements for slosh and vibration fuel temperatures, ambient pressures, and air
include the dynamics of air vehicle fuel vehicle weights. Hence effects should be
under various air vehicle dynamic conditions. determined for the entire flight spectrum.
Measurements on the ground should include Adverse effects might include engine surge,
but are not limited to measurements of flameout, and instabilities in the engine
center of gravity changes with air vehicle control subsystem. The failure of a transfer
attitude change. In-flight tests should pump might affect air vehicle stability and
include measurements of change in vibration control.
levels and qualitative evaluation of changes
in handling qualities during specified dynamic 8-3.5 FUEL SYSTEM
maneuvers. CRASHWORTHINESS
The airworthiness and typical
8-3.4 FUEL SUPPLY AND FUEL qualification test objective for crashworthy
TRANSFER fuel subsystems is to demonstrate that the
The fuel supply and transfer subsystem is capable of withstanding a
airworthiness and typical qualification test forced landing or crash within specified limits
objective is to substantiate that the fuel of the installation without breaking loose,
subsystem is capable of supplying the leaking, or resulting in fire. Additional
engines with adequate fuel to sustain objectives are to demonstrate adequacy of
uninterrupted engine performance during all the rollover vent valves, self-sealing fuel lines
phases of air vehicle system operation. and tanks, breakaway fuel lines and valves,
Fuel may be supplied to the engine and electrical components. Typically, fuel
through suction, pressurization, or boost cells are drop tested from a specified height.
pumps. Suction-type fuel subsystems use the Breakaway self-sealing valves and all
engine or other suction device to “suck” fuel frangible fittings are typically qualified on the
out of the fuel tank. Pressurization-type fuel basis of tests conducted at the component
subsystems maintain pressure in the fuel tank level and substantiated by qualification test
and “push” fuel to the engines. Boost-pump- reports, such as a breakaway self-sealing
type subsystems push fuel to the engines but valve qualification test report. Test
without pressurizing the tank. In addition, it requirements and pass-fail criteria are usually
might be necessary to transfer fuel from specified in test plans that are prepared by
various storage locations on the air vehicle in the contracting authority (CA) and submitted
flight. Fuel supply and transfer for the approval of the PA. Required plans
characteristics are typically measured in and reports should be defined in the
terms of fuel flow rates and pressures. Tests statement of work and listed in the contract
should be conducted at the full range of data requirements list (CDRL). Qualification
expected environmental conditions in order should include structural, dynamic, and slosh
to assess the impact of fuel temperature and and vibration analyses and testing. Also
ambient pressure conditions on the qualification includes functional analyses and
performance of the fuel transfer subsystem. testing of the fuel subsystem. Analyses and
The effects of fuel boost pump and transfer tests should be sufficient to demonstrate that
pump failures should be determined by the airframe and tanks are capable of
analyses and tests, if possible. Typically, a reacting to all crash-related loads and forces
8-9
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
associated with the overturning moment, etc. maintain weight and balance control
Analyses should start with a balanced free throughout the fuel transfer operation. An
body diagram. Typical measurements automatic fuel management subsystem, fuel
include weights, forces, fuel pressure, and quantity gages, valves, and transfer pumps
surges. For additional information refer to might be needed. Navigational aids and
subpars. 8-3.6, 8-3.8, and 8-3.9. Also refer communications subsystems should be
to Test Report (TR) 89-D-22E, Aircraft adequate for rendezvous. These subsystems
Crash Survival Design Guide, Vol. 5, and components might add to the overall
Aircraft Postcrash Survival, (Ref. 14) and qualification effort. Takeoffs and landings,
MIL-STD-1290, Light Fixed and Rotary slope landings, taxi operations, and in-flight
Wing Aircraft CrashResistance, (Ref. 15). operations should be demonstrated. Aerial
Other requirements might be specified in the refueling should be possible during daylight
contract, which must be followed. and darkness; aerial refueling with night
vision goggles should be possible. Typically,
8-3.6 INERTING SYSTEMS qualification includes structural, dynamic,
The inerting subsystems aeromechanical, aeroelastic, electrical,
airworthiness and typical qualification test electromagnetic compatibility, and human
objective is to substantiate that the factors analyses and testing. Also
subsystems can be purged of fuel qualification includes functional analyses and
concentrations to allow for safe maintenance testing of the aerial refueling subsystem. The
operations. Inerting subsystems include ability to dissipate safely static and lightning-
application of inert gas into the fuel strike-related electricity should be analyzed
subsystem to reduce the explosive and demonstrated. Crashworthiness of the
atmosphere caused by fuel fumes. host air vehicle should not be degraded.
Measurements for inerting Flight operations typically include tanker day
subsystems include the capability of the and night engagements and disengagements,
subsystems to prevent the fuel subsystem day and night fuel transfer operations, and
from catastrophically exploding due to engagements and fuel transfer in light to
outside ignition. This is accomplished by moderate turbulence. Except for a single-
measuring oxygen and/or hydrocarbon levels engine receiver air vehicle, refueling should
after inerting the subsystem. Subpar. 8-3.8 be possible with one engine in the receiver
provides additional discussion of explosion air vehicle inoperative. Aerial refueling is a
protection. multiservice operation. Much planning and
coordination are normally needed to avoid
8-3.7 AERIAL REFUEL costly delays. Typical measurements include
The airworthiness and typical electrical grounding, probe loads, vibrations,
qualification test objectives for aerial fuel pressures and surges, flow rates,
refueling subsystems are to demonstrate temperatures, and weight. Other
ultimately that the receiver air vehicle can requirements may be specified in the
rendezvous with tanker aircraft, join up, and contract.
safely transfer fuel from a variety of tanker
aircraft and under a variety of environmental 8-3.8 EXPLOSION PROTECTION
conditions. Thus qualification efforts are Explosion protection includes all
needed at both the subsystem and air vehicle measures that are included in the air vehicle
system level. Also it should be possible to design to reduce the risk of explosion. This
8-10
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-11
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
3. Flutter and lift and thrust system level. The air vehicle system level
performance wind tunnel testing qualification effort should be accomplished in
4. Antitorque subsystem concert with the aeroelastic modeling effort
performance tests. discussed in subpar. 6-2.5.2.
Objectives and test descriptions are
provided in the subparagraphs that follow. 8-4.3 LIFT AND THRUST
PERFORMANCE
8-4.1 WHIRL TESTING Lift is a term that is associated with
The whirl testing airworthiness and wings and main rotor subassemblies. Thrust
typical qualification test objective is to assure is a term that is usually associated with the
that the rotor, propeller, and proprotor propeller, tail rotor, and engine exhaust
subsystems are qualified for installation on subsystem. Tilting the rotor produces a
the air vehicle for ground and flight tests. propulsive force analogous to thrust. Rotor
Though aerodynamic excitations in test lift and propulsive force can be directly
stands are not representative of flight, measured in wind tunnels; however, it is not
appropriate information can be learned about directly measurable on rotorcraft subsystems.
stress distributions, critical speed locations, Force models are discussed in subpar. 6-2.4.
and the boundary of incipient stall flutter. Typically, rotor subsystem flight
These tests also allow the aerodynamic performance is estimated based on rotorcraft
calibration of main rotor static thrust system flight performance tests at known
performance, the stress and motion surveys weights and speeds and with power required
over the design range of combinations of being the measured dependent variable.
collective and cyclic pitch and rotor speed, Wind tunnel testing is especially needed
and prove isolated rotor stability. when there is concern about stability. (See
Rotor whirl towers are available at subpar. 6-2.3.) Full-scale model facilities are
major contract facilities, such as Boeing available at the AMES Research Center,
Helicopter and Sikorsky Helicopter Moffett Field, CA. NASA/AMES has the
companies. biggest facility (24.4- × 36.6-m (80- × 120-
ft)) available. NASA/AMES also has a 12.2-
8-4.2 AEROELASTIC STABILITY AND × 24.4-m (40- × 80-ft) facility and a reduced
FLUTTER scale (2.1- × 3.0-m (7- × 10-ft)) wind tunnel.
The terms “aeroelastic stability” and NASA Langley* has a 4.3- × 6.7-m (14- ×
“flutter” are synonymous. Both aircraft and 22-ft) reduced scale wind tunnel at its
rotorcraft might experience flutter. Flutter is facility. Interference effects result from
a self-exciting vibration. Airworthiness proximity of the main rotor blade to the
qualification and measurements for fuselage and tail rotor. (See subpar. 6-
aeroelastic stability should not be 2.5.1.) Also there are subsystem installation
accomplished at the subsystem level. losses. Typical flight test instrumentations
Aeroelastic stability investigations and are a boom-mounted pitot-static subsystem,
testing at the subsystem level are not strain gages, accelerometers, and flapping
recommended. The results of such testing angle potentiometers. Signals from the strain
are not conclusive. Aeroelastic stability gages or other rotating transducers are
qualification efforts should be accomplished
at the air vehicle system level. See par. 9-5
for a discussion of dynamic stability at the *
Langley Air Force Base
8-12
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
typically transmitted to the recording substantiate that this subsystem meets the
instruments through slip rings. Many types thrust and other performance requirements
of signal conditioning and calibration for satisfactory antitorque control. Ducted
methods may be selected, as appropriate, to antitorque rotor subsystems are similar to
match the types of transducers and open tail rotor subsystems in that they derive
equipment available. their power from the main transmission.
They differ, however, in that they are
8-4.4 ANTITORQUE SUBSYSTEM shrouded as opposed to being open.
The antitorque subsystem The primary measurements for the
counteracts the rotating forces tending to ducted antitorque subsystems are the rotor
cause the single main rotor rotorcraft to thrust and torque, and duct aerodynamic
rotate about the centerline of the main rotor performance produced by the subsystem.
mast. Antitorque subsystem types include
open tail rotor, ducted tail rotor, and coanda 8-4.4.3 Coanda/Thruster Effect
thruster. Testing of antitorque subsystems Antitorque Subsystems
should include, as a minimum, calibration of The coanda/thruster effect antitorque
the static thrust performance and the stress subsystem airworthiness and typical
and motion surveys over the design range of qualification test objective is to substantiate
pedal position and required antitorque that this subsystem meets the thrust and
performance values. other performance requirements for
satisfactory antitorque control. Coanda
8-4.4.1 Open Tail Rotor effect devices achieve their antitorque effect
The open tail rotor subsystem by using main rotor downwash flowing over
airworthiness and typical qualification test an asymmetrical aerodynamic surface
objective is to substantiate that this (essentially a wing section) with slot blowing
subsystem performs in accordance with positioned such that the lift resulting from
specified requirements. The tail rotor the airflow provides an antitorque thrust.
subsystem is shaft driven from the main The subsystem is generally augmented by a
transmission through one or more thruster that provides maneuvering forces.
intermediate tail rotor gearboxes. The The primary performance
purpose of these subsystem-level tests is to measurement for coanda effect antitorque
determine the ability of the subsystem to subsystems is again the thrust, coanda force,
provide the necessary thrust. or torque produced. These parameters are
Test measurements for the tail rotor usually determined by direct measurement of
antitorque subsystem includes the thrust, strain and calculation of forces and torques.
torque, and installation aerodynamic losses
of the tail rotor subsystem. These 8-5 HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC
parameters are usually determined by SUBSYSTEM QUALIFICATION
calculation from measurement input power Hydraulic and pneumatic subsystem
and direct measurements of strain gages to testing is necessary to qualify the installation,
determine output torque and thrust. to verify the performance capability of the
components operating together as a
8-4.4.2 Ducted Tail Rotor subsystem, and to demonstrate proof of
The ducted tail rotor airworthiness compliance with interface requirements.
and typical qualification test objective is to This testing should follow component
8-13
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-14
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-15
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Drop tests of the landing gear and components of the landing gear subsystem
critical backup structure should demonstrate and supporting structure. Wheel speeds and
compliance with the air vehicle system attitudes should also be measured. Attitude
specification and also show that the landing is usually simulated by means of various
gear is capable of absorbing its prorated inclined planes and wedges.
share of the crash energy according to the
contractor’s design and the requirements of 8-6.2 LOW- AND HIGH-SPEED
the air vehicle structural design criteria. TESTING
Normal load factor and the reserve energy The low- and high-speed testing for
absorption capacity of the landing gear landing gear airworthiness and typical
should be demonstrated. Also capacity of qualification testing are conducted on
the landing gear to land in sand (brownout wheeled landing gears to demonstrate the
condition) with some forward velocity capability of the landing gear to meet the
should be demonstrated. Fore and aft requirements of the landing performance and
loading are typically larger when landing in handling quality characteristics.
sand. These tests should be conducted to Measurements for low- and high-
determine the dynamic load characteristics speed testing include loads and stresses
over a representative range of air vehicle imposed on the wheel housings and on the
weights, angles of attack, and sinking speeds, landing gear mounting assemblies at both
as applicable to the landing gear type. For high- and low-speed landing conditions.
wheel-type landing gear they should include
sufficient wheel spinup to simulate critical 8-6.3 BRAKING AND BRAKE LOCK
wheel contact velocities. Relevant TESTING
information concerning the conduct of drop The braking and brake lock
test can be found in MIL-T-6053, Tests airworthiness and typical qualification test
Impact, Shock Absorber Landing Gear, objective is to demonstrate that the braking
Aircraft, (Ref. 16). Specific sink speed, subsystem satisfies performance
wheel speeds, and attitudes should be requirements. The air vehicle should stop
specified in the subsystem specification. In within specified limits, etc. In addition, the
addition, the shock absorption performance characteristics of the braking subsystem are
of the gear should be evaluated with the assessed with the brakes in a locked
initial metering configuration and with any condition.
changes that might improve overall landing Measurements for braking and brake
performance characteristics. See ADS-29, lock testing include forces and stresses
Structural Design Criteria for Rotary Wing imposed on the landing gear, braking time,
Aircraft, (Ref. 17) and ADS-36, Rotary and braking distance. Braking data may be
Wing Aircraft Crash Resistance, (Ref. 18) obtained in conjunction with the high- and
for additional information. (Also see subpar. low-speed testing described in subpar. 8-6.2.
6-4.7.) Braking capability adequate for both
Measurements for drop testing stopping and parking the air vehicle on a
include the forces, velocities, and required slope should also be demonstrated.
accelerations applied to the landing gear
subsystem along the x-, y-, and z-axes and 8-6.4 FLOTATION TESTING
also measurement by means of strain gages, Flotation gear has been used
etc., of their impact on the structural successfully on rotorccraft and other air
8-16
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-17
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Both ground and flight testing are needed to detection equipment under specific default
demonstrate airworthiness and specification conditions
compliance. Ground tests should include all 8. The engine starting system is
electrical subsystem performance tests and satisfactory.
demonstrations that can be performed 9. The auxiliary power unit performs
satisfactorily with the host air vehicle on the satisfactorily.
ground. Flight tests should include all of the 10. Accessibility for test, adjustment,
performance tests and demonstrations that and servicing is adequate. For information
cannot be satisfactorily conducted on the concerning this topic, see MIL-STD-7080,
ground. The contractor should demonstrate Selection and Installation ofAircraft
that Electronic Equipment, (Ref. 20).
1. Operating temperatures of all
electrical power and conversion equipment 8-7.1 ELECTRICAL POWER TESTING
are within design limits. The electrical power testing
2. The prime mover has adequate airworthiness and typical qualification test
capacity to maintain rated generator loads objective is to substantiate that these
and overload performance as specified by the subsystems perform in accordance with their
contract. specified requirements at the subsystem
3. Generation and conversion of level.
adequate power from minimum ground idle The electrical load imposed on the
to maximum engine speed. power subsystem by each individual
4. Voltage regulation, frequency electrical subsystem or unit should be
regulation, transient performance, and measured and the total load on each
waveform of the alternating current (ac) electrical power subsystem determined. The
subsystem satisfy the performance and subsystem or unit should be operated in all
interface characteristics of MIL-STD-704, modes requiring maximum power. The
Aircraft Electric Power Characteristics , power required is the steady state demand
(Ref. 19). for the particular mode being considered.
5. Voltage regulation and ripple Primary power subsystem total load should
voltage present in the direct current (dc) include the input power to conversion
subsystem as measured at representative equipment. The conversion (or secondary)
power input terminals of the utilization power should be supplying its normal loads
equipment satisfy the performance and when its input power is determined.
interface requirements of MIL-STD-704 The contractor should demonstrate
(Ref. 19). that the design, operation, and performance
6. Emergency power and alternate of the primary electrical subsystem satisfies
emergency electrical circuits are satisfactory the requirements established by the detail
for all flight conditions. This demonstration specification and contract. Primary electrical
should include performance of the voltage power can be 115/208 V ac 3-phase 400 Hz,
regulator, frequency regulation, and 270-V dc, or 28-V dc. The tests should
waveform of the ac subsystem and the demonstrate
voltage regulation and ripple voltage content 1. Single generator operation and
of the dc subsystem. capability
7. There is satisfactory performance 2. Multiple generator operation and
of the fault protection subsystem and capability
8-18
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-19
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-20
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
and length; a description of the electrical storage temperatures do not exceed the
system operation during normal, emergency, equipment design limits.
and abort procedures; the load analysis
showing all power requirements on the 8-8 AVIONICS— COMMUNICATIONS
subsystem under flight conditions, and the The purpose of airworthiness
data, methods, and instrumentation qualification testing is to demonstrate that
pertaining to the contractor’s flight and the air vehicle communication subsystems
ground evaluations of the capabilities of the meet the performance and functional
entire electrical subsystem. interface requirements specified in the
contract. Radio equipment used primarily to
8-7.3 ELECTRICAL AND transmit and receive information by voice or
ELECTRONICS COOLING code is classified herein as communication
Typical electrical and electronic equipment. This includes high-frequency
cooling subsystem airworthiness and (HF), very high-frequency/ amplitude
qualification requirements are to substantiate modulation (VHF/AM), very high-
that these subsystems perform in accordance frequency/frequency modulation (VHF/FM),
with their specified requirements at the air ultrahigh-frequency/amplitude modulation
vehicle and subsystem levels. The test (UHF/AM) radio function equipment,
objectives are to demonstrate that the interphone equipment, and related antennas.
electrical and electronic cooling subsystems Also included are applicable digital controls,
are capable of dissipating the heat generated secure communications subsystems, and
and maintaining the temperature environment identification friend or foe (IFF) equipment.
necessary for reliable system operation. All avionics should be bench tested in
Typical methods used to provide thermal accordance with approved test procedures
relief to electronic equipment include the use before being installed in the test air vehicle.
of ram air effects, blown ambient air, or See Chapter 7 for additional guidance
environmentally conditioned air. Judicious concerning component testing. Typically,
arrangement of electronic units in the the contractor should make use of
avionics bays can greatly reduce cooling commercially available specifications that
requirements. satisfy performance criteria of applicable
Measurements for electrical and military specifications. If commercially
electronics cooling testing include cooling air available specifications and standards are
mass flow rates and temperatures. If air unsatisfactory, the contractor should prepare
conditioning or external cooling air is bench, preflight, and flight test procedures.
provided to the electronic equipment, the These test specifications should include
testing should include operation of the pass/fail criteria. Also “fail soft”
equipment with simulated failure of the functionality of integrated avionic
conditioning equipment and blowers. configurations should be required and
Outside air temperature, cockpit ambient demonstrated; see par. 8-18. Further, these
temperature, and compartment temperatures specifications should be submitted to the PA
should be recorded as time histories. for approval. In some cases the use of
Temperature data should be obtained with military specifications, military standards, or
the equipment operating and not operating to aeronautical design standards might be
demonstrate that actual operating and specified by the contract.
8-21
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
The airworthiness qualification test entire air vehicle is an essential portion of the
ground station should be validated by the subsystem.
contractor and accepted by the contracting Avionics— communications
agency. subsystem tests are further subdivided into
The type of ground station antenna, external communications tests and internal
antenna ground plane, and height of all test communications tests in the two
station antennas should be stipulated in the subparagraphs that follow. TEMPEST
test plan prepared by the contractor. The requirements apply to avionics—
characteristics of the ground station communications subsystems. These
transmitters and receivers should be detailed, requirements deal with the control of
particularly the power output of the classified data in order to prevent the
transmitters and the sensitivity of the exploitation of these data by enemy threat
receivers. For performance testing of subsystems. TEMPEST testing is used to
communication equipment, it is desirable to demonstrate the extent to which these data
use the same type of receiver/transmitter for have been protected from being inadvertently
the ground test station as is being tested in disclosed to an enemy.
the air vehicle.
Communication subsystem tests 8-8.1 EXTERNAL
should be conducted on a production air COMMUNICATIONS
vehicle, preferably the first. The host air The objective of airworthiness
vehicle used for airworthiness qualification qualification testing is to demonstrate that
of the subsystem should be fully configured the air vehicle external communication
as specified in the contract and the air vehicle subsystems perform all of the specified
detail specification. The tests should functions in the manner required by the
demonstrate that the installation is contract. Typical qualification test
satisfactory and that the communication objectives are to validate reliable and
subsystem meets or exceeds minimum satisfactory two-way communications at the
performance requirements as specified in the required distances on at least 10 frequencies
contract. Information concerning the spaced across each frequency band in
avionics airworthiness qualification may be question. Omnidirectional capability is
found in MIL-I-8700, Installation and Test typically required. The airworthiness
of Electronic Equipmentin Aircraft, qualification ground test program consists of
General Specification for, (Ref. 22) and a basic preflight test plus those tests
consists of both ground and flight tests. necessary to establish that the avionic
Antenna subsystems should be tested subsystem installation is satisfactory for
both on the ground and in flight. An antenna airworthiness qualification flight tests and for
subsystem is the complete interconnection of the subsystem maintainability requirements.
the antenna, the transmission line (coaxial As discussed in par. 8-8, a ground test
cable and connectors), radome, and all parts procedure including rejection criteria for
that serve to match, tune, isolate, erect, each communication set should be submitted
interconnect and protect the subsystem. For to the procuring activity for approval. The
additional information, see MIL-STD-877, air vehicle to be tested should be fully
Antenna Subsystem, Airborne, Criteria for configured as specified by the contract and
Design and Location of, (Ref. 23). From the the air vehicle detail specification.
standpoint of operational performance, the
8-22
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-23
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
signal strength over a specified range and can be accomplished. If the circular pattern
altitude to demonstrate that reliable two-way is used, the diameter must be small compared
communication can be maintained to all with the distance to the measuring station. It
points of azimuth. Quality and signal is also important that the center of the air
strength levels may be described as follows: vehicle circle be maintained over a known
1. Quality. Unreadable; barely geographical point. The altitude above the
readable; readable, occasionally difficult; ground must be as low as is necessary to
readable, no difficulty; perfectly readable. maintain line-of-sight and good signal
2. Signal Strength. Faint to very reception. For airborne transmitter antennas
weak; weak to fair; fair to good; good to the signal-receiving and -measuring
medium strong; strong to extra strong. equipment may be installed at the ground
Speech intelligibility by using phonetically station. However, for antennas to be used
balanced monosyllabic word lists and other with receivers, it may be necessary to install
similar techniques also should be measured. the signal-receiving and -measuring
The contractor should define the test equipment on the air vehicle if the power
approach to be used. handling capability of the antenna is less than
Performance flight tests of the power output of the transmitter. The
information friend or foe equipment should most desirable and informative antenna
include verification by ground-based IFF patterns are those plotted from continuously
equipment of proper replies to all modes of recorded data for the entire 360-deg turn.
operation (1, 2, 3/A, C, and 4) over a Maximum-range should be conducted to
specified range and altitude to demonstrate determine the outbound and inbound range
that reliable interrogations and replies can be of the communication subsystems.
maintained to all points of azimuth. Vibratory tests should be conducted
Both ground and flight testing are on each component of the communication
typically required for antenna subsystems. subsystem during typical operating
Ground tests of antenna subsystems are conditions— startup, hover, takeoff, normal
limited by reflections and ground effects. flight at several typical altitudes, landing, and
However, tests, such as VSWR, electrical shutdown— at two or more typical gross
bonding, mutual interference, impedance, weights. The components to be tested will
and limited operational tests, are typically be instrumented for the vertical, longitudinal,
required. Each antenna should be checked, and lateral planes. Rotorcraft vibration
as a minimum, at the low, middle, and high generally extends to lower frequencies and to
end of its operational range for compliance greater amplitude at these lower frequencies
with the specified performance requirements. than the vibration of other aircraft.
Antenna patterns may be measured Therefore, test results should be obtained at
by flying a cloverleaf flight plan or by flying a these lower frequencies to ascertain that the
flat 360-deg flight turn (circular pattern). subsystem is compatible with the rotorcraft.
The advantage of the cloverleaf flight plan is
the radial accuracy of the different headings 8-8.2 INTERNAL COMMUNICATIONS
flown during the test. The disadvantage is The internal communication
that a signal null might exist between two of subsystem airworthiness and typical
the selected headings and would not be qualification test objectives are intended to
detected. By flying a circular pattern, a demonstrate that the internal communication
continuous monitoring of the antenna signal
8-24
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-25
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-26
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-27
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
traveled or time of flight as is the case with Typically, VOR qualification testing
the previous navigation subsystems. includes but is not limited to bearing
accuracy (manual and automatic), to/from
8-9.4 BROADCAST NAVIGATION flag operation, warning flag operation, audio
SYSTEMS quality, and control. Bearing accuracy tests
The airworthiness and typical test are typically performed with at least three
objectives of broadcast navigation simulated VOR bearings and on at least two
subsystems are similar to those of frequencies in the 108.0- to 118.0-MHz
communication subsystems. In many cases range. Rotor modulation tests should be
the tests can be accomplished concurrently conducted over the entire operational range.
because the equipment performs both Also electromagnetic interference and
communication and navigation functions. vulnerability testing should be conducted.
Generally, navigation tests should be more The ADF qualification testing includes
quantitative than communication tests. Also but is not limited to sense antenna matching,
a greater variety of signal sources and types reception using sense antennas, frequency
of outputs is used in airborne navigation. accuracy, beat frequency oscillator
This might result in a greater variation in test operation, tune meter operation, manual loop
procedures from subsystem to subsystem operation aural null in manual mode,
than is found among communication appropriate indication action in ADF mode.
subsystems. Typically, three types of tests Flight testing typically includes ADF bearing
are required to demonstrate thoroughly the accuracy with loop compensation, bearing
qualification of an airborne navigation accuracy without loop compensation, ADF
system— bench, preflight, and flight. The performance flight test at range and altitude,
bench tests are checks of the operational and overstation passage accuracy. Bearing
status of the subsystem components. The accuracy should be determined for relative
preflight tests are performed to assure proper bearings of 0 to 360 deg in steps not to
installation. The ability of a subsystem to exceed 30 deg. Range tests should be
perform a particular mission can be performed in all modes of the ADF set and
determined only by flight test, which both on at least three different frequencies.
simulates operational usage of the subsystem Overstation passage tests should be run in
and allows collection of accurate the ADF mode. Also electromagnetic
performance data. Environmental tests also interference and vulnerability testing should
are required. Types of rotorcraft navigation be conducted.
subsystems to be considered include VHF Gyromagnetic and standby compass
omnidirectional range (VOR) receiving subsystem qualification testing typically
subsystems, low-frequency ADF subsystems, includes but is not limited to operational
frequency modulation (FM) homing checks and performance testing, compass
subsystems, gyromagnetic compass swinging (compensation) procedures,
subsystems, tactical air navigation (TACAN) synchronization, slaving, and warning flag
and distance-measuring equipment (DME), operation. Compass swinging should be
long-range navigation (LORAN), OMEGA accomplished on a surveyed compass rose.
(a low-frequency navigation subsystem used See MIL-STD-765, Compass Swinging,
for long-range navigation), and instrument Aircraft, General Requirements for,
landing subsystems (ILS). (Ref. 25) for additional information
concerning establishing requirements.
8-28
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Residual compass errors are typically position records should be compared with
recorded on compass calibration cards for the actual position of the air vehicle at each
display in the rotorcraft. Also point and the data reduced in order to
electromagnetic interference and determine average error.
vulnerability testing should be conducted. 4. If formal instrument flight rules
The TACAN/DME qualification (IFR) certification of the LORAN-C
testing includes but is not limited to bearing subsystem is desired, demonstration of
accuracy (azimuth angle), distance accuracy compliance with the requirements of Federal
(slant range), maximum operating range, Aviation Administration (FAA) Advisory
to/from indicator operation, course deviation Circulars (ACs) 20-121, Airworthiness
indicator operation, audio quality, and Approval of Airborne LORAN-C Navigation
control. Bearing and distance accuracy tests Systems for Use in the US NationalAirspace
apply to TACAN operating in the air-to- System (NAS), (Ref. 26) and/or 20-130,
ground mode and are typically performed Airworthiness Approval ofMultisensor
with at least two TACAN ground stations. Navigation Systems for Use in the US
Distance accuracy tests are also performed in National Airspace System (NAS) and
the air-to-air mode with two or more air Alaska, (Ref. 27) is required. If formal IFR
vehicles equipped with TACAN equipment. certification of the OMEGA subsystem is
Also electromagnetic interference and desired, demonstration of compliance with
vulnerability testing should be conducted. the requirements of FAA ACs 20-101,
LORAN-C and OMEGA/VLF Airworthiness Approval of OMEGA/VLF
qualification testing includes but is not Navigation Systems for the United States
limited to the following: NAS and Alaska, (Ref. 28) and/or 20-130
1. A ground test to establish the (Ref. 27) is required.
functional performance of the receiver while The ILS qualification testing includes
installed in the air vehicle under normal but is not limited to localizer and glide slope
conditions as well as in all degraded position accuracy, warning flag operation,
conditions under which the receiver is course deviation indicator operation, marker
designed to operate beacon operation, audio quality, and control.
2. Electromagnetic interference and Also electromagnetic interference and
vulnerability testing prior to flight test vulnerability testing should be conducted.
3. A flight test to characterize the
performance of the receiver. This flight test 8-9.5 HYBRID NAVIGATION
should consist of a minimum of six separate SYSTEMS
way points geographically separate from Hybrid navigation subsystem
each other and to the maximum extent airworthiness and qualification test
possible over differing terrain. Each way objectives are to substantiate that these
point should be over a location that is subsystems perform in accordance with their
established through aviation charts or other specified requirements at the subsystem
reliable means. At each way point the level. Additional objectives are to
rotorcraft should establish a stationary hover. substantiate subsystem reliability,
While maintaining the hover, the rotorcraft navigational accuracy, and the ability of the
should execute a pedal turn, pausing every subsystem to compensate for various
30 deg as a minimum to record the displayed abnormalities and errors. Hybrid subsystems
position as indicated by the receiver. These combine two or more types of navigation
8-29
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-30
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-31
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
time required is a function of the loading on population of potential crew members should
the bus, i.e., the amount of bus traffic be evaluated.
activity. Data latency results when the data
reaching their destination is no longer valid 8-10.6 MISSION EQUIPMENT
or representative of the state of the system. PACKAGE COCKPIT INTEGRATION
Data latency effects may be modeled through The mission equipment package
simulations, such as time step simulations, to cockpit integration airworthiness and typical
determine the latency effects on overall qualification test objectives are to
system performance. demonstrate that all mission equipment has
Measurements for electronic network been integrated as needed to meet or exceed
subsystems include but are not limited to performance and interface requirements.
data transfer and error rates and latency. Measurements for mission equipment
These parameters are measured through the package cockpit integration is often
use of bus monitors while functioning all qualitative in nature. A key item of interest
subsystems in an operational representative is, “Can the crew member easily and
environment and duty cycle. consistently use a subsystem when required
during all phases of operation?”.
8-10.5 VOICE INTERACTIVE
SUBSYSTEMS 8-10.7 VISIBILITY
The voice interactive subsystem Aircrew visibility performance
airworthiness and typical qualification test requirements should be provided in the air
objectives are to substantiate that the voice vehicle specification. Aircrew visibility,
interactive system is capable of performing especially over the nose of the air vehicle,
its intended function with all typical users. should not be restricted by the location of
Voice interactive systems provide the controls, consoles, and instrument panels.
capability for the crew to control certain Also visibility should not be restricted by
functions by issuing voice commands. This mounting and reinforcing strips that might be
technique has the potential to reduce the used to divide transparent areas. (See MIL-
crew’s workload greatly. The critical STD-850, Aircrew Station Vision
characteristic of a voice interactive system is Requirements for Military Aircraft, (Ref. 35)
the capability to repeat consistently and for additional information and guidance.)
accurately the appropriate response given a Aitoff plots are a means of depicting
variety of individuals commanding the the field of view from an air vehicle crew
response. station. The plot depicts the limits of the
Measurements for voice interactive field of view (in degrees from design eye
subsystems include the size of the vocabulary position), and it is plotted onto a spherical
of the system and the accuracy with which plot. The contractor should demonstrate
the subsystem is able to accept voice that the minimum angles of unobstructed
commands. In addition, the ability of the vision illustrated in Fig. 8-2 and Fig. 8-3 are
system to adapt to the voices of the total available to the pilot from the design eye
position.
8-32
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-10.8 FLIGHT CREW VISIONICS critical human factors concerns that relate to
The flight crew visionics man-in-the-loop safe operation of the air
airworthiness and typical qualification test vehicle.
objectives are to demonstrate that the air Measurements for flight crew
vehicle can be safely operated using the visionics include range and field-of-view
visionics systems. capability of the subsystem and the degree to
Targeting forward looking infrared which the flight crew is able to perform the
(FLIR) subsystems have been adapted to mission at night. Other considerations that
provide the flight crew with visionics determine mission performance capability is
capability. The FLIR subsystem provides a the subsystem image resolution contrast and
visual representation of the thermal scene in the accuracy of the helmet position tracking.
front of the air vehicle. Such subsystems
include helmet-mounted displays and 8-10.9 PROPULSION CONTROLS
imaging sensor slewing capability slaved to The propulsion controls
helmet motion. Human factors airworthiness and typical qualification test
considerations and counter-countermeasures objectives are to substantiate that the
should be carefully assessed due to the propulsion subsystem can be adequately
critical nature of the man/machine interfaces controlled throughout the flight envelope.
involved in night pilotage by means of a Propulsion control may be accomplished
visionics system. Slew rates of the helmet through the use of analog controls or digital
display and visual presentation of the controls. Digital control systems require
visionics scene that is displayed to the pilot qualification of the propulsion control system
in relation to the real-world conditions are as well as qualification of the
8-33
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
software. Changes to the control software qualification tests should also demonstrate
may also require requalification of the the adequacy of personnel accommodations.
propulsion system. Qualification A female aircrew in the 5th percentile in
requirements increase as the authority of seated height and reach and a male aircrew in
control increases. (See subpar. 6-4.5.4 for the 99th percentile in seated height and reach
additional information.) (Ref. 36) wearing the worst-case equipment
Measurements for propulsion and clothing— normally body armor and
controls include the force and response time arctic clothing— should be able to perform
necessary to accomplish propulsion control all required functions when seated at each
functions. These measurements should be normal flight station with shoulder harness
taken during maneuvers and at the and seat belt fastened. See Chapter 6 for
environmental conditions that represent the additional information and guidance.
total flight envelope as closely as possible. MIL-STD-850 (Ref. 35) should be
used for information concerning specifying
8-11 CREW STATION EQUIPMENT aircrew station vision performance
AND FURNISHINGS requirements for Army air vehicles. The
The purpose of crew station particular air vehicles and mission
equipment and furnishings airworthiness requirements might necessitate external
qualification testing is to demonstrate that all vision angles greater than those defined in
performance requirements of the air vehicle MIL-STD-850 (Ref. 35) due to approaches
detail specification have been met and also over critical barriers, confined autorotations,
that the crew can accomplish all functions etc. If greater angles are needed, they
necessary for the assigned missions. These should be stated in the requirements portion
8-34
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
of the contract. See subpar. 8-10.7 for Cabin, Crashworthy, General Specifications
additional information and guidance. The for, (Ref. 41). Protective armor should
noise within the crew compartments should satisfy the requirements of MIL-STD-1288,
not exceed the maximum allowable Aircrew Protection Requirements
performance defined in MIL-STD-1294, Nonnuclear WeaponThreat, (Ref. 42).
Acoustical Noise Limits inHelicopters, (Ref. This is a military-specific requirement;
37) and MIL-A-8806, Acoustical Noise however, a waiver is needed to cite this
Level in Aircraft, GeneralSpecification for, standard in a contract. Specific performance
(Ref. 38), as applicable. MIL-STD-1474, criteria should be included in the statement
Noise Limits for MilitaryMateriel (Metric), of work and specification. Unless otherwise
(Ref. 39) also contains useful information specified by the PA, the seats for other
concerning noise limits. aircraft should satisfy the requirements stated
Evaluation of the seating and in Sections 25.561, 25.562, and 25.785 of
furnishings of the air vehicle should be Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations, Part
accomplished insofar as is possible through 25, Airworthiness Standards: Transport
detailed electronic mock-up evaluation; see Category Airplanes, (Ref. 43). Emergency
Chapter 6. Satisfaction of all structural escape and rescue design features should be
performance requirements should be tested and demonstrated. The PA should
demonstrated through engineering tests that require emergency escape and rescue design
involve stress analysis, laboratory test (shake criteria as specified in Technical Report (TR)
table, etc.), and any destructive testing that 89-D-22A, Aircraft Crash SurvivalDesign
might be needed. Further considerations to Guide, Vol. 1, Design Criteria and
be evaluated are Checklist,
1. Escape provisions (Ref. 44). However, for off-the-shelf,
2. Comfort features nondevelopmental aircraft the PA may be
3. Restraint subsystem willing to accept aircraft and emergency
4. Adjustment features escape and rescue design features that satisfy
5. Passenger accommodations as Title 14, Code of Federal Regulations, Part
they vary from pilot and crew 23, Airworthiness Standards: Normal
accommodations Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter Category
6. Protective armor, if applicable Airplanes, (Ref. 45); Part 25, Airworthiness
7. NBC protection Standards: Transport Category Airplanes ,
8. Supplemental oxygen (Ref. 43); 14 CFR, Part 27, Airworthiness
9. Variable crew-mounted Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft,
mission/survival equipment. (Ref. 46); and 14 CFR, Part 29,
The crew seat subsystem should Airworthiness Standards: Transport
provide survivability from crash and ballistic Category Rotorcraft, (Ref. 47), as applicable
threats. A variable energy attenuation to the type of air vehicle. All contractually
feature should be incorporated to provide required emergency escape and rescue
discrete adjustment for the Army aviator. design features should be demonstrated or
Useful information may be found in MIL-S- tested. Satisfactory ingress and egress for
58095, Seat System, Crash-Resistance, crew members should be demonstrated.
Nonejection, Aircrew, General Specification There should be minimum difficulty of
for, (Ref. 40). Additional information can be movement and probability of damage to or
found in MIL-S-85510, Seats Helicopter fouling of equipment, clothing, etc. Doors
8-35
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-36
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-37
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
of Operator Workload, (Ref. 54) provides vibrations including but not limited to
useful information for measurement of gunfire-related vibrations. Embedded
operator workload; however, it does not software should be verified and validated.
include the performance requirements. The Adequate reliability and maintainability
contractor can develop and propose other should be demonstrated. Measurements for
means as needed to demonstrate compliance. flight data recorders include the parameters
recorded, the accuracy of the data, and the
8-11.3 CREW STATION total data-recording capacity. Typical
CRASHWORTHINESS parameters to be recorded are altitude,
Crashworthiness encompasses all airspeed, pitch, roll, yaw, pitch rates, roll
design features and characteristics intended rates, yaw rates, rotor rpm, engine torque,
to ensure crew protection in the event of a and control positions. However, it is feasible
crash. Crashworthy seats provide protection to monitor a much larger number of
to the crew member by absorbing energy. parameters. The specification should define
Typically, crew members are retained in their what parameters are to be recorded.
seats by a five point restraint belt system. Typically, at least a one-hour capacity should
Assemblies and components located within be provided for air vehicle parameters. Also
the crew station should be adequately crew member voice recording of not less
retained during a crash to avoid their than 30 min with overwrite capability should
becoming projectiles. Helmets should be be provided.
capable of withstanding specified impacts.
Also devices such as air bags and the 8-11.5 ENVIRONMENTAL CONTROL
inflatable body and head restraint subsystem Cockpit and cabin climatic conditions
(IBAHRS) have been investigated. The may be controlled by a variety of cooling,
IBAHRS is a crash-activated inflatable heating, and filtration methods. However,
restraint subsystem. Also crew station operation within a nuclear, biological, and
equipment, seats, etc., should be adequately chemical environment requires specialized
retained to minimize the potential for injury. equipment. The NBC agents should either
Adequate clearance should be provided to be kept out of the cockpit or the crew should
avoid head and body injuries during sudden wear protective clothing. Typically,
stops. Provisions and procedures for protective clothing has been used to provide
evacuation provide a means to minimize the the necessary protection; however, this
effects of a crash. The adequacy of clothing tends to be uncomfortable and
provisions and procedures for evacuation cannot be donned in flight. The US Army
should be demonstrated. has been investigating and developing an
aircrew microclimate conditioning subsystem
8-11.4 FLIGHT DATA RECORDER as protection against heat stress when
The flight data recorder airworthiness operating with NBC protective clothing. Its
and typical qualification test objectives are to purpose is to regulate body core
demonstrate that the subsystem reliably temperature. Also a cockpit
records specified parameters and is capable overpressurization system might be used to
of withstanding crash conditions, such as help keep NBC contaminants out of the
those associated with deceleration forces and cockpit. The overpressurization subsystem
extreme temperature. The flight data should have the capacity to compensate for
recorder should withstand specified various forms of cockpit leakage.
8-38
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-39
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
General Specification for, (Ref. 58) and external heat transfer coefficient, the ice
MIL-T-18607, Thermal and Fluid Anti- accumulation rate, and whether steady state
Icing Systems and Equipment, Aircraft conditions have been attained. When
External Surfaces, (Ref. 59) including a ducting is used in any part of the subsystem,
visual inspection of the general construction it should be tested for flow rate, temperature
and serviceability of the subsystem. Prior to drop, pressure drop, and duct leakage, and
the installation of an anti-icing or deicing, the methods and instrumentation used by the
defrosting, or defogging subsystem, the contractor should be outlined.
contractor should submit for approval by the Compliance with the ECS
procuring activity a report showing a requirements should be established during
schematic drawing of the proposed flight test operations. Certain ground tests
subsystems and all design data necessary to not normally conducted at the climatic
comply with the requirements. These data hangar at Eglin Air Force Base, FL, also
should be detailed and should show the should be performed. Testing to determine
methods used to arrive at the necessary compartment contamination levels should be
capacity of the subsystems, an explanation or performed during ground operation with all
description of subsystem operation, the heat engines operating and the air vehicle
requirements, and the heat distribution and stationed at a wind heading most likely to
airflow considering various altitudes, ingest contaminants into the cabin air supply.
conditions of flight and ground operation, Air samples should be collected with the
and effect of personnel comfort as outlined doors and windows of the air vehicle closed
in MIL-T-5842 (Ref. 58). The report should and also with the doors and windows open
also include items, such as an outline of the or removed (if applicable). The standards
type and location of the instrumentation, and exposure criteria applicable to toxic
conditions of test, and methods of tests. The fumes testing by the US Army are basically
instrumentation should be adequate to governed by Title 29, Code of Federal
determine heat flows through the area, to Regulations, Part 1910.1000, Subpart Z,
determine the dew point at each transparent Toxic and Hazardous Substances, Air
area, and to ensure that any area will not be Contaminants, Permissible Exposure Limits,
overheated. The windshield anti-icing tests (Ref. 60) and Department of Defense
typically consist of laboratory and flight Instruction (DoDI) 6055.1, DoD
tests. Information concerning these tests can Occupational Safety and Health Program,
be found in MIL-T-5842 (Ref. 58). The (Ref. 61). The Army Surgeon General
quantity of heat applied to the windshield (TSG) can specify alternative standards in
should be checked in flight to ensure that the place of the Federal Code where special
quantity required (determined during considerations must be applied due in part to
laboratory tests) actually is available. An the character of the military exposure
accepted method used to determine heat environment, which can differ materially
flow is to measure the inside and outside from exposures experienced by other
surface temperatures of the transparent area populations. For example, the transient
and measure the effect of the OAT. If the nature of some military exposures when
thermal properties of the transparent area are combined with the uncertainties of the
known, the heat flow can be determined. synergistic effects of simultaneous exposure
The accuracy of this method depends upon to several gases can provide for entirely
the available temperature differential, the different criteria than specified in the Federal
8-40
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Code. Finally, there is the category of 8-4 with solar radiation and simulated
standards and criteria that is not only unique maximum personnel and electrical heat loads.
to the military environment but is also Subsystem performance tests should be
singular to military populations, such as the conducted with a minimum of 75% of the
standard for exposure to carbon monoxide. passenger and crew accommodations
Typically, the Army Surgeon General makes occupied during cooling tests and a
the final decision regarding acceptability of maximum of 10% of the passenger
concentrations of measured contaminants. accommodations occupied during heating
Flight test operations should be tests. Instrumentation should be provided to
conducted to evaluate the controllability and determine the temperature distribution within
the capacity of each environmental control all occupied spaces of the air vehicle, all
subsystem throughout the flight spectrum electronic equipment bays, and all
during weapons firing. Specifically, airflow compartments. Instrumentation should be
velocity conditions at cruise altitudes should provided to determine the velocity of flow in
be established. Temperature control all occupied compartments under all
response characteristics should be conditions.
determined by manually setting the Tests should be conducted to
temperature control adjustment above and demonstrate satisfactory flight procedures
below the design setting. Air vehicles for smoke removal. Also an investigation of
equipped with combustion heaters should be the cleanliness of the air supplied to the cabin
tested at flight and atmospheric conditions should be made by collecting air samples in
that require intermittent or low output an evacuated container and analyzing the
heating operations. The fail-safe contents in a laboratory. Sufficient samples
characteristics of the environmental control should be obtained to cover all flight
subsystem should be demonstrated by conditions under which contamination might
simulating failures of the power source exist. The moisture content of the air in both
supplied to the temperature or airflow crew and passenger compartments also
controls. Heating, cooling, and ventilation should be determined. Test personnel should
subsystem capacity should be verified by be equipped with suitable masks during this
operating the air vehicle at the most critical program. Tests should be conducted to
design speed and altitude. demonstrate safe and satisfactory
Heating subsystem flight tests should performance of the subsystem and equipment
be conducted at night to eliminate solar under the following conditions:
effects; also there should be minimum 1. Climb
electrical and personnel loads within the 2. Descent
compartment. Air-conditioning and 3. Level flight
ventilation (cooling) tests should be 4. Maneuvering flight
conducted in conditions as close as possible 5. Hover (in-ground effect (IGE)
to those on the outside design curve in Fig. and out-of-ground effect (OGE)).
8-41
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-42
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-43
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-44
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-45
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
structure should be completed prior to Also all cargo doors and ramps
demonstration tests. Typically, these tests intended for airborne operation should be
are accomplished by laboratory bench tests demonstrated in flight. The outer limits of
or on the static test air vehicle. Cargo tie- the operational flight envelope of the cargo
down provisions should be sufficient not door and ramp should be demonstrated as
only for flight but also for crash-landing well as any other critical points within the
conditions. Crashworthiness structural envelope. The demonstration should cover
requirements are identified in the air vehicle all normal modes of operation and the
specification or as emergency landing emergency procedures. Doors and ramps
conditions in the FAA standards. Also it that can be blown off or otherwise ejected or
should be demonstrated that cargo-loading lost from the air vehicle in an emergency
provisions maintain the air vehicle CG need not be included in this demonstration.
position within the approved limits and that However, it should be demonstrated that
CG movement associated with cargo airdrop door or ramp separation from the air vehicle
is within limits. does not result in additional hazards.
Measurements for internal cargo Additional hazards might result from a
provision include the capability to restrain separated object or debris striking the tail
the load in accordance with the air vehicle rotor or in adverse aerodynamic loading
detail specification. A proof test of the from the change in the aerodynamic
cargo compartment floor to limit loads configuration. All control devices including
should be accomplished. Design limit loads, limit switches and overload sensors should
both distributed and concentrated, should be be demonstrated. Changes in host air vehicle
applied to walkways, treadways, and general control forces, yaw rates, etc., should be
cargo and passenger area floors. Also all measured.
conveyors and tracks installed in the air
vehicle should be subjected to proof tests. 8-14.2 EXTERNAL CARGO
Limit loads and concentrated loads should be PROVISIONS
applied, and the loads should be moved Typically cargo hooks are used for
along the conveyor or track at maximum external cargo. The cargo hook subsystems
permissible speed. Proof tests also should be should be demonstrated with the rotorcraft in
conducted at any other critical load/speed flight. Automatic and semiautomatic hook
combination. engagements of a load should be made. All
All cargo doors and ramps are typically release modes including normal, automatic
demonstrated through six complete touchdown, manual ground, and emergency
operations in the normal modes, i.e., manual, should be shown. Emergency release should
electrical, or hydraulic. Alternate modes or be demonstrated during turns at the
procedures to be followed in emergencies are maximum allowable bank angle and speed
typically demonstrated through one and while carrying maximum rated loads.
operation. Procedures contained within the These tests may be carried out jointly with
operator’s manual should be followed. the test of the hoist subsystem.
Doors and ramps that are used as cargoways Relatch features are to be operated,
during loading and unloading operations and proper operation of safety or warning
should be subjected to proof tests at limit devices, such as unlatched load beam
loads. indicator lights, should be verified. The
8-46
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-47
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
In addition to target characteristics, visually for and acquire targets for both day
armament and fire control subsystem and night engagements that are beyond the
performance is tied to atmospheric normal human visual capability.
conditions, which must also be specified in The sensor airworthiness and typical
order for subsystem performance qualification test objectives are to
requirements and measurements to be substantiate that these subsystems perform in
meaningful. These atmospheric conditions accordance with their specified requirements.
and parameters include Measurements for thermal imaging
1. Ambient pressure and temperature sensors include fields of view, modulation
2. Visibility conditions transfer function (MTF), system intensity
3. Atmospheric attenuation at the transfer (SIT), minimum resolvable
specified wavelength for the sensor temperature (MRT) difference, optical or
4. Humidity conditions electronic noise, cross talk between detector
5. Precipitation conditions (rain, elements, distortion, and noise equivalent
snow, and sleet) temperature difference (NETD).
6. Atmospheric scintillation effects. Measurements for television
ADS-20, Armament/Fire Control subsystems include fields of view, noise,
System Survey, (Ref. 64) contains automatic light control (ALC) performance,
information about verifying the safety and shading characteristics, screen blemishes,
performance of each armament fire control signal level, distortion, field-of-view
subsystem by means of ground and flight alignment, and MTF.
survey testing. Ground surveys are needed Stabilization is a key parameter for
to determine airworthiness. Ground and both thermal imaging and television systems.
flight surveys can be used to determine The systems should be isolated from both
development status prior to formal rotor and airframe vibrations.
qualification. These surveys usually
encompass installation, ground checkout, 8-16.2 TRACKERS
ground firing, and preflight and flight testing Trackers allow for automatic
of armament and fire control systems in the maintenance of the sensor line of sight to the
air vehicle. Typically, the following are target regardless of the motion of the target
tested: or of the air vehicle within specified
1. Missile subsystems parameters.
2. Aerial rocket subsystems The tracker airworthiness and typical
3. Turreted gun subsystems qualification test objectives are to
4. Target acquisition and designation demonstrate that targets can be tracked
subsystems throughout the required conditions.
5. Fire control subsystem integration Measurements for tracker
6. Boresighting subsystems. qualification should include determination of
the capability to track targets in various
8-16.1 SENSORS environmental conditions including clutter,
Sensors types include television obscurants, target multiplicity, and varying
subsystems, radars, thermal imaging target spacing.
subsystems, optical subsystems, and radar
frequency interferometers. Sensor 8-16.3 RANGE FINDERS
subsystems enable the operator to search
8-48
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-49
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-50
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-51
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
measurements and assessments should be degradation and how that degradation can be
made of any damage to the equipment determined are normally system dependent.
caused by the use of such sources. Of It is also critical to assess the effects of such
particular concern should be the protection systems on other mission equipment installed
of the operator from any potential injury on the test air vehicle and to determine any
caused by the use of the subsystem in a adverse impacts of the electronic
countermeasure threat environment. countermeasure on friendly electronic
Passive countermeasures include but systems.
are not limited to the use of decoys and
techniques, such as camouflage, that make 8-17.1 ELECTRONIC/OPTICAL AREA
the target appear to be part of the clutter. SURVEILLANCE
Testing should be conducted at benign The electronic/optical area
conditions (noncountermeasured) and with surveillance airworthiness and typical
passive countermeasures to determine the qualification test objectives are to
effectiveness of the specific countermeasure demonstrate that these subsystems perform
against a given system or systems. to their required performance requirements
Subsystem performance tests should be and do not cause any adverse impacts to
performed to assess the capability of the other installed subsystems. The
various sensors and any sensor fusion demonstration should include not only
techniques to perform at their intended target substantiation of the performance capability
detection probabilities in a passive of the subsystem being qualified but also
countermeasure environment. The results performance monitoring of other subsystems
will probably be classified. to ensure their performance is not degraded.
If the subsystem changes the exterior
8-17 SPECIAL MISSION AND NEW dimensions of the air vehicle, flight
SUBSYSTEMS performance and handling qualities testing
Electronic countermeasure might be required to determine any changes
subsystems and electronic surveillance caused by the installation of the
subsystems are examples of special mission electronic/optical subsystem. Other
and new subsystems. Electronic subsystems should also be monitored for
countermeasure subsystems are intended to potential electromagnetic interference.
reduce the performance of or defeat enemy Measurements for electronic area
electronic systems including communications surveillance subsystems include frequency
and navigation equipment. Electronic coverage, sensitivity, and data storage
countermeasure systems emit electronic capacity. Measurements for optical area
radiation detrimental to the operation of surveillance subsystems include field of view,
enemy systems. Test measurements of such resolution, and image capture and storage
subsystems include power, frequency, and capability. The specific measurements for
other characteristics of the emitted signals these subsystems and their pass criteria are
and comparing them with specification usually subsystem dependent and should be
requirements. Passing criteria for these specified by the procuring agency. These
measurements are generally defined in terms performance requirements and test results
of the amount of performance degradation to will probably be classified.
the targeted equipment caused by the
countermeasure. The type of performance 8-17.2 AERIAL DELIVERY SYSTEMS
8-52
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-53
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
failure of one (or perhaps more) element Basically, it refers to a collection of software
does not result in the failure of the source codes that constitute a configuration
subsystem. Demonstration of the capability managed item. CSCIs are not necessarily
of such a redundant subsystem can be measured or partitioned by any logical,
achieved by intentionally failing individual functional, or physical constraints or
structural elements and showing that the requirements. They are frequently allocated
subsystem as a whole still provides the in conjunction with the associated hardware
necessary structural integrity. Specific configuration items (HWCI) on which they
criteria must be established as to the number may reside or are executed.
of structural elements that can fail before the The term “embedded integration” as
subsystem can be considered no longer it relates to qualification testing refers to
usable. In such a redundant subsystem it is verification of the performance of integrated
important to be able to detect by inspection hardware/software, which cannot otherwise
or through other means that an individual be tested at the CSCI formal qualification
structural member failed so that appropriate test (FQT) level. Residence upon and
repair or replacement action can be taken. integration with some form of computer
Path-switching methods require that failure- resource device (firmware or hardware)
sensing and switching elements be allow the CSCI logic to perform the
incorporated into the subsystem to allow for subsystem- or system-level functional
failure detection and appropriate switching operations.
to a backup subsystem. An example of an Other than validating subsystem- or
electrical or software subsystem providing system-level performance, only verification
path switching is a digital bus control at the interfaces can provide an intermediate
subsystem that incorporates primary and test level of confidence beyond CSCI FQT.
backup bus controllers. Active software Refer to ADS-32, Airborne Digital System
control devices monitor the proper operation Integration and Testing, (Ref. 68) for
of the primary bus controller and switch additional detailed guidance on this topic as
control to the backup controller if the it relates to airworthiness qualification.
primary controller fails. Critical to the
proper operation of a fault tolerant system 8-19.1 SOFTWARE CONFIGURATION
such as this is the reliability of the sensing ITEMS
and switching elements. In addition, the For qualification purposes, CSCIs
switching must occur in a sufficiently rapid typically must pass an FQT that involves
manner so critical system functions are not formally testing approved and documented
disrupted. requirements in accordance with approved
and documented test cases and then
8-19 SOFTWARE CONFIGURATION documenting the results. The three MIL-
ITEMS AND EMBEDDED SOFTWARE STD-498 (Ref. 67) data item descriptions
INTEGRATION (DIDs) used for the documents discussed in
The term “computer software this subparagraph are DI-IPSC-81433,
configuration item” (CSCI), defined in MIL- Software Requirements Specification (SRS) ,
STD-498, Defense System Software (Ref. 69); DI-IPSC-81439, Software Test
Development, (Ref. 67) applies to the Description (STD), (Ref. 70); and DI-IPSC-
computer software form of a configuration 81440, Software Test Report (STR),
item as designated by a contracting agency. (Ref. 71).
8-54
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-55
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-56
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Working Group (ICWG) should occur. analyzed as to root cause, corrective actions
Technical reviewers should continually are developed and implemented into the
evaluate the correctness of interfaces for hardware or software, and the system is
required data, defined types and limits, units, subjected to additional testing until it has
scaling factors, sources, destinations, timing been determined that the corrective action
requirements and impacts, fault tolerance of has adequately addressed the previously
data, etc. uncovered problem. This is part of a
ADS-32 (Ref. 68) contains additional continuing process and may require that
detailed guidance on the topic of integration corrective actions be evaluated first by
test requirements as it relates to subsystem- component-level tests prior to incorporation
or system-level airworthiness qualification. into subsystem-level testing. It may also be
decided that incorporation of corrective
8-20 TEST-ANALYZE-FIX-TEST action and retest may be performed with
(TAFT) little additional risk at the system level.
The results of subsystem level Typically the PA would approve TAFT
qualification testing form a part of the overall decision, however, this is becoming a task
TAFT cycle in which performance or allocated to Integrated Product Teams (IPT).
reliability issues uncovered during test are
8-57
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
REFERENCES
1. ADS-9B, Propulsion System Technical Data, US Army Aviation Research and Development
Command, St. Louis, MO, October 1980.
2. ADS-39A (draft), Substantiation Requirements for Alternate Manufacturing Sources of
Helicopter Drive System Components, US Army Aviation and Troop Command, St. Louis,
MO, April 1996.
3. ADS-50-PRF, Rotorcraft Propulsion Performance and Qualification Requirements and
Guidelines, US Army Aviation and Troop Command, St. Louis, MO, 24 April 1996.
4. MIL-E-8593A, General Specification for Turboprop Aircraft Engine , 15 October 1975.
5. MIL-E-87231, Turbojet and Turbofan Aircraft Engines, 15 April 1986.
6. ADS-25, Engine Performance Data, US Army Aviation Systems Command, St. Louis, MO,
October 1984.
7. MIL-T-5624P, Turbine Fuel, Aviation, Grades JP-4, JP-5, and JP-5/JP-8ST , 29 September
1992.
8. MIL-L-23699E, Lubricating Oil, Aircraft Turbine Engine, Synthetic Base , NATO Code #0-
156, 23 November 1994.
9. MIL-L-7808K, Lubricating Oil, Aircraft Turbine Engine, Synthetic Base , 20 July 1994.
10. AV-E-8593D, Engine Aircraft, Turboshaft and Turboprop, General Specification for , US
Army Aviation Systems Command, St. Louis, MO, 25 October 1994.
11. ADS-26, Engine Installation Data, US Army Aviation Systems Command, St. Louis, MO,
October 1984.
12. MIL-T-5955C, Transmission Systems, VTOL-STOL, General Requirements for , 17
September 1970.
13. ADS-17C, Power Units: Aircraft Auxiliary, Gas Turbine Type IV , US Army Aviation
Systems Command, St. Louis, MO, March 1989.
14. TR 89-D-22E, Aircraft Crash Survival Design Guide, Vol. 5, AircraftPostcrash Survival,
US Army Research and Technology Activity, Fort Eustis, VA, December 1989.
15. MIL-STD-1290A, Light Fixed, and Rotary Wing Aircraft Crash Resistance , 26 September
1988.
16. MIL-STD-6053C, Tests Impact, Shock Absorber Landing Gear, Aircraft , 27 September
1989.
17. ADS-29, Structural Design Criteria for Rotary Wing Aircraft, US Army Aviation Systems
Command, St. Louis, MO, September 1986.
18. ADS-36, Rotary Wing Aircraft Crash Resistance, US Army Aviation Systems Command, St.
Louis, MO, 1 May 1987.
19. MIL-STD-704E, Aircraft Electric Power Characteristics , 1 May 1991.
20. MIL-STD-7080, Selection and Installation of Aircraft Electronic Equipment , 31 May 1994.
21. MIL-E-7016F, Electric Load and Power Source Capacity Aircraft, Analysis of , 15 April
1988.
22. MIL-I-8700A, Installation and Test of Electronic Equipment in Aircraft, General
Specification for, 28 February 1992.
23. MIL-STD-877, Antenna Subsystem, Airborne, Criteria for Design and Location of ,8
November 1968.
8-58
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
24. MIL-B-5087B, Bonding, Electrical, and Lightning Protection for Aerospace Systems ,9
December 1992.
25. MIL-STD-765A, Compass Swinging, Aircraft, General Requirements for , 26 February 1988.
26. FAAAC 20-121A, Airworthiness Approval of Airborne LORAN-C Navigation Systems for
Use in the US National Airspace System (NAS),US Government Printing Office, Washington,
DC, 24 August 1988.
27. FAAAC 20-130, Airworthiness Approval ofMulti-Sensor Navigation Systems for Use inthe
US National Airspace System (NAS) and Alaska , US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, 12 September 1988.
28. FAAAC 20-101C, Airworthiness Approval of OMEGA/VLF Navigation Systems for the
United States NAS and Alaska, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 12
September 1988.
29. ADS-41, Hybrid Navigation System Performance Flight Testing, Rotary Wing Aircraft , US
Army Aviation Systems Command, St. Louis, MO, April 1990.
30. ADS-23, Lighting, Aircraft, Interior, AN/AVS-6 Aviators Night Vision Imaging System
Compatibility, US Army Aviation Systems Command, St. Louis, MO, May 1981.
31. MIL-STD-1553B, Aircraft Internal Time Division Command/Multiplex Data Bus , 12
February 1980.
32. MIL-HDBK-1553A, Multiplex Application Handbook, 31 January 1993.
33. MIL-STD-1760B, Aircraft/Store Electrical Interconnection System , 25 June 1993.
34. AS 4115, Data Bus Systems Test Plan, Society of Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA, 11
January 1989.
35. MIL-STD-850E, Aircrew Station Vision Requirements for Military Aircraft , 7 June 1991.
36. 1988 Anthropometric Survey of US Army Personnel: Methods and Summary Statistics,
Natick/TR-89/044, US Army Natick Research, Development, and Engineering Center,
Natick, MA, September 1989.
37. MIL-STD-1294A, Acoustical Noise Limits in Helicopters, 12 August 1985.
38. MIL-A-8806A, Acoustical Noise Level in Aircraft, General Specification for , 11 July 1966.
39. MIL-STD-1474C, Noise Limits for Military Materiel (Metric),30 July 1993.
40. MIL-S-58095A, Seat System, Crash Resistance,Nonejection, Aircrew, GeneralSpecification
for, 31 January 1986.
41. MIL-S-85510, Seats, Helicopter Cabin,Crashworthy, General Specification for , 19
November 1981.
42. MIL-STD-1288, Aircrew Protection RequirementsNonnuclear Weapon Threat, 24 August
1981.
43. 14 CFR, Part 25, Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Airplanes , US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
44. TR 89-D-22A, Aircraft Crash Survival Design Guide, Vol. 1, Design Criteria and Checklist,
US Army Research and Technology Activity, Fort Eustis, VA, December 1989.
45. 14 CFR, Part 23, Airworthiness Standards: Normal Utility, Acrobatic and Commuter
Category Airplanes, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
46. 14 CFR, Part 27, Airworthiness Standards: Normal Category Rotorcraft , US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
47. 14 CFR, Part 29, Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Rotorcraft , US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
8-59
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
48. AFGS-87226A, Oxygen Systems, Aircraft, General Specification for , 1 April 1992.
49. MIL-D-8683C, Design and Installation of Gaseous Oxygen Systems in Aircraft, General
Specification for, 5 February 1988.
50. MIL-D-85520AS, Design and Installation of Onboard Oxygen-Generating Systems in
Aircraft, General Specification for, 16 January 1991.
51. 14 CFR, Part 91, General Operating and Flight Rules, US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
52. TSO-78, Crew Member Demand Mask, Oxygen , Federal Aviation Administration,
Washington, DC, 7 January 1967.
53. TSO-89, Oxygen Regulator, Demand, Federal Aviation Administration, Washington, DC, 7
January 1967.
54. ADS-30, Human Engineering Requirements for Measurements of Operator Workload , US
Army Aviation Systems Command, St. Louis, MO, 17 November 1986.
55. MIL-H-18325B, Heating and Ventilating Systems Aircraft, General Specification for , 4 May
1959.
56. MIL-T-18606, Test Procedures for Aircraft Environmental Systems , 31 October 1969.
57. TB MED 507, Occupational and Environmental Health Prevention, Treatment, and Control
of Heat Injury, 25 July 1980.
58. MIL-T-5842, Transparent Areas on Aircraft Surfaces (Windshield and Canopies), Rain-
Removing and Washing Systems for Defrosting, Deicing, Defogging, General Specification
for, 29 March 1995.
59. MIL-T-18607A, Thermal and Fluid Anti-Icing Systems and Equipment, AircraftExternal
Surfaces, 1 June 1993.
60. 29 CFR, Part 1910.1000, Subpart Z, Toxic and Hazardous Substances, Air Contaminants,
Permissible Exposure Limits, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 21 February
1995.
61. DoD Instruction 6055.1, DoD Occupational Safety and Health Program , 21 October 1984.
62. Emergency and Continuous Exposure Guidance Levels for Selected Airborne Contaminants,
Vols. 4 and 5, Committee on Toxicology, Board on Toxicology and Environmental Health
Hazards, National Research Council, Washington, DC, 1985.
63. MIL-STD-1425A, Safety Design Requirements for Military Laser and Associated
Equipment, 30 August 1991.
64. ADS-20, Armament/Fire Control System Survey , US Army Aviation Systems Command, St.
Louis, MO, April 1976.
65. MIL-H-8591H, Airborne Stores, Suspension Equipment and Aircraft-Store Interface
(Carriage Phase): General Design Criteria for , 23 March 1990.
66. MIL-STD-209H, Slinging and Tie-Down Provisions for Lifting and Tying DownMilitary
Equipment, 28 June 1991.
67. MIL-STD-498, Software Development and Documentation , 5 December 1994.
68. ADS-32A, Airborne Digital System Integration and Testing , US Army Aviation Systems
Command, St. Louis, MO, April 1991.
69. DI-IPSC-81433, Software Requirements Specification (SRS),5 December 1994.
70. DI-IPSC-81439, Software Test Description (STD), 5 December 1994.
71. DI-IPSC-81440, Software Test Report (STR), 5 December 1994.
72. DI-IPSC-81432, System/Subsystem Design Document (SSDD) , 5 December 1994.
8-60
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
8-61
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
CHAPTER 9
SYSTEM QUALIFICATION
System qualification requirements and procedures for specific system qualification tests
are discussed.
9-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-2
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Related subsystems that individually meet the planning phase the AC should identify to
contractual requirements might not satisfy air the PA tests that can be consolidated to use
vehicle system requirements due to the test facilities, time, and resources more
accumulation of errors. An example is the efficiently.
weapons subsystem, in which fire control Prior to these flight and ground tests,
errors, round-to-round dispersion, gun surveys and demonstrations should be used
pointing error, air vehicle position error, etc., to identify critical conditions, flight regimes,
might combine to make gun accuracy and equipment malfunctions. When
unsatisfactory. Flight qualification testing approved by the PA, surveys and
should demonstrate these synergistic effects demonstrations should be used as much as
in a manner which is satisfactory to the PA. possible to reduce test time and resources.
Envelope expansion and other flight Par. 2-4 provides a more detailed discussion
airworthiness determination tests should be of the appropriate uses of surveys and
conducted during the system qualification demonstrations. Formal demonstrations are
phase. Based on these tests, progressively used to show the capability of the air vehicle
less restrictive Contractor Flight Releases to comply with the requirements of the detail
and Airworthiness Releases should be issued specification. These demonstrations are
to allow further testing of the technical usually performed through a test or series of
performance of the system. During all flight tests.
based on these tests, progressively less
restrictive Contractor Flight Releases and 9-2 STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
Airworthiness Releases should be issued to DEMONSTRATIONS
allow further testing of the technical This paragraph describes the general
performance of the system. and ground demonstration procedures necessary to
testing, emphasis should be on safety and prove the structural integrity of the air
reduction of risk to an acceptable level vehicle. Successful demonstrations should
consistent with continued ground and flight ensure that the airframe design is structurally
operations. adequate, i.e., that it meets the specified
Component service life information requirements for dynamic frequencies and
should be gathered during this phase. These modes, static strength, fatigue life, damage
initial service lives should be used to tolerance, and crashworthiness. The
schedule component replacements, services, contractor should provide a structural
and inspections. As additional information is integrity program plan early in the design
gathered during the qualification program, phase to coordinate all structural-integrity-
component lives can be calculated based on related tasks to be met and maintained over
actual air vehicle loads rather than estimated the life cycle of the air vehicle. The
loads from analysis. subparagraphs that follow describe the
Proper planning of the full system typical qualification test objectives and
testing program should preclude duplication measurements of the static tests,
of flight conditions for different tests. In watertightness, weight and balance, and in-
many cases, flight conditions used for flight demonstrations as part of full-scale
various tests are similar, and expanded testing.
instrumentation for one test may allow full or
partial accomplishment of two or more test
requirements during a single set of flights. In
9-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-4
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
conditions should be tested and loaded loads, torque, stress, strain, and frequencies.
simultaneously. The locations of the loading Cyclic and collective positions are also
fixtures should be selected to provide the measured.
best fit for the overall desired shear, moment,
and torsional distributions. Hard points and 2.2 WATERTIGHTNESS
other natural load points can be selected in Watertightness performance
order to preclude overloading of any local requirements should be clearly specified in
structure. Prior to failing load tests, repairs the air vehicle specification. Watertightness
of selected critical areas may be qualification tests are a series of ground tests
accomplished to verify the structural and often flight tests used to demonstrate the
adequacy of the repairs as limit and ultimate capability of the air vehicle to prevent water
loads are achieved. The failure conditions intrusion into designated watertight areas.
should be applied to the static test article Detailed design requirements for air vehicle
after the completion of all ultimate tests. To watertightness should be defined in the
ensure the detection of structural failures, the contract specifications and approved by the
air vehicle structure should be inspected after PA. Information concerning testing for
each test load incremental application. The watertightness and water control of air
applied shear and bending loads, torsional vehicles in rainy weather and during air
moment distributions, strain gage readings, vehicle washing can be found in MIL-W-
and exterior deflections after each increment 6729, Watertightness of Aircraft, General
in applied loading should also be recorded to Specifications for, (Ref. 1).
establish the rate of deflection, strain, and All areas of the air vehicle should be
permanent set. designated as watertight ornonwatertight.
In addition to substantiating static Areas containing equipment that may
strength, the static test vehicle also should be experience adverse effects from water
used to substantiate fail-safe capability. The intrusion, including corrosion, electrical
term “fail-safe”, as applied to an air vehicle discontinuity, or any other hazard related to
or its members, means that the structure air vehicle safety or mission capability should
remaining or a portion of the original be designated watertight. Considerations for
structure can sustain a percentage of its designation of watertight sections should
design load without catastrophic failure or include air vehicle cleaning procedures and
excessive structural deformation following all environmental conditions in stowed or
the initiation of any fracture or crack. Also flight configurations, including rain, wind,
to be fail-safe, a part has to have a failure humidity, driven rain, salt spray, and mist.
mode that can be monitored or that can be The design and qualification demonstrations
found by inspection prior to total failure of should ensure that these areas remain free
the air vehicle. When a fail-safe design is from external water intrusion, migration of
provided by the use of redundant water from other areas, and condensation.
attachments and/or members, a percentage of Areas in which the presence of water will not
redundancy should be agreed upon by the adversely affect equipment performance
PA. The structure should be tested to the should be designated nonwatertight. The
critical fail-safe loading condition by design and qualification demonstrations of
removing members or attachments to the air vehicle should be such that any water
simulate failure and increasing the load that enters nonwatertight sections
levels. Typical measurements are weight,
9-5
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-6
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Forward Aft
9000
Limit Limit
8000
7000
Gross
Weight
6000 Acceptable
(kg) CG/Gross Weight
Combination
5000
4000
3000
2000
300 310 320 330 340 350 360 370 380 390 400
Left Right
Limit Limit
9000
8000
7000
Gross
Weight 6000
(Kg) Acceptable
CG/Gross Weight
5000 Combination
4000
3000
2000
-6 -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
9-7
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-8
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
load information and thereby increases flight rotor speed combinations will be as limited
safety and expedites test progress. by the transmission limit horsepower, engine
Considerations for instrumentation should power, drag, aeroelastic considerations, and
include compatibility with existing Army any combination thereof.
equipment, a backup power source, 3. Weight and CG Location. The
redundant sources of data, crash protection, CG positions to be used for flight maneuvers
and data recovery. As a minimum, should be the maximum forward, maximum
instrumentation should record control aft, maximum lateral positions, maximum
positions, control rate and sequence, vertical positions, and any CG position
performance parameters, and specific critical within this range that produces a critical
loads, stresses, and pressures. The complete loading. Most test maneuvers should be
instrumentation package should be tailored conducted at basic design gross weight,
to fit the specific air vehicle within the design alternate gross weight, and/or
designed weight and CG limitations. maximum gross weight.
The tests are conducted at the most 4. Atmospheric Conditions. All
critical combinations of gross weight, center flights should be conducted in smooth air
of gravity, airspeed, altitude, load factor, unless specified by PA.
rotor speed, and control motions. MIL-S-8698, Structural Design
Considerations should be made for each of Requirements, Helicopters,(Ref. 2) and
these parameters in the attainment of critical ADS-29, Structural Design Criteria for
conditions for each test flight maneuver. Rotary Wing Aircraft, (Ref. 3) define flight
The considerations should include but not be loading conditions and measurements for
limited to typical rotorcraft flight maneuvers. Title 14,
1. Control Input. More rapid Code of Federal Regulations (CFR), Part 23,
control inputs usually generate higher loads, Airworthiness Standards: Normal, Utility,
and the sequence of control inputs can affect Acrobatic, and Commuter Category
loads significantly. Movement of the cyclic, Airplanes, (Ref. 4) and Title 14, CFR 25,
collective, and directional controls (yoke and Airworthiness Standards: Transport
pedal for other aircraft) to the required Category Airplanes,(Ref. 5) define flight
displacements is limited in time. For loading conditions and measurements for
example, control movement for Class I typical aircraft maneuvers. Flight
rotorcraft might be specified not to exceed demonstrations may include symmetric pull-
0.2 s. The controls should be held for the ups, pushovers, rolling pull-ups, dynamic
time required to obtain the specified load yaws, sideslips, auto rotations, slope
factor and should be returned in not more landings, hard landings, nap of the earth, and
than the time required to the position for any specific combat maneuvers. Details of
level, coordinated flight. Frequently, the each test condition should be tailored to each
maximum load factor is achieved by a air vehicle type and defined in the structural
sequence of cyclic and collective control portion of an integrated test plan.
displacement.
2. Rotor Speed. Rotor speed is the 9-3 PROPULSION AND POWER
limit rotor speed, power on and off; the DEMONSTRATIONS
design minimum rotor speed, power on and The propulsion and power system
off; and the design maximum rotor speed, demonstrations should be performed to
power on and off. Forward airspeed and demonstrate the operational and performance
9-9
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-10
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-11
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-12
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-13
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-14
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-15
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-16
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-17
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-18
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
limitations. The level flight runs should conduct ground and flight tests to measure
include hover out-of-ground effect, hover in- inlet and free-stream air temperatures and
ground effect, minimum power speed, total and static pressures from which mean
maximum power, intermediate power, and pressure and temperature variations across
maximum continuous power The test air the engine inlet face can be determined. Inlet
vehicle should be instrumented with test regimes should include
thermocouples and sensors placed in the 1. Operation with engine anti-ice
required locations for adequate data and/or deice subsystems on and off
collection. Pressure altitude, airspeed, 2. Operation with the engine air
engine RPM and torque, wind velocity and induction subsystem in the normal, icing, or
direction, and compartment airflow rates foreign object damage (FOD) bypass, and
should be obtained in addition to the emergency bypass airflow modes
required temperature recordings. For all test 3. Operation in sideward and
conditions temperature data should be rearward flight
corrected to hot atmospheric conditions. 4. Operation in flight with varying
Allowable operating temperature limits sideslips
should be specified in the applicable air 5. Operational characteristics of the
vehicle design specification or the inlet particle separator (IPS) and oil cooler
engine/component manufacturer approved by subsystems with respect to engine inlet
the PA. airflow and distribution
6. Demonstration of compliance with
9-3.3 ENGINE AIR INDUCTION AND specified engine performance degradation
EXHAUST TESTS from environmental ingestions.
The AC should conduct air induction The test engine will be subjected to specified
and exhaust system demonstrations bird, FOD, ice, sand, armament gas, and
concentrating on the critical flight conditions atmospheric water ingestions. Protection
and configurations identified during the effectiveness of the inlet system against
engine air induction and exhaust system environmental ingestions should be specified
surveys. Test conditions include multiple by the PA.
combinations of gross weight, flight speed, Required instrumentation includes an
flight path, altitude, temperature, power instrumented inlet assembly on all engines to
ratings, and intake and exhaust measure total pressure, static pressure, and
configurations. The AC should demonstrate total inlet temperature used to calculate inlet
induction and exhaust system losses and distortion.
verify compliance with air vehicle and engine The AC should demonstrate engine
specifications. exhaust system characteristics during ground
The propulsion system air induction and flight tests to verify acceptable design
demonstration is conducted to demonstrate practices and adequate safety of flight
engine inlet pressure and temperature margins. The tests should determine the
conditions and relate them to free-stream exhaust ejector effect on engine
conditions. Engine inlet integration tests performance. The tests should also verify
determine the compatibility and baseline the IR signature suppression capability.
engine performance influences of the air Testing should demonstrate that the engine
vehicle engine inlet including temperature exhaust system meets or exceeds the hot
and pressure distortion. The AC should metal and plume IR signature requirements.
9-19
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
The exhaust system test regimes should within the operating envelope.
include Operation at each set of conditions
1. The effect of engine and auxiliary will be of sufficient duration to stabilize the
power unit (APU) exhaust flow engine and to establish the performance and
characteristics on engine and APU operating characteristics. Engine operation
performance with the control system in control failure
2. The effect on the exhaust modes will be evaluated, and the effects on
characteristics resulting from convergence of engine performance will be determined. The
various exhaust systems failure modes to be evaluated will be
3. The effect of suppressor exhaust specified by the PA. Operation will be
impingement on aircraft or ground surfaces conducted to obtain the following data:
4. The effect of exhaust flow 1. A sufficient number of altitude
characteristics on the performance of the IPS rating points will be selected for each altitude
and engine and gearbox oil coolers. test condition in order to establish operating
and performance characteristics. The effects
9-3.4 HIGH-ALTITUDE CONDITIONS of bleed air and power extraction for
Demonstrations of propulsion system auxiliary engine-driven components on
performance affected by high-altitude steady state performance will be determined
conditions are conducted in conjunction with at each specified test condition. The time
other qualification tests when appropriate. elapsed versus engine speed, measured
The engine should be subjected to altitude temperature, and fuel flow will be obtained
tests that consist of operation and air starting for stability verification with the power
performance checks at selected conditions setting at idle, maximum continuous,
throughout the operating envelope specified intermediate, and maximum.
in the engine specification. The test 2. The specified transient
conditions should include the effects of performance should be demonstrated at each
power extraction, inlet recovery, bleed air rating condition. The effects of maximum
extraction, and inlet distortion on engine bleed air and power extraction combinations
performance and stability. on transient performance should also be
The control system and engine determined.
configuration should be calibrated prior to 3. Engine steady state and transient
test initiation. The altitude tests should be characteristics should be demonstrated at
accomplished using various specified oil and each test condition over the range of power
fuel grade combinations. Fuel temperature settings with and without customer bleed air
should be varied over a range sufficient to and power extraction.
encompass all anticipated engine operating 4. Inlet airflow distortion limits and
environments. Overall true root-mean- effect on transient operation and steady state
square (RMS) velocity measurements and performance should be demonstrated.
acceleration spectrograms should be 5. Engine in-flight starts and restarts
obtained for each velocity and acceleration 6. Altitude windmilling tests should
sensor at the specified engine speed and be demonstrated.
power settings. The operating conditions Verification that the lubricating system
selected will include at least the combination should provide proper lubrication and
of the rated altitude(s) with the engine operate without excessive loss of oil during
operating at the speed of maximum variation
9-20
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-21
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
and 14 CFR, Part 135, Air Taxi Operators produce false alarms under various flight
and Commercial Operators,(Ref. 13). operating conditions. The actual ambient
Tests should evaluate both main and reserve temperatures of the monitored spaces are
fire-extinguishing systems. All also recorded during flight tests.
demonstrations should be consistent with the MIL-E-52031, Extinguisher, Fire,
standards of the US Environmental Vaporizing Liquid: CF3BR; 2 3/4 Pound,
Protection Agency. With Bracket, (Ref. 16) describes a one-
MIL-F-7872, Fire and Overheat time-usage, nonrefillable, handheld fire
Warning Systems, Continuous, Aircraft: extinguisher and replacement cylinders
Test and Installation of, (Ref. 14) provides containing 2 3/4 lb of
relevant information about determining monobromotrifluoromethane (CF3BR).
performance, testing, and installation These CF3BR extinguishers are being
requirements of continuous-type fire and replaced by 2 1/2 lb CO2 portable bottles.
overheat warning systems for use in air Since the CF3BR extinguisher is such a
vehicles. These systems are designed to use common item, it might not be necessary to
continuous lengths of heat-sensing elements demonstrate discharge rates, etc. Evidence
connected to a monitoring device. These of previous qualification and demonstration
types of fire detection devices are usually typically will be acceptable. MIL-E-22285,
installed in engine compartments and should Extinguishing System, Fire, Aircraft, High-
be designed to withstand the normally high Rate-Discharge-Type, Installation and Test
operating temperature of the environment of, (Ref. 17) describes the installation of
without false alarms yet be sensitive enough high-rate-discharge-type fixed fire-
to detect a fire quickly enough for a extinguishing systems for engine spaces and
suppression system to be effective. other potential fire zones in air vehicles.
MIL-F-23447, Fire Warning Systems, These CF3BR extinguishers should
Aircraft, Radiation Sensing Type; Test and eventually be replaced by HFC-125-CF3HF2
Installation of, (Ref. 15) provides relevant pentafluoroethane extinguishers. The fire-
information about determining performance, extinguishing systems are inspected for
testing, and installation requirements of compliance with the system specifications. A
radiation-sensing (surveillance-type) fire pressure test of the system should be
warning systems for use in air vehicle. conducted to check the integrity of the
Radiation-sensing fire detection devices are tubing and fittings. The system should also
designed to produce an alarm signal when be discharged under specified conditions; the
exposed to radiant energy (nonthermal) duration of discharge should be timed to
emitted by a flame. As designed and verify compliance.
installed the system should prevent the Electroexplosive devices (EEDs),
occurrence of false fire warnings resulting which are part of the fire suppression system,
from flight operations, environmental should be subjected to 20-dB safety margin
conditions, damage to components of the testing; see subpar. 9-11.1.
system, or loose connections. These fire
detection systems should be demonstrated in 9-3.7 TIE-DOWN TESTING
specified environmental conditions and The total propulsion system including
should record the corresponding response the engine and drive system, rotors, controls,
times. Flight demonstrations include antitorque system, APU, driven accessories,
verification that the system should not exhaust system, air induction system, and
9-22
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-23
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-24
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
stresses for each component should be used configurations for scout and attack
to predict the fatigue life of each component rotorcraft. The example maneuver spectrum
by the methods explained in Chapter 4 of for these two types of rotorcraft is shown in
AMCP 706-201, Helicopter Engineering, Table 9-1. Specific requirements for testing
Part One, Preliminary Design, (Ref. 18). in various operational modes are covered in
The fatigue lives of these components are subpars. 9-4.1.1 through 9-4.1.5.
used to establish the minimum component
life. 9-4.1.1 Air-to-Ground Scout/Attack
Planning for the flight load survey Once the actual maneuver spectrum
will comply with the provisions of the to be used for flight load surveys has been
approved AQS and should include but not be established by the contractor and approved
limited to by the PA, the maneuvers typical of an air-
1. Tentative flight envelope, to-ground scout/attack mission should be
including design limit airspeed VDL, and identified by the contractor. Typical
gross weight and CG ranges maneuvers include mask-remask, jump
2. Ground and flight conditions to be takeoffs, decel-to-dash, and quick stop.
examined Criteria used to initiate and complete the
3. Planned instrumentation for the maneuver and data read options covered in
tests, to include structural monitoring, subpar. 9-4.3 should be established by the
telemetry plans, and onboard recording AC and approved by the PA prior to testing.
4. Data analysis and reporting Consideration should be given to recording
procedures. these loads sequentially with an appropriate
Results of the flight load survey tests may delay to allow stabilization of the rotorcraft
indicate that maneuvers included in the state. Once the rotorcraft state is stabilized,
maneuver spectrum are not possible for the next maneuver anticipated during this
certain altitudes, gross weights, etc. The particular mission would be executed and
results of the flight load survey document loads recorded. All maneuvers would be
those findings. executed in turn until testing is completed.
Weapons firing in conjunction with
9-4.1 MANEUVERS maneuvers is desirable.
Maneuvering flight is required to
obtain flight load data at air vehicle limit 9-4.1.2 Cargo/Utility
conditions. Maneuvers performed during the Cargo/utility mission maneuvers and
flight load survey tests should encompass all data requirements should be identified in the
normal operating limits anticipated for the air same manner used for the air-to-ground
vehicle. Such limits will include but not be scout/attack mission, initiation and
limited to mechanical subsystem limits, completion criteria established, and
maximum gross weight, rotor speeds, maneuvers should be conducted in a
operating altitudes, CG limits, and other sequence similar to that of subpar. 9-4.1.1.
applicable limits such as load factor, blade Typical maneuvers are takeoffs, climbs,
stall, vibration levels, and compressibility turns, cruising, and landings. Usually, these
limits. maneuvers are conducted at moderate to
Flight conditions should include heavy weights. Also short-field takeoffs and
external and internal cargo operations for landings should be considered.
cargo and utility rotorcraft and armed
9-25
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-26
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
reversing the process. Any gunnery or provided and justified by the AC. These
special mission turn execution is performed read options may include
according to the techniques and peak load 1. Read the maximum oscillatory and
factors approved by the PA. corresponding mean load recorded in the
Pullups and pushovers should be data record regardless of its location within
entered from the required airspeed and the record.
power. Cyclic control should be applied at 2. Read the maximum positive or
the rate necessary to obtain load factors of negative mean value and corresponding
1.4 to 1.5 g for pullups and low or negative oscillatory value recorded in the record.
g acceleration to a level approved by the PA. 3. Read both the mean and
Autorotation should be entered at the oscillatory value applicable to each data
desired trim airspeed and power. Entry record.
should be performed according to the 4. Read the mean value applicable to
procedures approved by the PA, and descent the data record.
should be stabilized at minimum rate of Other performance parameters, such as
descent airspeed. Transition from airspeed, altitude, load factor, rotor speed,
autorotation to powered flight is the reverse engine power, vibration levels, and control
of this procedure. positions, should be measured to allow
Control reversals and landing correlation of acceleration, load, or stress
maneuvers should be conducted using data with the maneuvers or operating
procedures outlined in the test plan and conditions that produced them.
approved by the PA. Loads and stresses in all critical
For all maneuvers performed other dynamic components occurring during the
than level flight, recording of data should be maneuvers performed should be recorded
initiated during an initial stabilized condition, using electronic recording techniques to
continued throughout the maneuver, and allow a comprehensive analysis.
discontinued after a stabilized flight
condition is once again attained. 9-4.4 USAGE OF RESULTS
Once reduced, the flight load survey
9-4.3 LOAD MEASUREMENT data should be used to establish a
Components to be instrumented with conservative estimate of critical component
load-sensing devices, i.e., strain gages, service lives; conservative is defined as
should be identified in the test plan and underestimation of allowable service life.
approved by the PA. These components will The AC use the methods of Chapter 4 of
include but not be limited to Ref. 18 to compute these service lives.
1. Main and tail rotor blades, Flight loads survey results should be
propellers, and prop rotors reported in the structural demonstration
2. Rotor and propeller hubs report.
3. Main rotor, directional, and flight
controls. 9-5 DYNAMIC STABILITY
Location of strain gages is based on analysis Dynamic stability is an airworthiness
of the predicted maximum strain and should criteria. The AC should demonstrate
be approved by the PA. The data read freedom from dynamic instabilities of the air
options to be used for each measurement are vehicle throughout the operational envelope,
including ground, shipboard, water, and
9-27
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
airborne operations. Also aeroelastic and should identify excitation methods, gross
mechanical stability should be demonstrated weights and CG conditions to be used,
in conjunction with any flight envelope methods for SAS-on and SAS-off testing,
expansion. These instabilities include but are and methods of varying the parameters listed
not limited to unstable, self-excited here. Provisions for motion picture and/or
vibrations that require no periodic force to video coverage should be identified.
maintain the vibration level. The AC should A test report should be submitted to
consider ground resonance for rotorcraft the PA. The PA will specify the various
with lead-lag damper systems. Also the AC plots of rotorcraft parameters versus rotor
should consider aeroelastic (flutter) and speed, and the test report should include
mechanical stability for all air vehicles. Each those plots and a matrix of responses to
of these areas is discussed in the those variables that clearly identifies the most
subparagraphs that follow. critical combinations of those variables. See
subpar. 9-5.3 for additional information.
9-5.1 GROUND RESONANCE
When the frequency of the lead-lag 9-5.2 BLADE FLUTTER
motion of the rotor blades approaches the The terms aeroelastic stability and
natural frequency of the landing gear spring flutter are synonymous. Both rotorcraft and
system and inadequate damping is present, a other aircraft might experience flutter. See
violent, unstable oscillation called ground subpar. 9-5.3 for additional information and
resonance can occur. Accordingly, all guidance. Also see subpar. 6-2.5.2.
rotorcraft with lead-lag motion of the main
rotor blades will demonstrate freedom from 9-5.3 AEROELASTIC AND
instability if the frequency of this mode is MECHANICAL STABILITY
below or near operating rotor speed. A The aeroelastic and mechanical
demonstration should also be required for stability airworthiness and qualification test
the tied down configuration, if applicable. objectives at the system level are to
The tests used to demonstrate substantiate that main and tail rotor(s),
freedom from this instability should include propeller(s), proprotor(s), and fixed
the most critical (as determined by correlated aerodynamic subsystem(s) have, when
analysis) combinations of operational coupled to the airframe, adequate mechanical
variables of the rotating and landing gear aeroelastic stability throughout the
spring damping characteristics. The other operational envelope, including ground,
parameters that should be evaluated include shipboard, water, and airborne operations.
but are not limited to Ground operations should include all
1. Gear oleo servicing pressure operating scenarios, such as rotor, propeller,
variations or proprotor turning while tied down; rotor
2. Percent airborne or proprotor coast down; run on landings
3. Tire pressure and taxi operations. Shipboard operations
4. Slope landings with rotor, propeller, andproprotor turning
5. Stability augmentation system with the air vehicle tied down, etc., should
(SAS) on and off. all be considered.
The AC should submit, as part of his AQS Aeroelastic stability analyses should
and dynamic stability testing, plans for be performed prior to flight. Rotating
ground resonance testing. These plans system analyses should use rotor,proprotor,
9-28
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-29
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-30
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-31
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-6.2.3 and the integrated flight test plan Stability derivatives are used to measure the
approved by the PA. The plan should flying qualities of the aircraft and can be
include all of the gross weight, CG, altitude, obtained by using partial derivatives. As
and rotor or propeller speeds used in the each parameter is varied, the partial
testing. These tests should be conducted to derivative can be plotted against that
establish or verify flying qualities parameter and used to imply compliance
requirements throughout the flight envelope. An example
would be the partial derivative of airspeed
9-6.2.1 Common with respect to longitudinal stick position
Common testing refers to testing that against changing CG locations for the range
is common between rotorcraft and other of loadings evaluated. If external stores will
aircraft. Common testing involves be used, their effects on stability and control
determination of static longitudinal, lateral, should be demonstrated.
and directional stability and dynamic The AC should identify the stability
stability. However, methods used for the testing conditions to be used in the
two types of air vehicles may differ greatly if integrated flight test plan. If 14 CFR, Part
an aircraft is qualified using 14 CFR, Parts 23, (Ref. 4) or 14 CFR, Part 25, (Ref. 5) is
23 and 25, (Refs. 4 and 5) as a guide. cited as the source for qualification
MIL-F-8785, Flying Qualities of Piloted requirements, the flight test plan should
Airplanes, (Ref. 21) and ADS-33, Handling follow the guidance in those publications to
Qualities Requirements for Military determine the conditions to be used to
Rotorcraft, (Ref. 22) both include the evaluate stability of aircraft. These
following: conditions include specific airspeeds, flap
1. Operational missions positions, landing gear status, and power
2. Loadings settings for static longitudinal stability
3. Moments and products of inertia testing. Requirements cited in 14 CFR, Parts
4. External stores 23 and 25, (Refs. 4 and 5) are that the stick
5. Configurations force curve have a stable slope for a range of
6. Functional status airspeeds.
7. Definitions of service flight For static lateral and directional
envelope (SFE) and operational flight stability, the requirements are that stability be
envelope. positive for specific ranges of airspeeds for
three-control aircraft. For two-control (or
9-6.2.2 Aircraft simplified control) aircraft different
For aircraft with fixed wings a requirements are cited including
baseline configuration of weight (normally abandonment of controls for two minutes
design gross weight), CG (normally forward without assumption of dangerous attitudes
and aft limits), propeller speed (normally or speeds.
design value), and altitude (preferably near Dynamic stability requirements
sea level) should be chosen to conduct involve testing for both short-period
performance testing. Initially, the required oscillations and combined lateral-directional
testing should be conducted at these (“Dutch Roll”) oscillations.
conditions, and configuration parameters
should be varied singularly to the determine 9-6.2.3 Rotorcraft
individual effects of parameter changes.
9-32
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-33
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-34
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-35
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-36
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
for a given temperature, gross weight, and used as the rotorcraft accelerates to specified
engine power setting. obstacle clearance height. Once that height
Data should be collected to allow is reached, climb is discontinued, and the
plots of rates of climb (R/C) versus torque aircraft transitions to level terrain flight.
change at various gross weights,
configurations, and airspeeds approved by 9-6.7 LANDING
the PA. The North Atlantic Treaty
Organization (NATO) Advisory Group for
9-6.6.2 Aircraft Aeronautical Research and Development
14 CFR, Part 23,(Ref. 4) and Part 25 (AGARD) Flight Test Manual, Volume 1,
(Ref. 5) contain detailed requirements Performance, (Ref. 24) defines landing as
peculiar to aircraft takeoff and climb. These the process in which an aircraft is safely
requirements should be used as a guide for brought from a safe flight condition to a
demonstration of aircraft takeoff and climb standstill. The AC should demonstrate
characteristics. Tests should include landing performance according to the
crosswind takeoffs at the maximum approved AQS using flight conditions and
allowable limits and aborted takeoff tests. aircraft configurations approved by the PA.
Aircraft takeoff tests should also include Information obtained during this testing
tests to demonstrate the capability to should be used to establish emergency
maintain aircraft control during loss of thrust procedures for engine-out landing of
during the takeoff roll and loss of thrust after multiengined aircraft.
takeoff.
9-6.7.1 Common
9-6.6.3 Rotorcraft The AGARD Flight Test Manual
Rotorcraft takeoff demonstrations stresses the steady, controlled nature of
should include demonstrations of two other measurements such as rate of descent, angle
takeoff modes if required by the PA. These of approach, and approach airspeed and the
two modes are vertical takeoff and terrain division of each landing test into air and
flight takeoff. ground run phases. The air phase
Vertical takeoffs should be encompasses all activities prior to
demonstrated for gross weights, altitudes, touchdown, and the ground run phase begins
and temperatures specified by the PA. To when the aircraft touches down on the
perform this type of takeoff, the rotorcraft landing surface. The standard values or
must have power in excess of that required range of allowable values for measurements
to hover out of ground effect (OGE). of airspeed, rate of descent, and/or angle of
Demonstration of required hover power is approach, combinations of gross weight, CG
discussed in subpar. 9-6.8. Usually, these location, altitudes, and rotor or propeller
requirements are stated as a vertical rate of speeds should be established before testing
climb (VROC) at the specified gross weight and incrementally explored .
and atmospheric conditions. Measurements that might vary from
If specified by the PA, the AC should test to test include ground speed at obstacle
demonstrate terrain flight takeoffs. After height, ground speed at touchdown, air
verification that hover OGE is possible, these phase time, air phase distance, ground
takeoffs begin from the normal takeoff distance, wind speed, air temperature, and air
position. However, a constant climb angle is pressure. When braking distance is of
9-37
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
concern, the air vehicle should be equipped with airspeed steadily decreasing to the
with a means to measure consistent approved value (zero for approach to hover).
application of braking force, such as a The information gained from use of this
longitudinal accelerometer. method can then be used to establish
emergency procedures for rolling landings,
9-6.7.2 Aircraft such as minimum touchdown airspeed.
The landing airspeed chosen should Vertical landing tests should be
be such that for aircraft airspeed is conducted to verify specification compliance.
sufficiently above stall airspeed VSTALL to These tests should be conducted according
provide positive control and recovery in the to AMCP 706-204 (Ref. 19) and the
event of an emergency, such as a single- approved AQS.
engine failure on a multiengined aircraft. If
14 CFR, Part 23, (Ref. 4) or Part 25, (Ref. 9-6.8 HOVER
5) is used as a basis for qualification, Hover flight performance while a
approach airspeed will be above 1.3 VSTALL. rotorcraft or VTOL aircraft is out of ground
Prior to testing, the standard effect should be demonstrated by the AC.
approach technique should be established, Also hover flight performance should be
and airspeeds and rates of descent or flight demonstrated in winds up to 45kt from any
path angles typically are specified along with azimuth. Critical azimuth locations (if any)
the data to be collected, collection methods, should be demonstrated and documented.
reduction techniques, and acceptable values The demonstration plan should detail
for the landing parameters. methods, test gross weights, rotor speeds,
and height above ground measuring
9-6.7.3 Rotorcraft techniques. Hover performance testing
AMCP 706-204, Helicopter should be accomplished prior to landing
Performance Testing,(Ref. 19) contains performance testing according to AMCP
detailed requirements for conducting 706-204.
rotorcraft landing performance tests. The method described in subpar.
Traditional methods are covered that stress 9-6.1.3 is an acceptable one to use to
testing constant airspeeds throughout landing demonstrate hover flight performance.
descent. Measurements include horizontal However, the importance of calm wind
distance to clear a 15.2-m (50-ft) obstacle, conditions, significant variation in gross
rate of descent, and gear load at touchdown. weight and/or rotor speeds, and density
Data reduction forms for these altitudes should be stressed by the PA during
measurements are shown in Table 11-3 of test planning.
AMCP 706-204 (Ref. 19). Any additional Height above ground is commonly
limitations, such as collective pitch limits or measured by one of two techniques. The
stability and control concerns, may also first technique involves use of a weighted,
establish limits for minimum descent airspeed measured cord and a ground observer to talk
and will be documented by the AC. the aircrew to the exact height. The second
For rotorcraft one constant landing involves hovering at an exact height with the
airspeed may not be required. Subject to helicopter attached to a load cell on the
approval by the PA, an alternate method may ground. In this method, rotor thrust is equal
be used in which the air phase is flown with a to the helicopter weight plus load cell
steady rate of descent or angle of approach
9-38
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-39
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
interest, such as main rotor frequencies. If Plots of the computed coupled natural
testing at frequencies above 50 Hz is frequencies versus operating speed should be
required, the AC should identify the prepared in a similar manner to the typical
techniques and methods to be used to plots shown in Fig. 9-7.
interpret complex responses.
If ground resonance or mechanical 9-7.2 FLIGHT VIBRATION TESTS
instability is possible (lowest main rotor in- An in-flight vibration survey of the
plane natural frequency at or below normal air vehicle should be conducted by the AC.
operating rotor speed), additional vibration Information about defining vibration
testing should be performed to determine the performance levels or intrusion indices at all
effective hub mass, hub damping, and hub crew and passenger stations can be found in
natural frequency. The aircraft should rest ADS-27 (Ref. 7). Vertical, longitudinal, and
with all of its weight (not suspended) on a lateral vibration levels should be measured
surface similar to the surface from which it with accelerometers located at stations that
will operate. Alternate landing gear will realistically represent what occupants
configurations and representative tire or feel.
pneumatic float pressures should be tested For rotorcraft, sensitivity to main and
for each landing condition. The effects of tail rotor out-of-balance and out-of-track
temperature on hub mass, damping, and conditions should be investigated. Vibratory
natural frequency should be evaluated by surveys on new air vehicles should also
using temperature ranges cited in the detailed include data collection on equipment outside
aircraft specification. If temperature the crew and passenger compartments. For
variations affect mechanical stability, the PA a new air vehicle, vibration pickups will be
may require additional testing at the more installed along the fuselage, wings,
critical temperature(s). empennage, and transmission or main rotor
Prior to first flight, rotor system mounting.
vibration testing needed to determine rotor ADS-27 defines four flight regions
blade and hub properties should be that should be tested for rotorcraft and tilt
conducted. These tests are detailed in par. rotor aircraft vibration specification
5.2 of ADS-27 (Ref. 7) and include rotor compliance. Region I consists of all steady
blade and hub properties determination, flight conditions with load factors between
control coupling, and rotor frequency tests. 0.75 and 1.25 g and airspeeds from hover to
Nonrotating natural frequencies, both in and cruise VCRUISE and to the maximum rearward
out of the plane of rotation (chordwise and and sideward flight speeds while operating
flapwise), should be determined for all rotor within the defined power-on rotor speed
blades. If applicable, the rotor blades should limits. Region II applies to all flight
be mounted in the hub, which is suspended conditions outside Region I withdurations
so that the vertical natural frequency of the greater than 3 s, Region III applies to Region
suspended rotor system should be less than II flight conditions with durations less than 3
one-half of the calculated value of the lowest s, and Region IV applies only to tilt rotor
natural frequency being investigated. For aircraft. However, for tilt rotor aircraft
these tests excitation may be applied to operating in a rotorcraft mode or in
either the hub or a point on the blade
appropriate to the mode under investigation.
9-40
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-41
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
transition between rotorcraft and aircraft Prior to acoustic noise testing the AC
with fixed wings, Regions I, II, and III should have an acoustic noise survey that
requirements will apply, as appropriate. includes but is not limited to the external and
Crew and personnel station vibration internal noise conditions to be investigated,
criteria for frequencies up to 60 Hz are instrumentation and noise measurement
identified in ADS-27 as are criteria for requirements, test schedules, and data
controls, instrument panels and displays, and analysis requirements.
weapons sighting devices. Additionally, Measurements should be used to
ADS-27 identifies the requirement for new determine the acoustic environment with
aircraft or aircraft undergoing major respect to established criteria. Such criteria
modification to incorporate onboard rotor include but are not limited to annoyance,
vibration diagnostics systems. distraction, speech interference, hearing
Demonstration and qualification of this damage, and external detectability.
onboard system is accomplished as part of
the flight vibration surveys. 9-8.1 INTERNAL NOISE TESTS
For aircraft the PA should specify in Internal noise testing should be
the Airworthiness Qualification Plan (AQP) conducted to obtain data that can be used to
flight vibration testing to be accomplished by determine compliance with an established
the AC. The AC should define methods, limit on the amount of noise permitted within
conditions, analysis, and criteria for that the air vehicle. The limit may be based on
testing in the AQS. hearing, speech communication
requirements, effects on crew performance,
9-8 ACOUSTIC NOISE TESTS and/or comfort level as specified by the PA.
Acoustic noise testing should Information concerning these tests can be
establish an accurate definition of internal found in MIL-STD-1789, Sound Pressure
and external acoustic fields. Typically, it is a Levels in Aircraft, (Ref. 26).
good idea to coordinate these test plans with Since both the intensity and duration
the US Army Aeromedical Research of noise contribute to noise exposure levels,
Laboratory (USAARL) because this noise intensity for all of the air vehicle
Laboratory is responsible for the review of operational modes should be determined.
data and input into health hazard Used in conjunction with the time spent in
assessments. These data are used to each mode, sound levels for that mode can
substantiate that specification noise be used to calculate the noise exposure for a
requirements have been met. MIL-STD- given mission profile.
1474, Noise Limits for Military Materiel, For internal noise tests operational
(Ref. 25) identifies the three types of noise conditions that can be combined to form
criteria that may be used for limit noise operational modes for testing include but are
exposure. These are hearing damage risk not limited to
criteria (DRC), hearing conservation criteria, 1. Flight conditions analogous to the
and materiel design standards. Of the three maneuvers of par. 9-4
criteria materiel design standards provide 2. Air vehicle configurations that
specific noise limits to equipment designers affect noise attenuation, such as doors on or
and manufacturers that must not be exceeded off and windows open or closed
if the materiel is to be acceptable to the PA. 3. Weapons firing status, active or
inactive
9-42
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-43
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
tied in with air vehicle position data, noise Climatic laboratory tests are essential
recordings, and possibly meteorological to evaluating the effects of climatic
condition recordings. Layout, quantity, and conditions on
spacing of microphones should be adequate 1. Airframe and dynamic component
to provide reasonable assurance that sideline operation and strength
noise characteristics are described and that 2. Engine operation and performance
unusual terrain or ground feature effects are 3. Pilot capabilities
considered. 4. Operating characteristics of
During conduct of the testing, all a. Windshield, engine, and rotor
noise data should be recorded for later system anti-icing, deicing, and defog systems
laboratory analysis. The air vehicle should (windshield clear and ready for flight within
be flown at right angles to and over the specified time)
center of the major axis of the microphone b. Transmissions
layout. These procedures and variations and c. Avionic and control subsystems
piloting techniques, such as constant pitch including cooling
flyovers, should be approved by the PA. d. Auxiliary power units
Instrument calibration procedures should be e. Fuel, electrical, and hydraulic or
documented. pneudraulic subsystems
Data analysis may involve the use of f. Heating, ventilating, and
third-octave analyzers, narrow band analysis, environmental control subsystems
pattern recognition devices, or a trained g. Maintenance procedures
human ear. The methods used for data h. Handling and firing of external
analysis and presentation including the use of stores and weapons, if applicable.
automated and/or computerized hybrid Department of Defense (DoD) Directive
analysis method integrating several analysis 3200.11, Major Range and Test Facility
methods should be documented. Base, (Ref. 28) contains information on DoD
test facilities available for all testing. The
9-9 CLIMATIC LABORATORY TESTS McKinley Climatic Laboratory, located at
As part of the qualification tests, the 3246th Test Wing, Eglin Air Force Base
entire air vehicle should be tested by (AFB), FL, is the primary climatic laboratory
operating the it (all systems including used for this type of testing. Test planning
propulsion) in a climatic laboratory under for use of this laboratory must include a
controlled conditions that simulate as nearly formal request by the PA to use the facility.
as possible the operational conditions under Test planning by the AC is critical to the
which the air vehicle will operate. These success of the climatic laboratory testing
conditions should be identified in the test since the facility is heavily used and access is
plan, and should include but not be limited to limited.
temperature, shock, vibration, icing, sand During the climatic laboratory
and dust, and salt spray. Prior to testing, the air vehicle should be restrained
qualification of the entire air vehicle, selected by a system capable of absorbing maximum
subsystems should be qualified in accordance main rotor thrust or maximum propeller
with subpar. 6-2.6 for environments such as thrust. Exhaust gases from theAPUs and
icing tunnels. cabin heaters and cooling exhaust from
electronic and electrical components should
be vented outside the chamber if these
9-44
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-45
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-46
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-47
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-11.3 LIGHTNING
The AC should conduct and/or
*These tests should include 16.5-dB safety
support a PA-conducted lightning protection
margin testing of electroexplosive devices, survey and verification as provided for in
which should verify that EED bridge wire subpars. 4.1.2 and 4.1.5 of MIL-STD-1795,
currents due to the (cumulative) induced Lightning Protection of Aerospace Vehicles
energy from onboard and external equipment and Hardware, (Ref. 31). Detailed testing
are at least 16.8 dB below the “no fire” methodologies may be found-in MIL-STD-
current levels of the EEDS.
9-48
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-49
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-50
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-51
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-52
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
included in the armament and fire control The same considerations for ground
portion of an overall integrated test plan. target effectiveness should be used when
weapons system effectiveness against air
9-12.1 GROUND TARGETS targets is evaluated. However, since air
Target acquisition and designation targets might have equal or superior
systems qualification against targets should maneuverability and comparable or superior
include data points that exercise the required armament and fire control subsystems,
ranges of air vehicle parameters, sensor certain aspects of weapon system
modes of operation, target parameters, and effectiveness testing become more important.
meteorological conditions. See ADS-29 The armament and fire control test planning
(Ref. 37) for additional information. should define the methods used to verify
Obscurants such as fog, haze, smoke, or light operational characteristics of weapons
rain may reduce detection capability PD at subsystems when used against air targets.
maximum weapon ranges. Clutter might These methods should be included as part of
reduce probability of detection, an overall integrated test plan. The
classification, and engagement of targets— operational characteristics are specified by
PD, PC, and PE, respectively. Effectiveness the PA, and these tests, models, or
testing against ground targets should simulations should use a firing envelope
consider the effects of clutter and smoke and approved by the PA. Typical firing envelope
obscurants on MOEs such as reduced PD, PC, parameters should include airspeed,
or PE, and these results should be maneuver load factors, and time to turn and
documented. engage off-axis targets. A safe launch
Moving targets or targets that change envelope should be defined by analysis and
directions might reduce PH for unguided actual firing.
weapons such as guns and rockets. For Sensor gimbal limits and turreted gun
guided weapons the ability of the weapon azimuth and elevation limits are
subsystem to track the vulnerable areas of a demonstrated throughout the firing envelope.
target until round impact should be Additionally, sensor and turret slew rates,
evaluated. Inability to track these areas accelerations, and position accuracies should
might result in a miss or impact in other than be demonstrated throughout the firing
a vulnerable area, which results in reduced envelope. The AC should demonstrate the
PH and PK, respectively. The maneuvering proper function of limit switches, such as a
required in unmasking might result in gun-firing inhibit, when either the sensor or
detection of the air vehicle or might preclude turreted gun is commanded to point or fire
timely engagement of the ground target. outside the established limits for position,
Both of these conditions could allow the slewing rate, or acceleration.
target to initiate evasive action or mask In addition to the probability MOEs
itself. (PD, PC, etc.), false alarm rates should be
The effects of target motion and demonstrated when there is a requirement
direction changes and unmasking for engagement of air targets beyond visual
maneuvering of the air vehicle on MOEs, range (BVR).
such as PE, PH, and PK, should be Handling qualities when firing
documented. armament should be evaluated. Particular
emphasis should be placed on off-axis gun
9-12.2 AIR TARGETS firing, maximum and minimum elevation or
9-53
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
depression of turrets, and missile and rocket Jettison of all external stores should be
firing during uncoordinated flight. demonstrated for sufficient combinations of
Emergency jettison of external armament flight conditions to establish and verify a
stores should be demonstrated throughout a jettison envelope for each type of external
Government-approved flight envelope. store configuration. Selective jettison of
stores should be demonstrated for those
9-13 EXTERNAL STORES conditions that may result in adverse
SEPARATION operational characteristics of the air vehicle
Flight tests should be conducted to and the remaining external stores. Typically,
demonstrate the separation characteristics of safe jettison is almost always demonstrated
all droppable external stores. Droppable by limited jettison tests in conjunction with
external stores are defined as any item that is extensive jettison analysis.
not an essential part of the basic air vehicle All jettisons use the release method
and is affixed to the airframe with provisions provided. However, each secondary or
for quick release. Droppable external stores redundant release system should be used
may include but are not limited to fuel tanks, once during these demonstrations. All
weapons pods, rocket launchers, missile system failures should also be shown not to
launchers or rails, bombs, mine dispensers, affect adversely the air vehicle characteristics
torpedoes, or pyrotechnic devices. or the jettison capability of the remaining
Satisfactory separation characteristics stores.
should be demonstrated for the minimum Flight conditions for jettison
criteria that follow and other criteria that demonstrations should be planned and
may be specified by the PA: documented. All demonstrations should be
1. Immediate operation of the conducted at the extreme or critical
jettison device or operation within an combinations of weight and both longitudinal
allowable time period and lateral CG locations within the air
2. No damage to the air vehicle vehicle maneuver spectrum. When external
during or following actuation of the jettison stores have expendables, such as rockets and
device flares, separation is demonstrated with full,
3. Jettison trajectory clear of the air intermediate, and empty weights for the
vehicle and other stores stores.
4. No inherent instability of the Jettison demonstrations should be
jettisoned store while in proximity to the air performed at sufficient airspeeds to establish
vehicle the airspeed restrictions for satisfactory
5. No adverse or uncontrollable air separation characteristics and demonstrated
vehicle reaction at the time of jettison at the power required for level flight and
6. Stability and control during autorotative flight or unpowered
characteristics after jettison consistent with glide. The maximum and minimum airspeed
ADS-33 (Ref. 22) for rotorcraft and tilt rotor limits for safe operations should be
aircraft and 14 CFR Parts 23 and 25 (Ref. 4 established. Demonstrations should be
and 5) or other specified documents for conducted at altitudes and attitudes
aircraft consistent with normal operation of the air
7. No unusual degradation of vehicle. If the attitudes of external stores
performance characteristics after jettison. with respect to the air vehicle are varied, the
9-54
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-55
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-56
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-57
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-58
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
critical function, physical separation of the threat and operating conditions should be
redundant components lessens the used to identify the operating frequencies,
probability of a single-shot kill. types, power levels, pulse rate and duration,
Methods of validation and testing for beam size, power distribution, and slew rates
the vulnerable areas should be planned and to be tested. Primary emphasis should be on
documented including the analysis, ballistic protection of aircrew vision and optical
testing, and simulations to be used. systems from the effects of low-energy lasers
and protection of all systems and the air crew
9-14.1.4 Fuel Ballistic Protection from the effects of HEL. Each of these areas
Fuel system ballistic protection is covered separately in the subparagraphs
evaluation is usually performed by firing at that follow. Also information concerning
the air vehicle, air vehicle mock-ups, or these areas is included in ADS-11 (Ref. 40).
subsystem components. Information
concerning fuel system testing including 9-14.2.1 Optical Countermeasures
tanks, plumbing, surrounding airframe and Typically, optical countermeasures
protective features, and crash resistant fuel are intended to protect sensitive electro-optic
tanks can be found in ADS-11 (Ref. 40). mission equipment and aircrew vision from
Additional information concerning the effects of low-energy lasers. Such
crashworthy fuel tanks can be found in MIL- equipment might include canopy
T-27422, Tank, Fuel, Crash Resistant, transparency and optical coatings and/or
Aircraft, (Ref. 43). Emphasis should be on laser-protective visors. Analysis should be
self-sealing and fire suppression procedures. performed to identify vulnerable
Fuel system test plans should define the components, subsystems, and air crew
location and number of shots, obliquity, type positions in a manner similar to the ballistic
of seal allowed after firing, caliber of rounds, vulnerability analyses. Information about
post shot inspection requirements, and fire performing this analysis can be found in
suppression requirements. If fuel cell or ADS-11 (Ref. 40). Emphasis should be
ullage inerting, such as onboard inert-gas- placed on determining the vulnerability of the
generating system (OBIGGS), is used, aircrew to temporary or permanent blindness
procedures for testing such features should or other debilitating injury caused by lasers.
be included. Both passive and active fire Measurable parameters may include but not
suppression techniques, as defined in be limited to exposure times, ranges,
MIL-STD-2069 (Ref. 42), are demonstrated frequencies, and power levels required to
as applicable. damage electro-optics or injure aircrews.
Evaluation of the optical countermeasures
9-14.2 LASER SURVIVABILITY should also include evaluation of visual
Vulnerability of the air vehicle and impairment of the pilot while operating with
crew to both low-energy and high-energy these devices or systems during night flight
lasers (HEL) should be demonstrated by the and/or with environmental obscurations.
AC when laser weapons are included among Also see par. 9-17.
the specified threats. Techniques for laser
vulnerability reduction often follow the same
guidelines as ballistic vulnerability reduction,
such as providing redundancy, separation,
and burnthrough tolerance. The specified
9-59
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-60
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-61
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-62
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
engagement time lines for unguided small continuous wave (CW) illuminator radars
arms threats. Thus maneuverability of the air and transmit jamming signals that prevent
vehicle system enhances PS. proper operation of enemy radar. Pulse
Once detected, a highly illuminator radar jammers are designed to
maneuverable air vehicle can reduce PC|D and respond to the most critical threat weapons
PE|C and in some cases PH|E by executing systems anticipated to be encountered by
evasive maneuvers. Par. 9-6 contains a attack rotorcraft in a hostile environment,
detailed discussion of the aerodynamic whereas CW radar jammers protect against
demonstration requirements including the surface-to-air missiles (SAM) and airborne
establishment of flying qualities. intercept missiles (AIM).
The minimum maneuvers used to Radar warning receivers also are
evaluate the maneuverability effects on designed to provide warning of pulse and
survivability should be specified by the PA CW illuminator radars before the air vehicle
and should be used to verify air vehicle arrives in detection range. Additionally,
survivability equipment (ASE) effectiveness there are missile approach detectors that
testing described in subpar. 9-14.5. detect the approach of IR guided missiles.
Additional maneuvers may be identified by Decoys take the form of flares
the AC. dispensed to confuse or mislead IR guided
Typical measures of effectiveness for missiles and chaff dispensed from canisters
maneuverability may include reduction in or cartridges, which prevent radar-controlled
probabilities of detection, classification, air defense weapons from locating, hitting,
engagement, and hit— PD, PC, PE, and PH, and destroying the air vehicle dispensing
respectively. chaff.
The AC should plan to conduct ASE
9-14.5 AIRCRAFT SURVIVABILITY effectiveness testing including use of the
EQUIPMENT (ASE) threat systems or simulators to be provided
ASE basically can be categorized as by the PA. Prior to testing ASE, the AC
threat sensors and countermeasures. should establish the baseline susceptibility or
Examples of ASE are IR jammers, radar vulnerability of the air vehicle to specified
jammers, radar warning receivers, and threat weapons systems when not using
decoys. Additional survivability features that ASE. This should be done initially by
can aid defeat of threats by using the analysis and verified by flight test using
electromagnetic spectrum include low controlled maneuvers, altitudes, and air
reflective paint and IR exhaust suppressors. vehicle configurations. Typical measures are
Only the first four examples are described PC|D, PE|C, and possibly an analytical
here. determination of PH|E without use of ASE.
IR jammers are intense IR sources Threat systems or threat simulators should
that operate from the fuel or electrical power be used to establish the baseline
and confuse or decoy threat IR guided characteristics and to perform effectiveness
missile systems. When used in conjunction testing.
with low reflective paint and IR exhaust Once the baseline characteristics are
suppressors, these jammers jam all known established, the AC should repeat the flights
threat IR missile systems. and testing necessary to determine the
Radar jammers are receiver- reduction in susceptibility or vulnerability
transmitters that detect both pulse and (increase in survivability) due to the use of
9-63
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
ASE. The AC should also document any 9-14.7 DIRECT NUCLEAR EFFECTS
limitations, such as electrical power, Nuclear survivability is defined as the
maneuvering, or range, brought about by use capability of a system to accomplish its
of ASE. mission during and/or after exposure to a
nuclear environment. Survivability may be
9-14.6 NUCLEAR, BIOLOGICAL, achieved by a number of methods including
CHEMICAL (NBC) but not limited to proliferation, redundancy,
Nuclear, biological, and chemical avoidance, reconstitution, deception, and
contamination survivability is defined as the hardening. Proliferation and platform
capability of a system and its crew to redundancy are probably not viable options
withstand an NBC-contaminated for relatively expensive and complex aviation
environment and relevant decontamination systems. Avoidance and deception are
without losing the ability to accomplish the tactical and/or strategic considerations.
assigned mission. NBC contamination Thus hardening and subsystem redundancy
survivability and testing should not be are the only probable technical means by
required unless it is reflected in the which to improve nuclear survivability for
Operational Requirements Document (ORD) Army aviation systems.
and Test and Evaluation Master Plan Nuclear hardness is defined as a
(TEMP) (Ref. 39). If a system requires quantitative description of the resistance of a
NBC survivability, the AC should address system or component to malfunction
each environment in an integrated test plan (temporary and permanent) and/or degraded
for the system. If required by the PA, performance induced by a nuclear threat
contamination and decontamination environment. Hardness is measured by
survivability should be demonstrated for both resistance to physical quantities such as
short-term and long-term effects on materiel overpressure, peak velocities, energy
and personnel. Testing should also absorbed, and electrical stress. Damage
determine the degradation in operator mechanisms to be considered include blast,
performance due to operation in an NBC thermal, and initial radiation effects, and
environment. A typical measure of transient radiation effects on electronics
effectiveness may be the percent of critical (TREE).
operator tasks successfully completed while Hardness requirements should be
wearing individual protection equipment specified in the air vehicle specification, and
(IPE) with a goal of 100%. validation requirements should be specified
The total system should also be in the AQS. As a minimum, mission critical
tested to determine the degree to which electronic equipment should be tested to
design features, such as cockpit overpressure verify survivability when exposed to high-
and sealing, filtration systems, and hybrid altitude electromagnetic pulse (HEMP).
collective protection equipment (HCPE) Information concerning performing nuclear
enhance NBC survivability of the operators. hardening analyses and testing for
Information concerning these topics can be components and complete systems can be
found in ADS-11 (Ref. 40). found in ADS-11 (Ref. 40).
9-14.8 CRASHWORTHINESS
The AC should demonstrate by
analysis and testing the crashworthiness of
9-64
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
the air vehicle. Normally, analyses are systems) but become more critical when
acceptable in lieu of actual tests, except at electrical and/or electronic controls gain
the component level. Structural greater authority. Many air vehicle control
crashworthiness, crew and passenger systems use some form of electrohydraulic
retention, injurious environment, postcrash actuators. As previously implied, system-
fire potential, and evacuation should be the level testing is an incremental buildup
main considerations. process; one objective of which is to validate
Appendix I of ADS-11 (Ref. 40) design requirements. Flight test evaluation
contains rating criteria for these areas as well and qualification of the flight control system
as details of how the evaluation is is typically a handling qualities, aeroelastic
performed. If required by the AQS, qualities, human factors, performance,
crashworthiness testing may be performed by reliability, and vulnerability evaluation.
the PA and AC. Details of that testing are Qualification testing typically ends with user
included in subpar. 11-6.2. Data from AC tests that include an evaluation of logistic
testing should be used to reduce required characteristics. Mission capabilities are
Government testing. typically evaluated. The AQS should define
the requirements for qualification. For the
9-15 AVIONICS— CONTROLS purposes of this handbook, there are six
The fundamental classification of types of systems: fly-by-wire/fly-by-light
flight control systems should be based upon systems, stability augmentation systems
whether control is automatic or manual. (SAS), autopilots, engine controls,
Whether control forces are transmitted instrument landing systems, and unmanned
through mechanical linkage, electrical wires, aerial vehicle (UAV) systems. With the
or fiber-optic cables does not greatly exception of UAV systems, all systems
influence the task of flight control system perform the functions of providing pilot
qualification at the system level. The level of assistance through automatic or
safety associated with manual or primary semiautomatic flight path control, or they
flight controls is established through proper automatically control airframe responses to
design, analysis, and qualification of the disturbances. These functions are included
individual components. Also software in the definition of automatic flight control
design and qualification begin at the unit systems (AFCS) used in MIL-F-9490, Flight
level. These are then followed by proper Control Systems— Design, Installation, and
integration of the components and software Test of Piloted Aircraft, General
(if any) and tested on functional mock-ups Specification for, (Ref. 44). MIL-F-9490
and, finally, installation and test on an air should be used as a guide to performing
vehicle. For safety reasons it is not feasible portions of the AQS and test plans for the
to demonstrate fault tolerance of primary AFCS. Specific requirements should be
control components during flight. These specified in the contract.
types of tests should be accomplished at the MIL-F-9490 contains AFCS
subsystem level and demonstrated in a mock- operational state definitions, allowable
up and simulator. Other system level tests, degradations for AFCS component failures,
such as electrical and electromagnetic and other testing information. These
environmental effects testing, are typically degradation levels should be used to
required regardless of control type (except determine the fail-safe and fail-degraded test
for purely mechanical and hydromechanical requirements for the AFCS. Fail-safe
9-65
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
systems testing should specify the minimum a significant part of qualification. For
operational state allowable, e.g., State III information concerning test and evaluation,
minimum safe operation, whereas fail- see MIL-STD-461, Requirements for the
degraded testing may allow a defined number Control of Electromagnetic Emissions and
of state degradations, e.g., no more than two Susceptibility, (Ref. 45) and MIL-STD-810,
states lower after failure. Environmental Test Methods and
Testing of those systems should be Engineering Guidelines, (Ref. 46). Fiber-
complementary to design and analysis optic systems tend to be susceptible to higher
activities. When the PA determines that AC temperatures, especially at high altitudes.
analyses of AFCS is sufficient to ensure Although fiber-optic cables are not
compliance with specifications, testing susceptible to an electromagnetic field,
should not be required. Information transistorized terminals might be susceptible.
concerning analysis requirements is included Wires are less susceptible to temperature yet
in par. 4.2 of MIL-F-9490 (Ref. 44). more susceptible to electromagnetic fields.
Vulnerability performance EMI and EMV testing is essential.
requirements should be specified in the air Typically, system leveling testing should
vehicle specification. Validation include but not be limited to
requirements should be specified in the AQS. 1. System safety-of-flight testing
Primary testing should involve function, (software and hardware)
degree of pilot assistance, and vulnerabilities 2. Air vehicle ground tests
to natural environments, adverse events of 3. Air vehicle flight tests.
nature, induced environments, onboard Flight testing should not commence until a
failure of other systems, maintenance error, Contractor Flight Release for the current
flight crew error, and enemy actions. configuration (including the software used)
Information concerning these topics can be has been issued. An Airworthiness Release
found in MIL-F-9490 as are the will be needed if a Government pilot is in
requirements for test witnessing, acceptance command of the air vehicle. Typical
testing, instrumentation, and test conditions. measurements during testing may include but
not be limited to
9-15.1 FLY-BY-WIRE/FLY-BY-LIGHT 1. Transient power effects
SYSTEMS 2. Interchangeability
As previously stated, whether control 3. Time to override computer inputs
forces are transmitted by mechanical linkage 4. Computation time as a percent of
or by electrical wires and fiber-optic cable that available
does not greatly influence the task of flight 5. Memory used and protection
control qualification. Fly-by-wire and fly-by- features
light flight control systems include 6. Software scaling constants.
subsystems in which linkage between the Details of these measurements including the
pilot's controls and the control surfaces or instrumentation requirements for these
controlled mechanism is implemented with measurements are contained in MIL-F-9490.
electrical signals carried by wire or light Engine controls are covered
energy in fiber-optic cables. separately in subpar. 9-15.4.
Each of these systems should
successfully complete required AQS testing. 9-15.2 STABILITY AUGMENTATION
Environmental test and evaluation should be SYSTEMS
9-66
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-67
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
qualification test results should be in maintainer errors and failure mode, effects,
sufficient detail to allow these characteristics and criticality analyses (FMECAs).
and procedures to be included in operator's Pars. 9-7, 9-9, 9-10, and 9-11 discuss
manuals. vibration testing, climatic laboratory testing,
icing flight, electromagnetic vulnerability,
9-15.4 ENGINE CONTROLS lightning protection, and failure effects
Engine controls may involve caused by other onboard failures related to
mechanical linkages, electronic or fiber-optic vulnerabilities to induced and external
components, and may be integrated with fire environments. Par. 9-14 focuses on the
and flight control hardware and software. survivability requirements for air vehicle
Electronic digital control systems allow more subsystems. Successful accomplishment of
flexibility in providing load anticipation for a this testing should at least partially satisfy the
wide variety of situations. However, they requirements for demonstration of function
are more difficult to evaluate and document and degree of pilot assistance.
due to the increased variables that affect Consequently, the AC should make every
engine and rotor governing. Critical feasible effort to integrate engine control
characteristics of analog-to-digital and testing into other testing requirements to
optical-to-digital conversions include preclude duplication of effort.
frequency response, control loop time delays,
and E3 effects. The differences between 9-15.5 INSTRUMENT LANDING
qualification of electronic controls vs manual SYSTEMS
controls resides primarily at the component The AC should demonstrate the
and subsystem levels. ADS-33 (Ref. 22) capability of instrument landing systems to
addresses aircraft performance aid the pilot’s execution within specified
characteristics during specific failures. limits of both precision and nonprecision
Par. 9-3 covers transient torque approaches. Critical performance
response and power turbine speed damping characteristics of the instrument landing
and frequency analyses. Typically, the AC system include altitude and position accuracy
demonstrates engine transient response, and failure or degradation detection.
control transient response to engine failure, Instrument landing systems may include
manual mode operation (if applicable), load avionic and electronic systems designed to
sharing (if applicable), collective pitch lever aid the aircrew’s performance of precision
pumps, rotor speed governing (dual and and both tactical and nontactical
single), and torque-limiting capabilities. nonprecision approaches. An instrument
These demonstrations are accomplished on a landing system is basically a navigation
power system mock-up or tied down air subsystem that could have a flight control
vehicle. Par. 9-6 discusses aerodynamic loop; hence objectives and measurements for
demonstration flight-performance- a navigation subsystem apply in general. See
substantiating testing that can be considered par. 8-9. Also the flight control loop (if any)
other measures of functional performance. should be tested and qualified as discussed in
Portions of pars. 10-2 and 10-4 concern the this paragraph. Precision approach
reliability and maintainability characteristics demonstration should involve glide path as
of air vehicle subsystems, which provide well as ground track error measurements. If
information on probable operator and required by the PA, these error
measurements should be correlated to
9-68
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
cockpit indications and actual positions over of manned flight. If the air vehicle is
the ground to determine the accuracy of the incapable of manned flight, only the
instrument landing system. objectives and measurements of the UAV
When coupled flight controls are will apply. Further, the objectives contained
incorporated, the AC plan to qualify the in DA PAM 73-1 (Ref. 38) might apply to
instrument landing system should include test either type of UAV. UAV flight control
procedures, limitations, minimum ceilings subsystems are controlled by remote
and visibilities, airspeeds, and recommended operators or preprogrammed flight paths and
emergency procedures. algorithms. Hence an airworthiness release
Part of the demonstration should typically is not required; however, the need
involve degradation characteristics of the for some other type of release might be
instrument landing system. A typical specified in the contract. Also the contract
demonstration may be the indications to the should specify who is responsible for ground
pilot of loss of glide slope information, loss and flight risks. A system safety risk
of power to instrument landing system assessment is typically required. Since no
components, and redundancy characteristics onboard human intervention is possible, the
of the system. AC should demonstrate the ranges and
If hybrid, integrated navigation effectiveness of the control data link, system
systems, such as integrated global reliability, navigation accuracy, and
positioning system (GPS), inertial navigation resistance to jamming, etc. The AC should
system (INS), and Doppler navigation also demonstrate by analysis, simulation, and
system, are identified for use in tactical fight test the response in the event of a loss
approaches, the hierarchy of these systems of control response. Typical measurements
should be identified, failure modes identified, are control response, position accuracies,
and limitations established for degraded fuel consumption, signal strength, etc. If
modes of operation. control response is lost, typical actions
would include either a power-on or power-
9-15.6 UNMANNED AIR VEHICLE off dive, a climb and return to takeoff point,
(UAV) SYSTEMS or a spiraling climb. These actions are
There are two categories of shown in Fig. 9-9.
unmanned air vehicles. Drone aircraft If a malfunctioning control system is
capable of manned flight is one category. the cause of loss of control response,
Drone aircraft are used for a variety of successful return to home base is unlikely,
purposes. In some cases they are used as and a dive response may be the only feasible
targets. If capable of manned flight, all alternative. If the UAV is expendable,
standard airworthiness objectives and severely damaged, or unable to return to
measurements should apply. Also objectives home base, a spiraling climb to clear airspace
and measurements of an unmanned air over the mission area and flight away from
vehicle should apply. Another category is air the mission area may be the chosen course of
vehicles that are not capable action. If maximum range is exceeded, a
climb and return home might bring the UAV
back into range where control can be
regained.
9-69
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-70
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
The AC should propose the identifies the root cause of the malfunction.
procedures, algorithms, flight termination The AC should propose a fix in accordance
actions, and success criteria for UAV actions with the terms of the contract. In the event
in the event of loss of control response. If that significant testing effected by the fix has
required by the PA, flight test to demonstrate already occurred, affected data points should
selected malfunctions may be required. be repeated. Also the PA should identify
Again since no onboard human intervention tests that should be repeated from the point
is possible, safety of ground personnel of failure or from the beginning. An example
should be the primary concern during this of such tests may be a propulsion system
testing, yet air traffic control is also an endurance test that was not successfully
important issue. Demonstration of completed due to a failure. Once the failure
diagnostic and prognostic data links and analysis is completed and the fix is
flight termination hardware and software implemented, the PA may require that the
should ensure that test be rerun completely. Other testing may
1. A flight termination condition is allow continuation of the test from the point
quickly and accurately identified of failure with limited regression testing.
2. Initiation of the flight termination
sequence has a very high probability of 9-17 SAFETY
success, and the probability of flight No hazardous or radioactive
termination is specified by the PA. materials should be incorporated into an air
A typical measure of effectiveness may vehicle unless the operational benefit
include the probability of failure detection, outweighs the associated risks. Any such
false alarms rates, probability of flight materials present well-defined potential
termination within a specified time period, hazards that should be thoroughly assessed
etc. and minimized. Also laser radiation hazards
should be addressed. Information
9-16 TEST-ANALYZE-FIX-TEST concerning laser radiation hazards can be
(TAFT) found in MIL-STD-1425, Safety Design
During the testing covered in this Requirements for Military Laser and
chapter, problems and malfunctions will Associated Equipment,(Ref. 47). Testing
undoubtedly occur. Once these events have should be performed to ensure the hazards
occurred, failure analysis should be are well-defined and minimized.
implemented to identify the root cause of the
problems and any dependent malfunctions.
Failure analysis should be used to identify
fixes. The analysis is successful if it
9-71
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
REFERENCES
1. MIL-W-6729, Watertightness of Aircraft, General Specification for , 8 March 1993.
2. MIL-S-8698, Structural Design Requirements, Helicopters , 28 February 1958.
3. ADS-29, Structural Design Criteria for Rotary Wing Aircraft , US Army Aviation Systems
Command, St. Louis, MO, September 1986.
4. 14 CFR, Part 23, Airworthiness Standards: Normal Utility, Acrobatic, and Commuter
Category Airplanes, US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
5. 14 CFR, Part 25, Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Airplanes , US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
6. ADS-9C, Propulsion System Technical Data, US Army Aviation Systems Command, St.
Louis, MO, April 1990.
7. ADS-27, Requirements for Rotorcraft Vibration Specifications, Modeling and Testing , US
Army Aviation Systems Command, St. Louis, MO, June 1993.
8. 14 CFR, Part 33, Airworthiness Standards: Aircraft Engines , US Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
9. 14 CFR, Part 35, Airworthiness Standards: Propellers , US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
10. 14 CFR, Part 29, Airworthiness Standards: Transport Category Rotorcraft , US Government
Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
11. 14 CFR, Part 121, Certification and Operations: Domestic, Flag, and Supplemental Air
Carriers and Commercial Operators of Large Aircraft,US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
12. 14 CFR, Part 127, Certification and Operations of Scheduled Air Carriers With Helicopters,
US Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
13. 14 CFR, Part 135, Air Taxi Operators and Commercial Operators,US Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC, 1 January 1994.
14. MIL-F-7872C, Fire and Overheat Warning Systems Continuous, Aircraft: Test and
Installation of, 30 September 1987.
15. MIL-F-23447, Fire Warning Systems, Aircraft, Radiation-Sensing-Type, Test and
Installation of, 16 September 1962.
16. MIL-E-52031D, Extinguishers, Fire, Vaporizing-Liquid CF3BR, 2 3/4 Pound, With Bracket ,
5 September 1979.
17. MIL-E-22285, Extinguishing System, Fire, Aircraft, High-Rate-Discharge-Type, Installation
and Test of, 27 April 1960.
18. AMCP 706-201, Engineering Design Handbook, Helicopter Engineering, Part One,
Preliminary Design, August 1974.
19. AMCP 706-204, Engineering Design Handbook, Helicopter Performance Testing , August
1974.
20. Flight Test Engineering Handbook, Air Force Technical Report 6273, US Air Force Flight
Test Center, US Air Force Systems Command, Edwards Air Force Base, CA, May 1951.
21. MIL-F-8785C, Flying Qualities of Piloted Airplanes, 24 September 1991.
22. ADS-33C, Handling Qualities Requirements for Military Rotorcraft,US Army Aviation
Systems Command, St. Louis, MO, August 1989.
23. MIL-F-83300, Flying Qualities of Piloted V/STOL Aircraft, 31 December 1970.
9-72
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
24. AGARD Flight Test Manual, Vol. 1, Performance,NATO Advisory Group for Aeronautical
Research and Development (AGARD), Neuilly-sur-Seine, France, 1995.
25. MIL-STD-1474C, Noise Limits for Military Materiel, 30 July 1993.
26. MIL-STD-1789A, Sound Pressure Levels in Aircraft, 19 July 1989.
27. ANSI S1.11-86, Octave Band and Fractional, Octave Band Analog and Digital Filters,
Specification for, American National Standards Institute, New York, NY, 1986.
28. DoD Directive 3200.11, Major Range and Test Facility Base, 29 September 1980.
29. Advisory Circular 29-2, Certification of Transport Category Rotorcraft
, Federal Aviation
Administration, Washington, DC, 28 May 1983.
30. ADS-37A-PRF, Electromagnetic Environmental Effects (E3) Performance and Verification
Requirements, US Army Aviation and Troop Command, St. Louis, MO, 28 May 1996.
31. MIL-STD-1795A, Lightning Protection of Aerospace Vehicles and Hardware , 20 June 1989.
32. MIL-STD-1757, Lightning Qualification Test Techniques for Aerospace Vehicles and
Hardware, 31 January 1993.
33. MIL-STD-1385B, Preclusion of Ordnance Hazards in Electromagnetic Fields, General
Requirements for, 1 August 1986.
34. IEEE C95.1-1991, IEEE Standard for Safety Levels With Respect to Human Exposure to
Radio Frequency Electromagnetic Fields, 3 kHz to 300GHz, The Institute of Electrical and
Electronics Engineers, Inc., New York, NY, 27 April 1992.
35. DoDI 6055.11, Protection of DoD Personnel from Exposure to Radio Frequency Radiation
and Military Exempt Lasers, 21 February 1995.
36. AR 385-63, Policies and Procedures for Firing Ammunition for Training, Target Practice,
and Combat, 15 October 1983.
37. ADS-20A, Armament/Fire Control System Survey , US Army Aviation Systems Command, St.
Louis, MO, 30 August 1989.
38. DA PAM 71-3, Operational Testing and EvaluationMethdology and Procedures Guide, 15
October 1979.
39. DoD Regulation 5000.2-R, Mandatory Procedures for Major Defense Acquisition Programs
(MDAPs) and Major Automated Information System (MAIS) Programs , 15 March 1996.
40. ADS-11B, Survivability Program, Rotary Wing, US Army Aviation Systems Command, St.
Louis, MO, May 1987.
41. MIL-STD-2089, Aircraft Nonnuclear Survivability Terms, 21 July 1981.
42. MIL-STD-2069, Requirements for AircraftNonnuclear Survivability Program,24 August
1981.
43. MIL-T-27422B, Tank, Fuel, Crash Resistant, Aircraft, 13 April 1971.
44. MIL-F-9490D, Flight Control Systems— Design, Installation, and Test of Piloted Aircrat,
General Specification for, 5 October 1992.
45. MIL-STD-461D, Requirements for the Control of Electromagnetic Emissions and
Susceptibility, 11 January 1993.
46. MIL-STD-810E, Environmental Test Methods and Engineering Guidelines , 1 September
1993.
47. MIL-STD-1425A, Safety Design Requirements for Military Lasers and Associated Support
Equipment, 30 August 1991.
9-73
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-74
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-75
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
9-76
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
CHAPTER 10
10-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-2
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
rounds between stoppageMRBS, and mean analysis process, the procuring activity might
cycles to failure MCTF in the same way. not require submittal of a formal report. It is
Reliability estimates made on inherent recommended that an integrated product
failure rates are useful for planning purposes, team be used to define the specific need and
for comparing alternatives, and for assessing required format. If submittal of a formal
proposed changes. When test and report is required, it should be delivered in a
operational data become available, they are format compatible with the computer system
the basis for program decisions and actions of the procuring agency. The analysis
and for revised reliability estimates. With approach used for the FMECA may start at
appropriate adjustment, i.e., higher estimated the highest indenture level and proceed
failure rates to account for the operational through lower indenture levels (top-down)
environment stresses, inherent failure rates or at the part or assembly level and proceed
and MTBFs can be used to estimate through higher indenture levels (bottom-up).
operational failure rates and reliability. Both the bottom-up and top-down analysis
methods are used to determine the effects of
10-2.2 FAILURE MODE, EFFECTS, all postulated failure modes of the lower
AND CRITICALITY ANALYSIS level components on the higher level
(FMECA) component or system.
An analysis commonly used to Each failure mode and item analyzed
develop source data for reliability is the should have a severity classification assigned.
failure mode, effects, and criticality analysis Failures classified as Category I
(FMECA). The FMECA documents (catastrophic) or Category II (critical) are
probable failures in a system within specified generally applicable to flight or mission
ground rules, the effects of each failure on reliability. All failures apply to other types of
system operation, identification of single reliability cited in this paragraph. Since
failure points, and ranking of each failure FMECA is a risk-reduction tool, the process
according to a severity classification or is usually updated throughout the acquisition
failure effect. The contractor should define program to reflect additional data that
the procedures that will be used to perform become available. In this way, failure modes
and document the FMECA. The failure for items and interfaces should become
identification and severity should be related progressively more defined through the time
to reliability measures, such as mission and of qualification.
flight reliability, i.e., a failure that is flight
critical should be classified as more severe 10-2.3 SAMPLE DATA COLLECTION
than one that may impact mission success. Three methods of data collectionare
The FMECA is typically used by the used depending on the intensity of
contractor’s reliability, maintainability, information required, objectives to be
quality assurance, and other logistic achieved, and cost. These methods include
engineers. Also it can be one of the sources semicontrolled, controlled, and intensified
used to determine flight safety parts. data collection and are sometimes referred to
Relevant safety-related information can be as levels of data collection. All three data
found in MIL-STD-882, System Safety collection methods require the data
Program Requirements, (Ref. 2). collector(s) to record failure and repair data
Although an FMECA may be to a specified level depending on the
important to the contractor’s logistic support requirement and use of the data. The Level
10-4
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-5
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
As stated in par. 10-2, the PA should performance profiles should be defined prior
avoid citing by specification, standard, to the start of the reliability testing program.
handbook, or language “how to” test for For ESS MIL-STD-810,
reliability; however, validation of Environmental Test Methods and
environmental performance might still be Engineering Guidelines, (Ref. 3) describes
specified. The fundamental purposes of the guidelines used to conduct environmental
reliability testing should be to demonstrate engineering tasks and test methods to
compliance with performance requirements determine the effects of natural and induced
and to improve the product. The three environments on air vehicles. Environmental
objectives of reliability testing are typically to testing is conducted to assure that military
disclose deficiencies in item design, material, equipment is designed and tested for
and workmanship; provide measured resistance to the environmental stresses it
reliability data; and determine compliance will encounter during its life. Environmental
with quantitative reliability requirements. stress screening procedures are designed to
Four types of reliability tests are included in be implemented so that early failures due to
two categories. Environmental stress weak parts, workman defects, and other
screening (ESS) and reliability growth test nonconformance anomalies can be identified
(RGT) are reliability engineering tests and removed from the equipment. Also
performed during the development and MIL-STD-810 (Ref. 3) provides test
qualification phase and are designed to methods recommended to duplicate
identify deficiencies and cause correction in numerous types of environmental stresses,
the design process; these tests should be both natural and induced environments.
emphasized. Reliability qualification tests During ESS and early in RGT overstress
(RQT) and production reliability acceptance conditions may be applied to identify
tests (PRAT) are reliability accounting tests deficiencies. However, the final portions of
and, given the emphasis on RGT and ESS, RGT and all of the RQT and PRAT
are limited to those necessary to provide programs should use environmental
reliability data and determine compliance conditions that simulate the operational
with reliability requirements. Tasks environment as closely as possible.
associated with reliability engineering and RGT and RQT are discussed in
accounting tests should be tailored based on subpars. 10-2.5.1 and 10-2.5.2, respectively.
program complexity, needs, and cost and
should include only those tasks that provide 10-2.5.1 Reliability Growth Test (RGT)
maximum return on cost and schedule As defined by MIL-HDBK-189,
investment. Although experience plays a Reliability Growth Management, (Ref. 4),
primary role in task selection, it should be reliability growth is the positive improvement
supplemented by analysis and investigation. in a reliability parameter over a period of
The reliability test program typically time due to changes in product design or the
includes establishing a failure reporting, manufacturing process. RGT is conducted
analysis, and corrective action system to enhance system reliability through the
(FRACAS); developing or selecting analysis identification, analysis, and correction of
and modeling tools; and defining the failures and verification of the effectiveness
equipment to be tested and the number of of the corrective action. MIL-HDBK-781
items to be tested. Test conditions, duty (Ref. 1) describes the elements of RGT.
cycles, and environmental, operational, and Typical application of RGT begins with
10-6
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-7
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-8
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-9
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-10
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-11
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
given period of time when the maintenance is Mean time to repair is also another
performed in accordance with prescribed important element of maintainability. The
procedures and resources. Achievement of MTTR is defined as the elapsed clock times
the required level of maintainability should to repair specific classes of deficiencies
be demonstrated in accordance with the divided by the number of deficiencies.
prime contractor's approved maintainability Difficult, time-consuming repairs that are
plan. frequently required will drive MTTR to
The PA provides the prime excessive values. Assuming that no
contractor with the operational information corrective actions are concurrent,MTTR can
necessary to establish the maintenance and be used to determine TCM indirectly
support concept. This information also according to the following relationship:
provides the basis of the quantitative
maintainability requirements for the OT * MTTR
TCM = = FN * MTTR , h (10-3)
rotorcraft or aircraft. This information MTBF
includes but is not limited to
1. Operating hours per unit calendar where
time FN = number of failures,
2. Operational readiness and mission dimensionless.
success objectives
3. Downtime or availability Improperly trained personnel or personnel
constraints with skill levels that are too low will also
4. Mobility requirements increase MTTR and thus TCM. Therefore,
5. Self-sufficiency constraints MTTR, skills, and training levels of personnel
6. Manpower, skill, and support are maintainability elements that should be
constraints evaluated for aviation systems.
7. Reaction time requirements The maintenance level— unit, direct
8. Operational environment support (DS), general support (GS), or
9. Number and location of depot— responsible for each repair action
operational sites should also be evaluated. Actions that are
10. Number of operational systems incorrectly designated as unit maintenance
per site but require higher skill levels or additional
11. Deployment schedule. support equipment not available in an
The individual elements of maintainability are organization increase MTTR, and there is a
evaluated to determine which detract from corresponding increase in TCM.
operational readiness. Maintenance levels for PA-selected repair
Two such elements are ease of actions are evaluated as part of the
disassembly and ease of assembly. For repair contractor's maintainability program.
actions involving disassembly and Inadequate support equipment used
reassembly, these two elements usually to detect, isolate, and/or diagnose faults also
comprise the main portions of time to repair affect MTTR. Detection of faults that have
TTR. Given appropriately trained personnel not occurred (“false alarms”) increases the
with sufficient skill levels, if disassembly or maintenance burden on the units. Failure to
reassembly is difficult or prone to detect faults that exist can have airworthiness
maintenance error, corrective maintenance impacts since a problem has occurred but has
time (CMT) will be excessive. not been identified by onboard detection and
10-12
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
diagnostic equipment. Isolation or diagnosis possible but should not be used when the
to an ambiguity group (one of several normal procedures could result in extensive
components) increases repair times over the damage to the equipment being tested.
TTR for faults isolated to one component.
Requirements for fault detection, isolation, 10-4.1 PHYSICAL TEARDOWN AND
and diagnosis are established by the PA, and MAINTAINABILITY
the effectiveness of onboard and off-system DEMONSTRATION
diagnostic equipment and suitcase testers
(portable test sets) should be evaluated using Prior to fabrication of airworthy
a PA-approved maintenance task sampling prototypes, mock-ups can provide a means
plan. Relevant information can be found in to evaluate the accessibility of components
MIL-HDBK-471, Maintainability for inspection and maintenance. Physical
Demonstration, (Ref. 5). Faults or simulated teardown of repairable components can also
faults are inserted into the system during the provide valuable maintainability information.
maintainability demonstration to determine Computer-aided engineering (CAE)
whether the test equipment, maintenance substitutes are replacing inert physical mock-
procedures, and maintainer training are ups. Virtual prototypes are capable of a
adequate to detect, isolate, and repair the degree of functional realism that is
fault properly. A failure mode and effects comparable to a physical mock-up. Major
analysis (FMEA) should be applied to the subsystem components, wiring, cables,
functional level at which maintenance is to be tubing, piping, and structural members
performed to determine the failure modes or should be mocked up to demonstrate
faults (open, short, etc.) that result in accessibility. Electronic mock-ups should
occurrence of the maintenance task of allow three-dimensional analysis for physical
interest. Diagnostic procedures, test size, access, and clearances. Necessary
equipment, and repair procedures should be changes identified during this analysis should
demonstrated by military personnel to be incorporated into the production
confirm the adequacy of procedures, configuration.
equipment, and training to achieve the Physical teardown should be
contractual maintainability requirements. performed by the contractor using customer-
Evaluation of maintainability defined facilities, tools, publications, and
elements is performed via statistical analysis parts. The results of this physical teardown
of collected data. Relevant information can should be compared to predicted values, and
be found in MIL-HDBK-470, corrective actions for design, procedures,
Maintainability Program for Systems and tools, or parts are implemented as required
Equipment, (Ref. 6). by the PA.
Maintainability testing should be
conducted under conditions that are as
realistic as possible to the anticipated
environment and conditions for the system
under test. This should include the presence
of spares, tools, test and support equipment,
technical publications, and personnel as
anticipated for fielding. Fault insertions and
simulated failures should be as realistic as
10-13
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-14
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
requirement according to the OMS/MP and include expected failures. The contract
under field support conditions. supplier should not be liable for failures that
are expected but should be held liable for
10-6 WARRANTY failures that exceed the expected. The
A warranty is defined as a promise or benefit from this concept is the initial
affirmation given by a contractor to the contract warranty is provided with little or
purchaser regarding the nature, usefulness, no cost since the Government requires
or condition of the supplies or services remedies only for excessive failures.
furnished under the contract. Warranties are Procurement items adaptable to this concept
acquired in accordance with the statutory include items that use contractor depot or
requirements of 10 USC 2403, Major intermediate contract support for
Weapon Systems: Contractor Guarantees , maintenance.
(Ref. 7) and regulatory requirements of FAR 2. The failure-free concept requires a
46, Quality Assurance, Subpart 7, period of failure-free use. Commercial and
Warranties, (Ref. 8) and DFAR 246, Quality trade practice warranties are examples of this
Assurance, Subpart 7, Warranties, (Ref. 9). concept. Since failures may occur, the cost
AR 700-139, Army Warranty Program of the warranty normally includes the
Concepts and Policies, (Ref. 10) assigns expense of repair or replacement that can be
responsibilities, states acquisition policies, expected during the warranty term. The
defines information requirements, covers failure-free warranty may also be used when
fielding and execution procedures, and the reliability of an item is unknown or
prescribes methods of compliance. unspecified, such as for a nondevelopmental
item.
10-6.1 GENERAL PERFORMANCE Prior to negotiated procurement of
WARRANTY an item warranty, a cost-effectiveness
The purpose of warranties is to analysis is required to determine the value of
provide cost-effective and comprehensive the potential benefits received in comparison
coverage against failures of Government- to the contract cost of the warranty plus the
procured items. Warranty performance cost to the Government for administration
measures are generally based on the number and execution. This analysis is used to
of items that fail to conform to the required determine the value of the benefits, such as
performance standard at the required reduced maintenance or materiel cost, in
duration and the overall cost of the warranty comparison to the cost to the Government
compared to the expected cost of repair plus any readiness-related cost. Additional
without a warranty. Warranty tailoring float quantities required, equipment
protects the Government from the costs and downtime, or other productive time lost
frequency of systemic failures and enacts attributable to the exercise of the warranty
responsive remedies for failures of significant incurs readiness-related costs.
operational impact. General performance Assessments are performed for
warranties frequently use two basic warranties on an in-process and final payoff
concepts: expected failures and failure free. basis. Warranty benefit may differ depending
1. The expected failure concept is on the procurement strategy.
based on the knowledge that the Nondevelopmental items may be well suited
Government procures materiel to the to a warranty program if that is the normal
minimum needs; therefore, any design will procedure used by the manufacturer. On the
10-15
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
other hand, warranties may not be faithfully replicate actual hardware functions,
appropriate for low-cost items designed for arrangements, environments, and procedures
discard. Warranty assessments should be allow safe, effective habit transfer from
used to determine warranty provisions and trainer to air vehicle or support systems and
tasks for follow-on procurements and thereby minimize hardware training time and
competitive resupply of the item or a similar operator or maintainer errors (Ref. 6).
item; and the overall effectiveness of the item These devices also provide a cost-effective
warranty. The assessments also provide and efficient method of providing a capability
guidance to qualifying competitive resupply to train and test the ability to detect,
items. Qualification of warranted items diagnose, and repair failures without risk of
should consider the cost and impact to the damaging the actual system and system
system of a warranted item. Generally, items hardware. Trainers allow the simulation of
with warranties may not require a full situations and conditions that may not be
qualification test, but this is probably not economically or safely trained in any other
appropriate for flight-critical items. way. Such trainers include but are not
limited to synthetic flight trainers (also called
10-6.2 RELIABILITY IMPROVEMENT flight simulators), built-in trainers, intelligent
WARRANTY trainers, and combat evaluation trainers. No
A reliability improvement warranty safety or health hazards are permissible in
(RIW) is a contractual commitment that accordance with AR 602-2, Manpower and
provides the contractor with a financial Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) in the
inducement to improve a system in order to Materiel Acquisition Process, (Ref. 12).
reduce repair or replacement costs and thus
enhance field operational reliability. In an 10-7.1 TRAINING
RIW the contractor may increase profits by Operators and maintainers are
introducing engineering changes that cost required to perform numerous tasks as part
effectively reduce repair or replacement of their duties. However, some of these
costs. The requirements of an RIW usually tasks are identified as critical. DA PAM 71-
include a guarantee of a specified reliability 3, Operational Testing and Evaluation
level, and the contractor is obliged to Methodology, A Procedures Guide, (Ref.
upgrade all existing units at the his expense if 13) identifies the percentage of critical tasks
reliability falls below the specified level. demonstrated as a measure of performance
RIWs are generally applicable to systems (MOP) for training. Using validated
that can provide reasonable cost savings but procedures, the soldier should demonstrate,
do not increase risk of significant mission or attempt to demonstrate, all critical
failures if the reliability improvements cannot maintenance and operator tasks. Individual
be obtained. Reliability measurements and and unit training through the direct support
analysis are conducted as described in par. and general support maintenance level,
10-2. training materiel, devices, and other aids are
addressed. Training tasks that can be
10-7 TRAINING AND TRAINERS accomplished in training devices include but
AR 350-1, Army Training, (Ref. 11) are not limited to flight crew coordination
defines training devices and simulators as and system procedural task training and
tools used to reinforce job performance and individual maintenance procedural training,
to conserve service resources. Trainers that
10-16
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
such as diagnostic, and remove and replace vehicle instead of cockpit procedure trainers
tasks. eliminates the need for the cockpit procedure
RAM factors used to assess training trainers. Also use of the actual air vehicle or
devices and trainers, which include support equipment ensures that layouts,
qualitative reliability requirements, scheduled functions, and procedures are identical to
availability, and maintainability factors, can those for fielded systems. Availability of
be found in MIL-T-23991, Training appropriate stimuli (e.g., simulated or actual
Devices, Military; General Specification for, threat warnings and responses, air vehicle
(Ref. 14). Other subjective measures are systems information, and operator or
addressed in par. 10-9, “MANPRINT”. maintainer actions) is critical to evaluation of
the effectiveness of these trainers.
10-7.2 SYNTHETIC FLIGHT Demonstrations of effectiveness for built-in
TRAINERS (FLIGHT SIMULATORS) trainers should include PA-required stimuli,
The percentage of critical operator systems responses, and operator or
tasks demonstrated is the accepted MOP. maintainer actions.
The primary purposes of synthetic flight Trainer effectiveness should be
trainers are to reduce cost through reduction demonstrated to show that the device is
of the required flight training hours and capable of replicating system functions,
provision for a mechanism to train for displays, and responses and should be tested
emergency flight situations. Since the to ensure the device is capable of being used
synthetic flight trainer is a simulation of to train the required tasks adequately. This
actual flight, these trainers should be type of demonstration and testing should be
subjected to validation, verification, and conducted by military users who are
accreditation (VV&A) mandated by representative of the target audience
Headquarters, Department of the Army intended to use the device. Trainer
(HQDA) policy. Through demonstration of effectiveness of its intended function or
synthetic flight trainer effectiveness in flight functions is the primary prerequisite for
training, operator training effectiveness can qualification of the device for operational
be evaluated using fewer air vehicle and use.
flight hours.
10-7.4 INTELLIGENT TRAINERS
10-7.3 BUILT-IN TRAINER/TRAINING Artificial intelligence and expert
A built-in trainer consists of auxiliary systems used in trainers have primary goals
components added to an air vehicle or of increasing the effectiveness of training and
support system that allow the air vehicle to of reducing operator or maintainer workload.
be used for training when not in use for Expert systems may be as simple as
operational or maintenance functions. The automation of air vehicle maintenance
training is done via actual controls and troubleshooting charts or diagrams or as
displays to enhance the realism of the complex as using subject matter experts
training scenario. Availability of appropriate (SMEs) experiential data to identify the
built-in trainers involves the capability of air course of action with the greatest
vehicles or support equipment to provide expectation of success. This success may be
training to operators and maintainers during in the form of lowest number of man-hours
periods when maintenance or flight or parts cost for maintenance or highest
operations are not occurring. Using the air survivability in a combat or emergency
10-17
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-18
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
be performed to determine the specialized mode for each type of transport vehicle.
materials, tasks, tools, and equipment Typically, these air vehicles might have 1/4
necessary to disassemble, transport, to 3/4 of a tank of fuel. The AC should
reassemble, and check out the air vehicle. define the maximum gross weight and level
The AC should define the means for of disassembly at which the air vehicle
packaging and tying down any assemblies satisfies static load criteria for transport.
and components that must be removed from Maximum allowable time for preparation,
the air vehicle to satisfy transportability packaging, and on-loading should be
criteria. specified in the contract. Also the maximum
Information concerning development allowable time for off-loading and
and shipment of materiel can be found in reassembly should be specified. Time-trial
MIL-STD-1366, Transportability Criteria, demonstrations are typically required for
(Ref. 15) and MTMCTEA Pamphlet 70-1, qualification. The AC should provide the
Transportability for Better Strategic means for packaging and tying down of any
Mobility, (Ref. 16). MIL-STD-1366 also assemblies that must be removed from the air
covers dimensional and weight limitations for vehicle for transport.
all modes of transport, slinging and tie-down 3. Land Transport. MIL-STD-209,
provisions, containerization criteria, Slinging and Tie-Down Provisionsfor
overloads, assembly and disassembly, air Lifting and Tying Down Military Equipment,
delivery, shelter criteria, and transportability (Ref. 18) and MIL-STD-1366 (Ref. 15)
testing. The transportation modes and the provide relevant information for surface
qualification criteria include but are not transportation; however, there are not really
limited to the following: any defined load requirements for surface
1. Self-Deployment (ferry flight). transport. Normally, US Army air vehicles
For qualification the air vehicle should meet are not transported by rail. Also the US
specified requirements for ferrying including Army does not allow highway transport of
the total distance to be ferried, length of the air vehicles on anything but air-ride trailers;
longest leg, and the equipment and personnel no rough terrain transport is allowed. US
required to be carried with the air vehicle. Army air vehicles should be capable of being
Maximum range, including auxiliary fuel hoisted on and off the trailers. Slings, straps,
provisions and aerial refueling capabilities, tie-down fittings, etc., should be provided by
should also be demonstrated. the AC. Spreader bars are undesirable;
2. Aerial Transport. MIL-STD- however, if needed, they should be provided
1791, Designing for Internal AerialDelivery by the AC. Time-trial demonstrations for
in Fixed-Wing Aircraft, (Ref. 17) provides on-loading and off-loading are typically
general design and performance guidance for required for qualification. The AC should
the transport of military equipment in Air both define and provide the means by which
Mobility Command (AMC) cargo aircraft to package and tie down any assemblies that
and long-range international Civil Reserve must be removed from the air vehicle for
Air Fleet (CRAF) aircraft. The contract transport. Highway limitations include the
should specify transportability requirements. physical, legal, and administrative
The air vehicle specification should include characteristics of roadways, bridges, and
the required dimensional envelope, weight other structures. These limitations vary from
and balance limitations, and tie-down state to state in the continental United States
limitations as needed in its transportable
10-19
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-20
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-21
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-22
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
human factors, safety, and elimination of that modern rotorcraft are highly survivable
unnecessary preventive maintenance checks against the kinetic energy hits, moderately
and services. All tasks should be performed survivable against one or two small explosive
at the operator or crew and organizational hits, and minimally survivable against a large
levels (unit) maintenance and selected tasks explosive or single air-to-air or surface-to-air
at the direct support and general support missile hit. Being the most survivable of the
levels. The LD investigates personnel skill threats, kinetic energy hits cause most of the
requirements, adequacy of training programs damage that maintenance personnel will
and materials, and the adequacy of encounter. Some of these projectiles are the
equipment manuals. The LD also armor-piercing incendiary (API) type and
investigates the allocation of tasks to the contain a thermally active nose filler. Upon
appropriate maintenance levels based on impact, this filler is activated as the projectile
personnel skills, maintenance capability, and penetrates the exterior of the target. This
maintenance allocation charts (MAC), fault gives the projectile a fire-starting capability
diagnosis procedures, and testability of in the presence of flammable materials.
equipment and software. The results of the Damage mechanisms for the explosive
LD validate and update LSAR data. threats include fragments, blast,
overpressure, fire, and other secondary
10-11 BATTLE DAMAGE damage. A BDAR program should be
ASSESSMENT AND REPAIR (BDAR) established to provide an expeditious means
New tactical air vehicles are normally of combat damage assessment for deferment
designed to be ballistically survivable on the or repair. The BDAR program should
modern battlefield by incorporating active include special techniques, tools, equipment,
and passive signature reduction and ballistic and procedures to be used by aviation units
tolerance features. A large percentage of under combat conditions. The primary
these air vehicles return from combat function is to provide quick-fix material and
missions with various levels of combat techniques to increase air vehicle availability
damage. Maximum air vehicle availability is under an intense combat environment. The
essential during surge operations; therefore, program should be composed of required
quick assessment and repair of the damage hardware and documentation to provide the
are necessary. To assess damage and capability to inspect, assess, and repair the
determine reusable parts and components, air vehicle. Support documentation includes
some additional tools and equipment are inspection procedures, damage assessment
required, as well as additional training for criteria, serviceability criteria, expedient
aviation unit , direct and general support repair procedures, cannibalization
level maintenance personnel. techniques, and assessment and repair
The types of threats confronting the handbooks. Hardware includes damage
US Army rotorcraft in combat include assessment aids (such as die penetrant kits,
kinetic energy projectiles, explosive micrometers, etc.), repair tools, ground
projectiles, and air-to-air and surface-to-air support equipment, and repair material.
missiles with explosive warheads. In The assessment process includes
addition to the threats the rotorcraft might evaluating the extent of damage sustained
encounter in flight, they are exposed to and determining whether deferment is
damage by bombs and artillery while on the feasible. Scheduled and unscheduled
ground. Threat studies and tests have shown maintenance and minor battle damage,
10-23
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-24
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-25
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
ventilation should be provided in all areas to Surface Treatments and Inorganic Coatings
prevent moisture retention and buildup. Use for Metal Surfaces of Weapons Systems,
of dissimilar metals in contact should be (Ref. 30). Damage to any previously applied
limited to applications in which similar surface treatment or protective finish should
metals cannot be used due to peculiar design be repaired. All parts and assemblies should
requirements. The metals should be be given adequate protection to prevent
protected against galvanic corrosion by corrosion and physical damage during
interposition of a material that reduces the temporary or long-term storage and
overall electrochemical potential of the joint shipment.
or by interposition of an insulating or The contractor should prepare
corrosion-inhibiting material. Information system-peculiar corrosion control procedures
concerning determination of the corrosion that detail the maintenance procedures to be
prevention requirements can be found in used by personnel in the unit, direct and
ADS-13 (Ref. 26). general support, and depot repair levels.
The contractor should ensure that the Maximum use should be made of TM 55-
electronic parts and components in aviation 1500-344-23, Aircraft Weapons Systems
systems are protected from corrosion. Cleaning and Corrosion Control, (Ref. 31)
Relevant information can be found in MIL- and TM 55-1500-343-23, Avionics Cleaning
STD-1250, Corrosion Prevention and and Corrosion Prevention/Control, (Ref. 32)
Deterioration Control in Electronic The procedures should base corrosion
Components and Assemblies, (Ref. 28). inspections on calendar time rather than on
Protective measures should be sufficient to flight hours, identify corrosion-prone areas,
maintain performance characteristics within and establish corrosion limits that require
specified limits both during and after replacement of parts, components, and
exposure to moisture, high and low assemblies.
temperatures, corrosive gases, chemicals, A Government/contractor CPAT
and microbial attack. NAVMAT P 4855-2, should be established to ensure that the goals
Design Guidelines for Prevention and of the corrosion prevention and control
Control of Avionics Corrosion, (Ref. 29) program are achieved. Periodic reviews of
describes some of the characteristics of the the facilities in which parts are fabricated,
corrosive environment in which US Navy processed, assembled, and readied for
avionics systems and equipment are shipment should be held. Discrepancies are
maintained and operated. Design methods documented and submitted to the PA for
used to prevent corrosion on electronic resolution.
equipment include material selection,
coatings, and environmental enclosures. 10-13 STANDARDIZATION AND
Adequate precautions should be INTEROPERABILITY
taken during manufacturing operations to The Joint Chiefs of Staff of the
maintain the integrity of corrosion prevention Department of Defense (DoD) have
measures and to prevent the introduction of established five priority areas for
corrosion or corrosive elements. Surfaces standardization and interoperability. Three
should be adequately cleaned prior to of these areas are primarily applicable to a
application of surface treatments and particular US Army air vehicle system:
coatings. Information concerning cleaning of cross-servicing of air vehicles; ammunition;
surfaces can be found in MIL-S-5002,
10-26
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-27
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
dynamic interface of rotorcraft with the ship Selected US Navy ships possess air-
electromagnetic compatibility and capable ship certification, which signifys that
vulnerability, water intrusion capability, and these ships have been formally inspected and
corrosion control. certified to be able to provide proper,
adequate, and safe aviation facilities and to
10-14.1 SHIP FACILITIES meet the applicable requirements of Air-
NAVAIRENGCEN Report NAEC- Capable Ships Aviation BulletinNumber 1G
ENG-7576, Shipboard Aviation Facilities (Ref. 35). However, without certification
Resume, (Ref. 34) describes the physical for US Army rotorcraft to operate on those
characteristics and available logistics support ships, NWP 42G, Shipboard Helicopter
and services available on various classes of Operating Procedures, (Ref. 36) requires a
US Navy ships. Each group of ships may waiver from the Fleet Commander-in-Chief
have one or more subgroups (guided missile citing specific levels of operation, classes of
frigates (FFG) 456 through 467, for services provided, types of rotorcraft,
example) according to equipment installed. operating procedures, missions, geographic
Landing and vertical replenishment locations, times, etc.
(VERTREP) spot dimensions, clearance, Consequently, formal certification of
deck structure, safety items, and mooring US Army rotorcraft for operation from air-
aids are described. Also included is a matrix capable ships should involve testing to
of available electrical capabilities, petroleum, establish certain specific parameters of
oils, and lubricants, pressurized air, subpar. 10-14.1. Dynamics interface testing,
freshwater, rotorcraft in-flight refueling commonly referred to as shipboard
capabilities, visual landing and navigation compatibility testing, should be conducted to
aids, hangars, and other equipment and establish compatibility and limitations for
facilities necessary to support, service, and shipboard operations. Testing should be
maintain a rotorcraft or other aircraft conducted to determine operating limitations
logistically. Locations for these available for wind speed and direction, ship roll and
services are depicted in platform and profile pitch, and support equipment. Rotorcraft
views of the landing areas. control response and path control accuracy
Limitations on use of available ship during shipboard landings and takeoffs
services for each class of ships should be should be determined and used to established
established. If required by the PA, operating limits. This testing should
limitations should be evaluated by establish the ship wake effects on the
demonstration to determine the impact of rotorcraft, which are used to establish launch
operating US Army air vehicles for extended and recovery limitations and procedures.
periods of time using only facilities and Level I operations involve day and
supplies normally carried onboard the ship. night operations in instrument
Necessary support that must be brought meteorological conditions (IMC), Level II
onboard by the US Army to support the air operations involve day and night operations
vehicle should be identified. Examples are in visual meteorological conditions (VMC),
ground handling equipment, POL not and Level III operations involve day only
common to the US Navy, and rotor blade VMC operations. For each type of Army
racks or folding supports. rotorcraft seeking certification, these
limitations should be established and
10-14.2 DYNAMIC INTERFACE characterized on charts depicting launch and
10-28
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-29
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-30
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-31
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
(OR) rates due to increased the total 10-16 TIE-DOWNS AND MOORINGS
administrative and logistic delay time Discussion of shipboard tie-down
(TALDT). qualification is provided in par. 10-14.
Mobility of ground power units However, additional qualification
should also be evaluated. Strategic mobility requirements exist for the air vehicle. Prior
for air vehicles requires that all necessary to dynamic component qualification test on a
support equipment be equally deployable. ground test vehicle or tied down rotorcraft,
Tactical mobility also requires that support strength of tie-down points and moorings
equipment be movable by unit equipment. should be demonstrated. Qualification of tie-
Strategic or tactical mobility limitations down points for transportability is discussed
should be identified for ground power units. in par. 10-8.
Other qualification requirements
10-15.4 AUTOMATIC TEST involve tie-down points for internal cargo.
EQUIPMENT (ATE) Proper operation of all tie-down fittings and
Air vehicle systems supported by devices should be demonstrated. Using
ATE are considered units under test (UUT). representative demonstration cargoes, the
The purpose of ATE testing is to verify ATE demonstration should be performed in
performance and diagnostic fault isolation on accordance with procedures in the operator's
each UUT to the levels specified. Systems manual. Emphasis should be placed on
should be designed to minimize the accessibility and ease of operation of tie-
requirement for use of external ATE. If down provisions.
ATE is required, the designer should make Provisions for tying down main and
maximum use of existing ATE. Qualification tail rotor blades should be demonstrated. If
of ATE and associated test program sets a main rotor gust lock is provided, it should
(TPS) includes software as well as hardware. be demonstrated under environmental
conditions specified by the PA. If tail or
main landing gear wheel locks are part of the
design, these should also be demonstrated
under the same environmental conditions.
10-32
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
REFERENCES
1. MIL-HDBK-781, Reliability Testing for Engineering Development, Qualification, and
Production, March 1996.
2. MIL-STD-882C, System Safety Program Requirements, 19 January 1993.
3. MIL-STD-810E, Environmental Test Methods and Engineering Guidelines , 31 July 1995.
4. MIL-HDBK-189, Reliability Growth Management, 13 February 1981.
5. MIL-HDBK-471, Maintainability Demonstration, 12 June 1995.
6. MIL-HDBK-470, Maintainability Program for Systems and Equipment , 12 June 1995.
7. 10 USC 2403, Major Weapon Systems: Contractor Guarantees , US Government Printing
Office, Washington, DC, 1995.
8. FAR Part 46, Quality Assurance, Subpart 7, Warranties , US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, 1990.
9. DFAR, Part 246, Quality Assurance, Subpart 7, Warranties , US Government Printing Office,
Washington, DC, 1991.
10. AR 700-139, Army Warranty Program Concepts and Policies , 10 March 1986.
11. AR 350-1, Army Training, 1 August 1981.
12. AR 602-2, Manpower and Personnel Integration (MANPRINT) in the Materiel Acquisition
Process, 19 April 1990.
13. DA PAM 71-3, Operational Testing and Evaluation Methodology, A Procedures Guide , 15
October 1979.
14. MIL-T-23991E, Training Devices, Military, General Specification for, 20 February 1974.
15. MIL-STD-1366, Transportability Criteria, 27 February 1992.
16. MTMCTEA Pamphlet 70-1, Transportability for Better Strategic Mobility , Military Traffic
Management Command Transportation Engineering Agency, Newport News, VA, October
1987.
17. MIL-STD-1791, Designing for Internal Aerial Delivery in Fixed Wing Aircraft , 23 March
1995.
18. MIL-STD-209H, Slinging and Tie-Down Provisions for Lifting and Tying Down Military
Equipment, 28 June 1991.
19. MIL-H-46855, Human Engineering Requirements for Military Systems, Equipment, and
Facilities, 5 April 1984.
20. ADS-30, Human Engineering Requirements for Measurement of Operator Workload , US
Army Aviation Systems Command, St. Louis, MO, 17 November 1986.
21. MIL-STD-1388/1A, Logistic Support Analysis, 28 March 1991.
22. DA PAM 700-50, Integrated Logistic Support: DevelopmentalSupportability Test and
Evaluation Guide, 1 January 1994.
23. AR 750-59, Army Corrosion Prevention and Control Program , 25 August 1988.
24. MIL-STD-1568B, Materials and Processes for Corrosion Prevention and Control in
Aerospace Weapons Systems, 28 February 1989.
25. MIL-F-7179, Finishes, Coatings, andSealants for the Protection of Aerospace Weapons
Systems, 14 April 1993.
26. ADS-13, Air Vehicle Materials and Processes, US Army Aviation Systems Command, St.
Louis, MO, May 1991.
10-33
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-34
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-35
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10-36
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
CHAPTER 11
GOVERNMENT TESTING
This chapter describes the objectives of Government testing. Also, the typical scope of contractor preparation
and delivery of the test articles to Government test sites are described,.
cm centimeters s = seconds
D = actuator t = time the force is
displacement, units applied
F = force applied to the VBG = best glide airspeed,
controller by Kt
= pilot, units Vcruise = velocity for cruise, Kt
m = Vcruise = cruise climb airspeed,
n/rev = cycles per revolution climb Kt
N1 = compressor speed,
rev/min. Vmax = maximum level flight
N2 = power turbine speed, airspeed, Kt
rev/min. VmaxROC = velocity for
Ng = gas producer speed, maximum rate of
rev/min. climb, Kt
Np = power turbine speed, VminROC = velocity for minimum
rev/min. rate of descent, Kt
Pc = probability of VNE = never exceed
classification velocity, Kt
PC/D = probability of class- g = acceleration of
ification given gravity
detection Kt = calibrated airspeed
PD = probability of W/m2 = watts per meter
detection squared
PE = probability of engage ιρθ = phase delay
ment measured in
pE/C = probability of seconds
engagement given ϖβϖφ = bandwidth measured
classification in radians per second
pH/E = probability of hit
given engagement
11-1
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-2
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-3
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-4
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-5
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-6
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-7
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
however, it is not absolutely essential to the Prior to the start of the PAE, a pre-
PAE . Also, the PAE typically does not test review should be held with
result in quantitative performance data unless representatives from the PA, the test activity,
it is considered a very significant part of the the contractor, and any other organizations
evaluation and approved by the PA. The concerned with the program. The purposes
specifics of the conduct of the PAE are of the review are to:
discussed in the following paragraphs. 1. Review the extent to which
reevaluation requirements have been
11-3.1 PAE PREREQUISITE completed.
Prior to the conduct of a PAE by the 2. Review the contractor's
Army, the contractor should demonstrate to recommended flight envelope (this may be a
the PA through flight ground, fatigue, and subset of the approved envelope in the flight
vibration tests and analytical data that, within release).
the allowable flight envelope, the air vehicle 3. Verify the air vehicle
is aerodynamically, structurally, and configuration.
functionally safe for an evaluation by Army 4. Finalize contract support
test pilots. The contractor should configure requirements, coordinate data reduction
the air vehicle as specified by the PA. The requirements, define office space
contractor should furnish such services, requirements, and define other services and
materials, and logistical support necessary to supplies to be provided by the contractor.
keep the air vehicle in satisfactory operation A complete inspection of the air
during the evaluation. Instructions should be vehicle should be performed prior to the
provided on the operation of the equipment, PAE by qualified maintenance and
operating techniques, handling qualities, instrumentation technicians for the test
emergency procedures, and other activity. Representatives of the responsible
information necessary to ensure safe Defense Plant Representative Office (DPRO)
operation. For new air vehicle, sufficient charged with plant cognizance at the
flight instruction should be provided to contractor's facility should participate. The
satisfy test pilot training requirements to purpose of the inspection is to locate and
prepare them for the PAE. correct any safety-of-flight discrepancies in
Prior to start of the PAE, an AWR the test air vehicle.
must be issued by ATCOM to establish the
flight envelope and other operating 11-3.2 FUNCTIONAL TESTS
instructions for the test. The flight release The objectives of the functional tests
should be based upon the determination of are to obtain an early qualitative evaluation
contractor compliance with demonstration of the air vehicle subsystems and equipment
requirements and any appropriate for the purpose of determining specification
information derived by the Army during the compliance and suitability for military
contractor's program. The test activity applications. The scope should include, but
should prepare a detailed test plan based on not be limited to, functional tests of all
the PAE test objectives and specific subsystems and operating equipment in the
objectives defined in the test request test air vehicle (engine, flight controls,
prepared by ATCOM and submitted to the hydraulic, pneumatics, electrical, avionics,
test activity. MEP, allied equipment, and any other
subsystem required by the PA) should be
11-8
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-9
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-3.4 NOVEL CONTROL SYSTEM several controls are integrated into one
EVALUATION control stick, pilot attempts to provide input
Conventional rotorcraft and other in only one axis must be closely monitored to
aircraft controls consist of one control for ensure that no coupled inputs (cross
pitch and roll control, one control for controlling) are inadvertently introduced into
collective pitch (or thrust) control, and one flight testing. An example might be a
set of pedals for directional control per pilot sidearm controller which incorporates
station. These controls have traditionally longitudinal, lateral, and yaw control for
had a direct mechanical linkage to flight rotorcraft into one stick. In attempting to
control actuators through control tubes, check inputs in the longitudinal axis, the
pulleys, bellcranks, and mixing assemblies. pilot's arm and wrist may inadvertently
However, with the advent of fly-by-wire and induce lateral inputs and a yawing moment to
fly-by-light (fiber optic) flight controls, there the air vehicle.
are no direct mechanical linkages by design, Data collection requirements should
and measurement of control displacements or be very similar to mechanical linkage control
forces may not be an accurate method of systems with the exception of control
evaluating pilot control inputs. Further positions. Actuator positions or some other
complicating this arrangement is the alternate means of measuring the
introduction of force-feel controls. With commanded inputs to the control surfaces,
these controls in trimmed flight, a force-feel rotors, and propellers should be determined
control can be displaced and released to by the test activity based on the testing
return to neutral, with the new actuator requirements. In some cases, the effect of a
position being a new control displacement. given force application for a given duration
Generally, the displacement of the actuator may have to be verified. The effect of
will be some function of the force applied doubling a force applied to a controller for
and the duration of the application. the same duration may be more than a
An example of a fly-by-light and doubling of the actuator displacement. The
force-feel control system is the Advanced system could be designed to substantially
Digital Optical Control Systems (ADOCS) increase the rate of actuator displacement for
rotorcraft. For example, in trimmed flight, a force greater than a given threshold. In
the longitudinal control could be held this case, flight test data should include stick
forward for one second, driving the actuator force and actuator position verses time.
to a new position, released and allowed to Instrumentation should also be
return to neutral (no force applied), and the similar to that required for conventional
airspeed changed to a new value with the control systems, with the exceptions of
same longitudinal stick position. In this way, requirements to measure actuator
all graphical plots shown later in this chapter displacements and control forces.
would have the same longitudinal stick
position. However, if actuator position is 11-3.5 TRANSITION FLIGHT
recorded, those positions plotted along the The contractor conducts the initial
vertical axes would more accurately reflect transitional flight tests. The Government test
static and dynamic stability characteristics. activity conducts tests and demonstration
When evaluating novel control necessary to validate flying qualities during
systems, elimination of human error in this the transition operation. The transition flight
flight testing may also become a problem. If regime is where a propulsive force in the
11-10
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-11
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-12
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-13
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
characteristics. Specific tests are included to sideward flight speeds while operating within
determine specification compliance. Tests the defined power-on rotor speed limits.
are conducted at various altitudes and gross Region II applies to all flight conditions
weights to include the maximum and outside Region I with duration greater than
minimum obtainable. Government vibration three seconds, and Region III applies to
testing on aircraft (other than rotorcraft) is Region II flight conditions with duration less
not normally conducted. than three seconds. Region IV applies only
Rotorcraft vibration testing is to tilt rotor air vehicle. However, for tilt
conducted primarily to determine the rotor air vehicles operating in a rotorcraft
magnitude of rotor induced vibration to mode or in transition between rotorcraft and
evaluate the effect on pilot and passenger other aircraft, Regions I, II, and III
comfort, engine/airframe compatibility, requirements may apply, as appropriate.
structural integrity, etc. The source of low- Crew and personnel station vibration
frequency vibrations in the rotorcraft is the criteria for frequencies up to 60 Hz are
rotor. The forces transmitted to the rotor identified in ADS-27 (Ref. 14), as are criteria
hub(s) are primarily at frequencies of once for controls, instrument panels and displays,
per revolution (1/Rev) and which are integral and weapons sighting devices. Additionally,
multiples of the number of rotor blades at the ADS-27 (Ref. 14) identifies the requirement
rotor hub. Consequently, a three-bladed for new air vehicles or air vehicles
rotor would transmit vibrations to the undergoing major modification to
controls and fuselage at multiples of three incorporate onboard rotor vibration
cycles per rotor revolution (3/Rev, 6/Rev, diagnostics systems. Demonstration and
and 9/Rev). Limits for the vibrations at the qualification of this onboard system should
controls, the pilot's station, passenger be accomplished as part of the flight
stations, weapon platform interface, etc., are vibration surveys.
delineated in the specification requirements, The parameters which must be
and are usually expressed as vibration levels recorded for vibration tests include
or intrusion indices. Measurement of these oscillatory accelerations, amplitude and
levels and intrusion indices are covered in frequency, pressure altitude, airspeed, free
ADS 27, Requirements for Rotorcraft air temperature, rotor speed gross weight,
Vibration Specifications. Modeling, and and mass moments of inertia.
Testing (Ref. 14). The magnitude of the vibrations is
Contractor vibration testing is determined primarily by rotor speed and
addressed in par. 9-7. To verify the results balance, airspeed, load factor, mass
of this vibration testing, ADS-27 (Ref. 8) distribution, center of gravity (CG), and
defines four flight regions to be tested for gross weight. The mass distribution is
rotorcraft and tilt rotor air vehicle vibration determined by the configuration, fuel weight
specification compliance. If required by the and location, and cargo or ballast weight and
PA, the testing activity must verify vibration location. The effects of changing the
levels and intrusion indices in these four preceding should be investigated during
regions. flight tests. Vibration levels usually increase
Region I consists of all steady flight as airspeed and load factor are increased.
conditions with load factors between 0.75 The revolutions per minute of the rotor
and 1.25 g and airspeeds from hover to (RPM) affects both the magnitude and
VCruise and to the maximum rearward and frequency of the vibrations. Changing the
11-14
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-15
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
longitudinal stability may be conducted at imply a requirement for more aft control trim
various gross weights, CGs, and position for increased forward airspeed and a
configurations defined by the PA. During more forward trim control position for
this testing, collective (thrust) control is decreased forward speeds. This type of
normally fixed, and longitudinal control control response would not be intuitive to
position is varied about trim points for each most pilots, and would result in increased
combination of gross weight, CG, and workload to maintain speed control. In
configuration. Configurations should be addition, any disturbance from trim which is
varied from minimum fuselage drag ("clean") not compensated for by the pilot results in a
to high drag configurations, and divergent response.
contributions of the stability augmentation Characteristics to be measured may
system (SAS) to static longitudinal stability include indicated or calibrated airspeed,
should be considered. longitudinal control position and force,
Government static longitudinal
stability testing should be primarily
concerned with speed stability and angle of
attack stability. These tests are conducted to
verify that pitching moments about the air
vehicle CG are either stabilizing or
destabilizing forces as a function of airspeed.
Other factors such as wing, tail, and fuselage
contributions and power effects for propeller
driven air vehicles could also have an effect.
However, the test pilot is usually not
concerned with the magnitude of pitching
moments. The primary operational
indications of static longitudinal stability are
forward longitudinal, control force required
to increase speed and aft longitudinal control
force required to decrease speed (positive
stability). The control forces required to
obtain this response may also be variable,
and, at increasing airspeed, a stabilizing
moment produced by the rotor with
increased speed may be overridden by a
destabilizing fuselage pitching moment. If outside air temperature (OAT), rotor speed,
these characteristic are not demonstrated or torque of engine(s), vertical speed, pitch
verified at all test conditions, problems may attitude, pressure altitude, fuel quantity, and
arise in operational use. Fig. 11-2 illustrates fuel flow rate. If force controllers are used
positive static longitudinal stability for longitudinal control, flight control
(negative slope) in both forward flight and at actuator position may need to be recorded
a hover. Unstable longitudinal static stability versus control position. Instrumentation
would be characterized by a positive gradient intervals required resolution and at the
on these plots which would specified in a Government approved test plan
requirements may include oscillograph,
11-16
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-17
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-18
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-19
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
ratios are undesirable since pilots tend to plan. Typical graphical outputs for these
have more trouble controlling roll than yaw. flight tests are shown in Fig. 11-6.
A second factor governing the pilot's
opinion of the air vehicle may be behavior 11-4.9 TRANSITION FLIGHT
following a lateral control input. Initial roll For multi-mode air vehicles which
acceleration, maximum roll acceleration, final can transition from vertical take-off and
steady-state roll rate, and the time required landing (VTOL) or vertical/short take-off
to achieve a steady-state roll rate all and landing (V/STOL) (primarily rotorcraft)
influence the pilot's opinion of the air vehicle. modes to other type aircraft modes, the
Roll declarations required to stabilize at a Government test activity may conduct tests
bank angle are also an important concern. and demonstrations necessary to verify or
After obtaining the desired bank demonstrate flying qualities during the
angle through a roll acceleration/deceleration transition operations. Other multi-mode air
doublet, the pilot's opinion is greatly vehicles may include compound rotorcraft
influenced by the trim holding characteristics which have both main rotor systems and
of the air vehicle. Three things can occur propellers to provide thrust and/or main
when trimmed flight is disturbed in a turn. rotor systems and wings to provide lift.
The air vehicle may return to trim, it may In some cases, two or more possible
stabilize at a new bank angle, or the bank flight modes may be possible at the same
angle may diverge further from the trim conditions. An example could be flight at 90
angle (an unstable condition). knots and maximum gross weight which may
If any of these oscillations are be possible with tilt-rotor engine
significant, pilot compensation during tasks nacelles/thrust vectors in the VTOL mode
such as instrument meteorological condition (zero degrees inclination to the vertical
(IMC) flight may be excessive. ADS 33D- plane), in the fixed wing mode (90 degrees
PRF (Ref. 10) contains criteria for evaluation inclination), or any inclination between those
of these handling qualities in normal flight values. Another example might be the
conditions and in terms of degraded visual reduction of lift requirements of the main
cue environment. rotor at high speeds caused by compound
Characteristics to be measured rotorcraft variable or fixed wing angles of
include indicated airspeed; pressure altitude; attack.
OAT; fuel weight; rotor speed; engine The purpose and scope of A&FC
torque; collective (thrust) control position; flight testing in the transition flight mode is
longitudinal, lateral, and directional control to determine operational and service flight
displacement and force; sideslip and bank envelopes for each mode. In some cases,
angles; normal acceleration at pilot's station airspeed may not be sufficient for continued
and CG; rate of climb or descent in turns; level flight with a tilt-rotor air vehicle in the
pitch, roll, and yaw rates and attitudes; and fixed wing mode, while in other cases
time. Instrumentation requirements may (especially high gross weights), in-ground
include oscillograph, magnetic tape, or effect (IGE) or out-of-ground-effect (OGE)
computerized data acquisition interfaces hover may not be possible. At lower
necessary to record these characteristics with airspeeds, compound rotorcraft wing
the required resolution and at the specified surfaces may not be capable of providing
intervals in a Government approved test sufficient lift for level flight.
11-20
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-21
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-22
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-23
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Research, Development, Test and required climatic design type and operational
Evaluation of Materiel for Extreme Climatic conditions specified in
Conditions (Ref. 16), contains guidance for AR 70-38 (Ref. 16) for which the materiel
determining climatic conditions in the was designed. The engineering tests are
research, development, test, and evaluation conducted to identify design and operational
of materiel (such as air vehicle systems and deficiencies. Chapter 9 contains information
aviation materiel) used in combat. Air on climatic laboratory tests usually
vehicle systems developed by the Army performed by the contractor. Following the
should be designed to operate in specified engineering tests, and correction of
climatic design types as shown in TABLE deficiencies, developmental testing by
11-1. Climatic tests should be performed TECOM should be conducted under natural
under simulated conditions in a laboratory environmental climatic conditions at the
environment (engineering tests) for the
Operational Conditions Storage and Transit
Conditions
Climatic Daily Cycle Ambient Air Solar Ambient Induced Air Induced
Design (QSTAG 360 Temperature Radiation Relative Temperature Relative
o
Type Equivalents)* C W/m2 Humidity o
C Humidity
(oF) (Bph) % (oF) %
Hot-Dry 32 to 49 0 to 1120 3 to 8 33 to 71 1 to 7
(A1) (90 to 120) (0 to 355) (91 to 160)
Hot
Hot-Humid 31 to 41 0 to 1080 59 to 88 33 to 71 14 to 80
(B3) (88 to 105) (0 to 343) (91 to 160)
Variable
High 26 to 35 0 to 970 74 to 100 30 to 63 19 to 75
Humidity (78 to 95) (0 to 307) (86 to 145)
Basic (B2)
*Designations in parentheses (A1, A2, B1, B2, B3, C1, C2, and C3) refer to corresponding climatic categories in
Quadripartite Standardization Agreement 360 Climatic Environmental Conditions Affecting the Design of Military Materiel.
11-24
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-25
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-26
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
electrical and functional parameters, such as angles and velocities and 100 percent lift. In
current, torque, and temperatures, and this way, several recordings of increasingly
pressure transducers for monitoring transient more severe crash data can be made before
fluid and blast pressures. damage occurs. In this way, an estimate of
survivable crash accelerations and velocities
11-6.2 CRASHWORTHINESS can be made, and the data can be
Contractor testing to determine fuel incorporated into the operator's manual.
system and crew station crashworthiness and
to perform landing gear drop tests is covered 11-6.3 SPECIAL
in subpars. 8-3.5, 8-11.3, and 8-6.1, ELECTROMAGNETIC
respectively. However, total INTERFERENCE (SEMI)
crashworthiness of the system depends upon SEMI involves the possible
the likelihood that crew or occupants will electromagnetic countermeasures that might
either be subjected to acceleration forces in capitalize on vulnerabilities. While SEMI is
excess of human tolerance or be susceptible not a part of ADS 37A-PRF
to injury by objects invading their stations. Electromagnetic Environmental Effects
Such objects may be either static (E3). Performance and Verification
components displaced by impact or dynamic Requirements, (Ref. 18), it might avail itself
components which have been broken loose of some of the information generated as a
upon impact. If required by the PA, result of ADS 37A-PRF testing. As such,
Government testing may involve subjecting a SEMI testing might be more appropriately
complete air vehicle or representative included with electronic warfare (EW)
fuselage to impacts under various conditions. testing.
These conditions may include, but not be
limited to, various rates of descent, impact 11-6.4 ELECTRONIC WARFARE
angles relative to the fuselage, and Government testing of EW
percentages of lifting forces applied. Due to capabilities for air vehicles may include an
the possible danger of such tests, these evaluation of electronic countermeasures
impacts should not be staged with human (ECM), and testing of electronic counter-
subjects. The testing should be countermeasures (ECCM) capabilities.
accomplished with instrumented, Typically, it might involve effectiveness
anatomically similar crash "dummies" testing of the air vehicle and mission
capable of measuring accelerations, forces at equipment for self defense. However, it
critical parts of the body, and movement of could also involve effectiveness testing of the
limbs in the simulated crash. Landing gear, air vehicle, target acquisition equipment, and
critical structural members, and crashworthy weapons as a total system. These
seating may also be instrumented to record evaluations are similar to the contractor
displacements and stresses during the crash evaluations of par. 9-14. Analyses and
sequence, allowing an estimate of the energy testing might be performed to determine:
attenuation properties of the landing gear 1. Probability of detection (PD) by a
and supports, fuselage, and seating. Video particular threat at the specified range
recording of the cockpit and cabin interior 2. Probability of classification given
during the crash sequence is also desirable. detection (PC/D) by the threat as correct type
To conserve test articles, testing of target
should begin conservatively at lower impact
11-27
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-28
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
would be PC/D, PE/C, and, possibly, an parameters, determine if the system is ready
analytical determination of PH/E without use to enter the next acquisition phase, and to
of ASE. Threat systems or threat simulators determine how safe the system is for
may be used to establish the baseline operation by user troops and civilians. Much
characteristics and to perform effectiveness of the information upon which independent
testing. evaluations and assessments are based
Once the baseline characteristics are consists of data generated during testing.
established, the Government may repeat The AR 73-1 (Ref. 1) requires
required flights and testing necessary to implementation of a continuous evaluation
determine the reduction in susceptibility or process in order to streamline development
vulnerability (increase in survivability) due to and to minimize the requirement for
the use of ASE. Any limitations, such as duplicate Government tests. Broader
electrical power, maneuvering, or range, objectives of DT are:
brought about by use of ASE should be 1. Assist the engineering design and
verified during this testing. development process
2. Verify performance objectives and
11-7 ELECTROMAGNETIC specifications
ENVIRONMENTAL EFFECTS 3. Demonstrate that design risks
Other tests that are conducted by the have been minimized
Government at Government test facilities 4. Estimate the system's military
with contractor support are utility when introduced
1. Electromagnetic vulnerability 5. Evaluate the compatibility and
(EMV) interoperability with existing or planned
2. Hazards of electromagnetic equipment and systems
radiation to ordnance (HERO) 6. Provide an assurance that the
3. Electromagnetic radiation hazard system and equipment are ready for testing in
(EMRH) the operational environment.
4. Streamering and included effects
lightning 11-9 OPERATIONAL TESTS (OT)
5. Static electricity Operational testing involves
6. Emission control (EMCON). estimation of the operational effectiveness
Performance and verification and suitability of a new air vehicle for use.
requirements are discussed in ADS 37A-PRF Operational testing can be conducted before
(Ref. 18). Also, the facilities of the US full scale development (FSD) as an early
Army Test and Evaluation Command needed operational assessment (EOA), during FSD
for these tests are described in DA PAM 73- as part of operational test and evaluation
series (Ref. 2). The Government has the test (OT&E), or after deployment as a part of
facilities and contractors generally do not. follow-on test and evaluation (FOT&E).
The following paragraphs describe the two
11-8 DEVELOPMENTAL TESTS (DT) critical areas of operational testing; issues
The DT is performed in controlled and objectives, and resources and test
environments by specially trained individuals conduct and reporting requirements.
to assess the adequacy of the system design,
to determine compliance with system 11-9.1 ISSUES AND OBJECTIVES
specifications and critical technical
11-29
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-30
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-31
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Government software T&E is concerned The IPT should include representatives from
with the test activities of all life cycle phases each of the following: Air vehicle contractor,
of the software portions of weapon systems MATDEV command, combat developer
computer resources (WSCR). Because each command, each test and evaluation command
logical element of embedded software cannot and the designated life cycle engineering
be tested at a system, subsystem, hardware center (LCSEC). The organizations and
configuration item (HWCI) or possibly even their IPT software test related roles are
computer software configuration item described below:
(CSCI) level, testing should occur during 1. The air vehicle contractor as the
every phase of a development to maximize developer of computer hardware and
thoroughness and eventual reliability. The software is responsible for design,
Government's level of involvement in each of development, test, and evaluation.
these various test phases is dependent upon: 2. The materiel developer is the
1. Criticality (flight safety versus command or program, project, or product
mission essential versus non-essential) management (PM) office which has overall
2. Complexity (design and program and management responsibility for
algorithms) the execution of the software development,
3. Platforms (embedded avionics testing, and fielding. With assistance from
versus automated test equipment) associate members, the MATDEV is
4. The nature of the software's use responsible for ensuring that adequate testing
(application and frequency) is performed on the software while also
5. Available resources (primarily striving to reduce T&E costs and shorten
manpower). test schedules to the maximum extent
possible. This should be accomplished by
11-11.1 INTEGRATED PRODUCT integrating test requirements, eliminating test
TEAM (IPT) - SOFTWARE redundancy, and early identification of
The IPTs are an integral part of the potential problem areas in the software
defense acquisition oversight and review during the T&E program. MATDEV
process. For additional information see command matrix support organizations may
DoDR 5000.2-R, Mandatory Procedures for provide support to the IPT on behalf of the
Major Defense Acquisition Programs MATDEV.
(MDAPs) and Major Automated Information 3. The combat developer
System (MAIS) Acquisition Programs,(Ref. ( CBTDEV) represents the user and trainer
4). Software is an important consideration in the preparation of system level
for these teams. The Working Level IPTs requirements and critical operational issues
(WIPTs) typically will meet as required by and criteria (COICs). The principal
the program, project, or product CBTDEV function relative to testing is to
management office (PM) to help the PM plan ensure that changes to software requirements
program structure and documentation and due to test phase activities do not adversely
resolve issues. The IPT should provide a impact user doctrine, tactics, or other system
forum for review and resolution of issues level requirements.
impacting the acquisition, development, and 4. The testers and evaluators are the
support of the weapons system. These representatives from the commands
issues should include; but, not be limited to providing the technical testers who review
include, computer hardware and software. and verify contractor and Government test
11-32
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
plans, technical independent evaluators who CSCIs and can occur on any of the following
prepare independent evaluation plans and hosts:
reports, operational testers who assist in the 1. Developers desktop or
identification and elimination of redundant workstation
testing and are responsible for the 2. Test benches
preparation of test evaluation plans and the 3. System integration facilities.
conduct of operational tests and reporting Informal testing comes with a
their results, and operational independent multitude of "built-in" evaluators because
evaluators who assist in problem integration of software also requires the
identification and redundant tests interaction of software developers. This
elimination. interaction of software developers during the
5. The designated LCSEC is the integration phase provides an early
software engineering center appointed to be evaluation of system software
responsible for computer resources implementation. Integration forces
development and support of the system to be developers to continually review and
procured. The principal IPT functions of the evaluate their own products as well as those
LCSEC relative to testing are to ensure that of others with whom their products must
test policies, standards and methodologies integrate. The degree of evaluation varies
are contractually adapted and adhered to in from evaluating the lines of code to verifying
order to ensure procurement of high quality, system performance at the air vehicle level.
supportable software products and Rarely is it desirable for the Government to
documentation. contract for detailed data and reports from
these informal test activities and evaluations.
11-11.2 CONTRACTOR SOFTWARE Formal testing is defined as tests
QUALIFICATION TESTS which are conducted in accordance with test
An open systems approach should be plans and procedures and witnessed by an
followed for all system elements (mechanical, authorized PA representative.
electrical, and software, etc.) in developing A brief synopsis of the various test
systems. This approach is a business and phases follows.
engineering strategy to choose specifications 1. Computer software unit (CSU)
and standards adopted by industry standards tests. CSU tests are informal tests for which
bodies or defacto standards (set up by the procedures and results are documented in
market place) for selected system interfaces contractor CSU software development
(functional and physical, products, practices folders (SDFs). Resultant changes to the
and tools; however, contractor qualification code, documentation and retesting results
of software typically involves a structured should be updated in the CSU SDFs. Each
series of informal and formal tests conducted decision branch of the software logic should
throughout the development. The DoD- be correctly exercised at least once for each
STD-498 (Ref. 5) contains relevant possible outcome.
information; however, this standard may not 2. Computer software component
be specified as a requirement without a (CSC) tests. CSC tests are informal tests of
waiver. integrated CSUs for which the procedures
Informal tests range from individual and results are documented in contractor
developer tests through build release tests of CSC SDFs. These tests should additionally
stress the limits of the code. Resultant
11-33
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
11-34
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-35
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
module which may be separate components and some pressure transducers and
or combined as one or more units. These accelerometers) are used, wiring lengths can
components together constitute a system that introduce error. These errors are calculated
should be calibrated. The transducer and corrections applied or they are
converts the parameter (speed, position, eliminated by a system calibration.
angle, rate, acceleration, temperature, RPM, Pitot static calibration is required to
flow, frequency, etc.) to a recordable signal be performed early in the flight test program
such as a voltage or digital output. These to determine the position error of the system
components should be calibrated as a system and to establish the accuracy of airspeed and
on the aircraft, with the signals recorded by altitude data for all flight conditions to be
the air vehicle recording system, and the tested. Several methods may be used to
recorded data decomutated and scaled by the calibrate the pitot static system, to include
data processing system that should be used ground speed courses, and calibrated
for processing final data. Calibrations are "trailing bomb" devices. Trailing bombs are
accomplished as required based on the devices which have their own pitot and static
calibration history of each parameter. ports, and have been calibrated in a wind
Digital recording techniques should tunnel. This calibrated device is then
be used to prevent measurement accuracy connected to the air vehicle using cables and
degradation during data recovery. Other FM tubing and flown at varying airspeeds. The
modes, such as narrow band, constant band, test air vehicle pitot-static data is then
and wide band can be used for cases where corrected to the results provided by the
time phasing or very high frequencies are "trailing bomb." The pitot static system
important. Multiplex or fiber optic databus calibration may also be conducted in
data are also used for flight test formation flight using another air vehicle
instrumentation. Early in the development with predetermined and known position
process, flight test instrumentation is used to error corrections.
establish the accuracy of the bus data. The instrumentation calibration data
Data sampling is another accuracy are expressed as slope intercepts, table
consideration. Simultaneous sampling of all lookups, or a curve fit and applied to the
parameters is desirable goal but usually does flight test recorded data.
not exist. If a time phase relationship exists
between parameters presented in a time Bibliography
history tabulation (or plot) or in a multi- None
measurement calculation, the accuracy
obtained in the individual parameters can be
lost.
Records of all component and system
calibrations should be maintained in a
database and comparisons made to prior
calibrations. Calibration at several
temperatures or at the expected transducer
operating temperature may be required in
some cases because temperature is often the
major factor in measurement error. When
strain gage or bridge type transducers (loads
11-36
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
REFERENCES
1. Department of Defense Regulation DoDR 5000.1, Defense Acquisition, 15 March 1996.
2. Army Regulation (AR) 73-1, Test and Evaluation Policy,27 February 1995.
3. Department of the Army (DA) Pamphlet (PAM) 73-1 through -8, Test and Evaluation
Guidelines, Draft dated 1996.
4. DoD Regulation (DoDR) 5000.2-R, Mandatory Procedures for Major Defense Acquisition
Programs (MDAPs) and Major Automated Information System (MAIS) Acquisition Programs,
15 March 1996
6. 14CFR Part 23, Airworthiness Standards: Normal Utility Acrobatic. and Commuter
Category Airplanes, Government Printing Office, Washington, DC, 1994.
10. Aeronautical Design Standard (ADS) 33D-PRF, Handling Qualities Requirements for
Military Rotorcraft, US Army Aviation Systems Command, St. Louis, MO, 10 May 1996.
14. ADS 27, Requirements for Rotorcraft Vibration Specifications. Modeling, and Testing,
US
Army Aviation and Troop Command, St. Louis, MO, June 1993.
15. MIL-STD-210, Climatic Information to Determine Design and Test Requirements for
Military Systems and Equipment, 9 January 1987.
11-37
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
16. AR 70-38, Research, Development Test and Evaluation of Materiel for Extreme Climatic
Conditions, 1 August 1979.
17. ADS 11, Survivability Program Rotary Wing, US Army Aviation Systems Command, St.
Louis, MO, May 1987.
18. ADS 37A-PRF, Electromagnetic Environmental Effects (E3). Performance and Verification
Requirements, US Army Aviation and Troop Command, St. Louis, MO, 28 May 1996.
11-38
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-39
15 Aug 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
FM = frequency modulation
FOE = follow-on evaluation
FOT = follow-on test
FOT&E = follow-on test and evaluation
FSD = full scale development
FSE flight simulator evaluation
g = normal acceleration
HERO = hazards of electromagnetic radiation to ordnance
HWCI = hardware configuration item
I&T = integration and test
IGE = in-ground effect
IMC = instrument meteorological conditions
IOT = initial operational test
IPT = integrated product team
IR = infrared
IV&V = independent verification and validation
KIAS = knots indicated airspeed
LCSEC = life cycle software engineering center
LCSS = life cycle software support
LFT = live fire test
LRIP = low rate initial production
LTF = lead-the-fleet
MAA = mission area analysis
MATDEV = materiel developer
MDS = model, design, and series
MEP = mission equipment package
MER = memorandum of effort report
MET = mission task element
MJWG = manprint joint working group
MIL-STD = military standard
NBC = nuclear, biological, and chemical
OAT = outside air temperature
OEI = one engine inoperative
OFE = operational flight envelope
OGE = out-of-ground effect
OIPT = overarching integrated product team
OT operational test
OT&E = operational test and evaluation
PA = procuring activity
PAE = preliminary army evaluation
PCM = pulse code modulation
PDSS = post-deployment software support
RAM = reliability, availability, and maintainability
REV = revolution
RF = radio frequency
11-40
15 Aug 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
11-41
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX A
THE ELEMENTS OF AN AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION PLAN (AQP)
A-1 INTRODUCTION
AR 70-62, Airworthiness Qualification of US Army Aircraft Systems , (Ref. 1)
assigns approval authority for airworthiness of standard and nonstandard Army air
vehicles to the Commanding General (CG), US Army Aviation and Troop Command
(ATCOM), for all air vehicles and modifications for which ATCOM has engineering
cognizance. Air vehicles classified as nonstandard by the Army are normally acquired
from other services and federal agencies. Included in this responsibility is the requirement
to develop, implement, and maintain a coordinated program for airworthiness qualification
of air vehicle systems, subsystems, and allied equipment. Subsystems and allied equipment
are defined in AR 70-62 (Ref. 1). AR 70-62 also states that the individual air vehicle or
developmental program, project, product manager's office (PMO) is responsible for
funding airworthiness qualification efforts and ensuring that the airworthiness of the air
vehicle system has been determined. One of the elements of a coordinated airworthiness
qualification program is the airworthiness qualification plan (AQP). Either an AQP or
fully coordinated statement of work should be
required for every acquisition involving qualification. The statement of work should
satisfy the same objectives as an AQP. The AQP should convert the general requirements
of the operational requirements document (ORD) and acquisition policy into performance
and effectiveness criteria. Also, air vehicle design criteria, performance, and limitations to
be substantiated for airworthiness qualification should be defined. Objectively, the AQP
should not only define means for determining if an air vehicle is airworthy but should also
define the means for determining if it will satisfy user required functions and necessary
operational capabilities. Survivability and mission performance are major components of
the effectiveness of a system. Guidelines for test and evaluation may be found in
Department of the Army (DA) Pamphlet (PAM) 73-series, Test and Evaluation
Guidelines, (Ref. 2). In the larger sense, the AQP should define what is required, when
required, where required, who will do it, and how. The need for targets and threat
simulators should be defined within this plan. The AQP should be prepared by their
respective air vehicle or developmental PMO. Engineering personnel within the PMO
should prepare this plan in coordination with functional offices within the ATCOM, US
Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC), and other program managers, as
applicable. The completed plan can be used in a request for proposal (RFP), request for
quotation (RFQ), or included as an addendum to a statement of work (SOW), all for use
by the air vehicle contractor (AC) in preparing an airworthiness qualification specification
(AQS) and related data as contract deliverables. Depending on the type of program
involved (full development or modification of existing air vehicle), the AQP should fulfill
its purpose of delineating minimum requirements necessary to verify that the air vehicle
and its components are qualified for use during developmental or operational test, or in
operational aviation units. Contents of the AQP will be discussed in the following
paragraphs.
A-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
A-2.1 SCOPE∗
The Scope of the AQP should identify:
1. Required reviews
2. Performance based requirements
3. System safety tasks - information pursuant to this purpose may be found in
MIL-STD-882, System Safety Program Requirements(Ref. 3)
4. Analysis, modeling, test, survey, and demonstration tasks
5. Mock-up and simulation requirements
6. Procurement, material, and process specification requirements
and qualification
8. Functional, structural, environmental, endurance, bench, and survivability tests
9. Provisions for qualification by similarity
10. Software verification and validation (V&V)
11. RAM tests and demonstrations
12. Integrated logistic support (ILS) V&V.
13. Government test. Responsibilities for accomplishment, surveillance or test
witnessing, and support for each task should be established in this paragraph.
A-2.2 REFERENCES
For modification programs involving a limited number of components, required
specifications, standards, and other references may be cited in this paragraph. For major
modification or developmental programs, each paragraph of the AQP should cite
applicable specifications, standards, and data submittal requirements, or the requirement
for the contractor to develop (and submit for approval) process specifications.
Appropriate paragraphs of this handbook should be cited as necessary to further define
qualification requirements.
∗
The underlined portion of the paragraph number and title identifies the paragraph number
and title in the AQP.
A-2
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
The minimum requirements for numbers and types of test articles should be
identified. Prequalification and qualification of test articles, (which include but are not
limited to components, subsystems, ground test vehicles, and complete air vehicle), should
be specified in sufficient detail to allow the AC to use this information to develop an AQS
and a master test schedule.
Bibliography
None
A-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
CG = commanding general
DT = development test
OT = operation test
PA = procuring activity
PAM = pamphlet
A-4
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
REFERENCES
A-5
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
APPENDIX B
THE ELEMENTS OF AN AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION SPECIFICATION
(AQS) AND THEIR CONTENTS
B-1 INTRODUCTION
The airworthiness qualification specification (AQS) should be prepared by the air
vehicle contractor (AC) in response to the requirements established by the procuring
activity (PA) in the airworthiness qualification plan (AQP) and the contracts data
requirements list (CDRL). The PA should require that the AC prepare for its approval an
airworthiness qualification specification (AQS) for each air vehicle and system that
requires qualification or requalification because of major modifications. The AQS should
identify the means (reviews, analyses, tests, modeling, and demonstrations), performance,
and effectiveness criteria needed to validate compliance with the system specification and
airworthiness qualification plan. This should include contractor conducted tests with
Government surveillance, and also Government conducted tests with contractor support
and surveillance. Facilities, targets, and simulators should be identified in the AQS. Pass-
fail criteria should be identified by the AC and approved by the PA. A compliance matrix
is typically required as part of the AQS.
The minimum scope of the AQS should satisfy all requirements of the
AQP but should not necessarily be limited to requirements in the AQP. ACs may propose
additional tests, surveys, reviews, and demonstrations deemed necessary to ensure
qualification of the modification or development program.
For modifications involving few components or subsystems, the scope of the
airworthiness qualification specification (AQS) should be limited to only those systems
modified and those related components and subsystems that are affected by modifications
and should be subjected to qualification. Modification programs that involve many
components or development programs may require an AQS that essentially involves all
areas covered by this handbook.
For such extensive modifications or developments, all major elements of an AQS
are described in paragraph B-3. The use of distribution statements as provided for in
Department of Defense Directive Number 5230.24, Distribution Statements on Technical
Documents, (Ref. 1) should be considered for use on sensitive technical information.
B-1
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
B-3.1 SCOPE∗
This element of the AQS should identify the system being modified or under
development, and all variants of that system covered by this AQS. Variants may include
models with common dynamic components, but different crew, cargo, and mission
equipment package (MEP) configurations, and coproduction versions of the air vehicle .
The purpose of the AQS is to define the approach which will be used by the air
vehicle contractor (AC) to satisfy the requirements of the airworthiness qualification plan
(AQP), described in Appendix A. The minimum scope of the AQS should satisfy all
requirements of the AQP, but should not necessarily be limited to requirements of
the AQP. ACs may propose additional tests, surveys, reviews, and demonstrations
deemed necessary to ensure qualification of the modification or developmental program.
Essential elements of the AQS include:
1. System Safety
2. Design Review and Release of Drawings
3. Mock-ups
4. Procurement and Process Specifications
5. Component Tests
6. System Surveys
7. Formal Contractor Demonstrations. Together, these elements should form the
minimum effort which the AC should expend to ensure that the system developed or
modified is qualified for its intended mission, operational, and maintenance environment.
Acquisition cycle phases to which the AQS applies should be identified, as well as
the end product of the qualification program (prototype air vehicle or low rate initial
production [LRIP] modified air vehicle). If publication of an AQSR for the end product
will result from satisfaction of this AQS, that fact should be noted.
∗
The underlined portion of the paragraph number and title identifies the paragraph number
and title in the AQP.
B-2
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
B-3
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
this tree should allow the documents listed in TABLES 4-1 and 4-2 to be related to each
system, subsystem, equipment, assembly, and component, and ensure that each
specification adequately defines the actual minimum needs of the Government.
References should be listed by document numbers and titles, and may include
specific issues or revision numbers where necessary to rigidly control configuration or
implementation. Within the text of the AQS, tailoring or modification of requirements of
the referenced documents should be identified. The entire referenced document should
not be made applicable by reference unless all of its provisions are clearly required.
B-3.3 DEFINITIONS
The inclusion of definitions for terms or phrases can be avoided if requirements are
properly stated. If terms must be defined in the AQS, relevant information can be found in
MIL-STD-961, Standard Practice for Defense Specification,(Ref. 5).
If appropriate, a definition of the system or functional areas, and functional and physical
interfaces, include logic, block, and schematic diagrams, and contain pertinent
configuration item undergoing airworthiness qualification should be included in this
element of the AQS in the form of a brief description. This definition should identify
major physical parts, organizational, operational, and logistics considerations and
concepts. If multiple common definition terms are used (future attack rotorcraft [FAR]
and Federal Acquisition Regulation [FAR], for example, are used, the applicability and use
of these terms should be clearly identified, and the terms defined.
B-4
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
detailed scheduling and planning of program reviews. Program events, such as milestone
decision points, first flight of prototypes, and gunfire testing, should be considered in
scheduling these reviews. Agendas, topics for discussion, approval processes, and minutes
for each review should be as specified by the PA in the Contract Data Requirements List
(CDRL), DD Form 1423, and supported by Data Item Descriptions (DIDs), DD Form
1664.
Chapter 4 contains more detailed information on the types and purposes of
reviews.
B-3.5.1 MODELING
Based on PA requirements, the AC should define in the AQS models which should
be used to verify airworthiness qualification. The contractor should also define his
B-5
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
B-6
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
B-7
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
TABLE B-1
COMPONENT MATRIX
QUALIFICATION COMPONENT TYPES
TEST TYPE
STRUCTURAL ELECTROMECHANICAL HYDROMECHANICAL
Rotor Drive Castings Crew Generator/ Fuel Oil Cooler Landing Gear Flight Landing Gear
Blades Shafts Seat Alternator Boost Fan Oleo Strut Control Retraction
s s Pumps Actuator Cylinder
Functional 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Structural 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
Endurance & 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
Screening
Environmental 2 2 2
Functional 2 2 2 1 1 2 2 2
Structural 1 1 1
Endurance 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
& Screening
Environmental 2 2 2 2
B-8
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
B-9
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
AR 73-1, Test and Evaluation Policy, (Ref. 9) provides for the air vehicle program
manager (PM) to form and chair a TIWG for programs involving test and evaluation
(T&E) for undemonstrated requirements. For fielded air vehicles subject to minor
modifications, the TIWG may not be required.
The TIWG serves to implement T&E coordination and solve routine T&E
problems. This element of the AQS should detail contractor participation in, and
proposed areas for consideration by, the TIWG. Airworthiness qualification areas which
have significant risk should be identified in this element.
B-10
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
APPENDIX B
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATION
AC = air vehicle contractor
APU = auxiliary power unit
AQP = airworthiness qualification plan
AQS = airworthiness qualification specification
AQSR = airworthiness qualification substantiation report
AR = army regulation
AQS = airworthiness specification
CDRL = contract data requirements list
COTS = commercial off-the-shelf
CSCIs = computer software configuration items
DIDs = data item descriptions
E3 = electromagnetic environmental effects
FAA = federal aviation administration
FAR = federal acquisition regulation
FSP = flight safety parts
LRIP = low rate initial production
MEP = mission equipment package
NDI = nondevelopment items
OT = operating time
PA = procuring activity
PM = program manager
RAM = reliability, availability, maintainability
RFQ/RFP = request for quote/request for proposal
SEMP = systems engineering management plan
SSP = system safety program
ST = standby time
T&E = test and evaluation
TALDT = total administrative and logistics delay time
TCM = total corrective maintenance downtime
TIWG = text integration working group
TPM = total preventive maintenance downtown
B-11
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
REFERENCES
1. DoDD 5230.24, Distribution Statements on Technical Documents,
18 March 1987
B-12
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX C
ELEMENTS OF A CONTRACTOR FLIGHT RELEASE (CFR)
C-1 INTRODUCTION
AR 95-20, Contractor's Flight and Ground Operations , (Ref. 1) establishes
requirements for all ground and flight operations by contractors using Government air
vehicles for which the Government has assumed some of the risk. AR 95-20 also
identifies approving authorities for contractor operations.
The US Army Aviation and Troop Command (ATCOM) has airworthiness
authority for all air vehicles for which it has engineering cognizance. The scope of this
authority is provided in Army Regulation (AR) 70-62, Airworthiness Qualification of US
Army Aircraft Systems, (Ref. 2). ATCOM signifies acceptance of airworthiness
responsibility by issuing a contractor flight release (CFR), airworthiness release (AWR), or
statement of airworthiness qualification (SAQ). An agency, other than the US Army
having engineering cognizance of an air vehicle typically signifies its acceptance of
airworthiness responsibility by some other means, such as a type certificate. A CFR might
not be required for a leased air vehicle when the contractor assumes all liability.
As provided for in AR 95-20 (Ref. 1), the Government flight representative (GFR)
is responsible for surveillance of all contractor flight and ground operations involving the
previously described air vehicles. As such, the GFR might want assurance that a
Government furnished air vehicle is airworthy.
A contractor might want the Government to assume part (or all) of the liability for
flight test operations. Also, ATCOM Engineering might want assurance that a contractor
has complied with airworthiness requirements contained within a contract. Hence, the
ATCOM contract clauses often include issuance of a CFR as a precondition for flight.
Such contract clauses might require a CFR prior to the maiden flight of a prototype or
initial flight following major modification, or upon request by the program, project or
product manager (PM), weapon systems management officer (WSMO), Government plant
representative office, Government flight representative (GFR), or contracting officer
(KO).
Format of the CFR should be in accordance with the approving authority's
established standing operating procedure (SOP) or outside military command(s) or agency
general correspondence format.
The use of distribution statements as provided for in Department of Defense
Directive Number 5230.24, Distribution Statements on Technical Documents,(Ref. 3)
should be considered for use on sensitive technical information.
C-2 CONTENTS
Contents should be as specified in the following paragraphs.
C-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
C-2.1.1 ADDRESSEE
A letter of transmittal by the point of contact (POC) to transmit the CFR through
the GFR and to management of the contractor. Only a POC can transmit an approved
CFR to a contractor. The first and second tier technical points of contact should be
identified on the cover sheet or within the transmittal letter. Typically, these technical
POCs will be the GFR and the air vehicle systems engineer at the procuring activity (PA),
respectively.
C-2.1.3 SUBJECT/SCOPE
The cover sheet or first page of the CFR should clearly identify that this is a
contractor flight release for a specific type (ground or flight) of test, evaluation, or
operation of one model, design, and series Army air vehicle with identifying serial
number(s). Model, design, and series prefixes and suffixes should be included.
An example follows:
CONTRACTOR'S FLIGHT RELEASE FOR FLIGHT TEST OF YAH-68A
HELICOPTERS SERIAL NUMBERS 95-00001, 95-00002, AND 95-00003 or SERIAL
NUMBERS 95-00001 THROUGH 95-00003 INCLUSIVE.
C-2.1.4 TERMINATION
Prior to the main body of the CFR, a termination date or clearly defined event for
cancellation of the CFR should be identified. This termination date or event is defined as
the date or completion of event after which this CFR or revision is no longer valid. For
example, the termination provisions should read: "This CFR/revised CFR is terminated
upon completion of Stability Augmentation System Testing, defined in Contractor Test
Plan Number XXYYZZ, or on date (DAY MONTH YEAR), whichever is sooner."
C-2
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
C-2.2.1 REFERENCES∗
References cited in the main body of the release should be listed in the order in
which they are referenced, or they may be included in an appendix. If an appendix is used,
that appendix should be cited in this paragraph. Operations and maintenance manuals,
contract numbers, Government and contractor specifications, test plans, previous Federal
Aviation Administration or military (FAA or MIL) type certificate(s), and systems safety
assessments should be cited as appropriate. CONTRACT NUMBER CONTRACTOR'S
SPECIFICATION NUMBERS ###### (AS NECESSARY TO DEFINE
CONFIGURATION) OPERATOR'S _________________MANUALS AND
CHECKLISTS TM 55-1520-XYZ-10 AND TM 55-1520-XYZ-lOCL (DRAFT AND/OR
FINAL, WITH CHANGES CITED) CONTRACTOR'S APPROVED GROUND AND
FLIGHT OPERATIONS PROCEDURES NUMBER ###### CONTRACTOR'S
APPROVED TEST PLAN NUMBER AABBCC MAINTENANCE MANUALS TM 55-
1520-XYZ-23 (DRAFT AND/OR FINAL, WITH CHANGES CITED) MODIFICATION
WORK ORDERS (MWOs) AND TECHNICAL BULLETINS (TBs) INCORPORATED.
Fig. C-l. CFR Generic References Example C-2.2.2 REVISIONS
Revisions to the CFR should be documented in tabular format. Minimum contents of this
table should include revision number and date, a brief description of changes, and
identification of affected pages. An example of revision documentation is shown in
TABLE C-l. If there is an SOP-related reissue of the CFR due to the number of changes,
the baseline CFR which these revisions have changed should be identified.
TABLE C-1
REVISION
ACCOMPLISHMENTS DESCRIPTION OF CHANGES PAGES
REVISION DATE
NUMBER AFFECTED
R-1 DDMMYY Change Maximum SAS Off Airspeed
to 90 KIAS from 100 KIAS 4
to 200 KIAS
R-2 DDMMYY Increase Vne from 193 KIAS to 200 KIAS
5
∗
The underlined portion of the paragraph number and title
identifies the paragraph number and title in the CFR.
C-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
These documents should be referenced in par. 1 of the CFR (explained in subpar. C-2.2.1
of this appendix) or may be included in an appendix to the CFR, and should completely
and clearly identify the configuration to be operated, tested, or evaluated. Also, version
descriptions for all flight critical software such as that defined software for automatic
flight control, control and display, engine, and weapon systems should be described or
identified by release number. Changes to the configuration during subsequent revisions
should be documented as shown in TABLE C-2.
TABLE C-2
C-4
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
C-2.2.4.2 PROCEDURES
Approved contractor's ground and flight operations procedures shall be cited for
normal operations of these air vehicles. This element of the CFR should identify the
method the Government should use to approve and monitor those procedures. Normally,
a GFR will perform those approval and monitoring functions for the contractordeveloped
flight procedures.
If not covered in the contractor's procedures, requirements for preflight briefings,
postflight debriefs, and chase and rescue air vehicles should be discussed.
A brief example of this element follows: "The contractor should conduct flight and
ground operations of subject air vehicle in accordance with AR 95-20 and
CONTRACTOR'S APPROVED GROUND AND FLIGHT OPERATIONS
PROCEDURES NUMBER ######, dated DDMMYY. Changes to these procedures
shall be approved by the GFR prior to operations, and procedures should be subject to
monitoring by the GFR.
The contractor should coordinate the chase air vehicle with the Government Test
Coordinator/GFR in accordance with AR 705-24, Management of Test and Test Support
Aircraft, (Ref. 4) prior to each flight."
C-2.2.4.3 LIMITATIONS
Limitations which are different or missing from operator's manual limitations
should be cited in this paragraph. Unless required for added emphasis, only those
limitations different from the limitations in approved operator's manuals should be cited
here. Such limitations may include, but are not limited to, limitations on flight envelopes,
operating limitations for fatigue critical components, and mission equipment operating
limitations. These limitations may be in the form of numerical values (airspeeds, rotational
speeds, voltages, etc.); they may be in the form of procedural limitations (no operation of
subsystem x while subsystem y is inoperable for more than two minutes); or they may be a
combination of the two forms (no operation above 100 KIAS with subsystem x
inoperative). Fatigue critical components are typically listed in a separate element of the
CFR. An example follows:
"The contractor shall observe three additional limitations for operation. These
limitations are:
1. Maximum airspeed for external cargo jettison when transporting SYSTEM
XYZ externally shall be 70 KIAS.
2. Maximum main rotor speed shall be 334 Revolutions Per Minute (RPM).
3. The Radar shall not be operated for more than twenty (20) minutes in the
'active' mode, and each period in the 'active' shall should be followed by a minimum period
of five (5) minutes in either the 'standby' mode or with power off."
This element of the CFR should include important operating limits and restrictions
that should be observed during ground and flight operations. Typical limitations are most
C-5
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
forward and aft center of gravity locations, maximum allowable gross weight, maximum
and minimum allowable rotor speeds, maximum allowable torques, maximum allowable oil
temperatures, never to exceed velocity, maximum allowable slope landing capability, and
maximum allowable towing speeds. Mission equipment limitations, such as maximum
allowable rate of fire should also be included.
C-2.2.4.4 RESTRICTIONS
A restriction is like a regulation. Certain actions and areas are to be avoided, etc.
Any type of restriction that affects operation, such as environmental, procedural, and
electromagnetic vulnerability, should be covered. Environmental restrictions may identify
temperature, humidity, precipitation, icing, sand and dust, vibration, and altitude
conditions which may have an adverse action on the air vehicle operation, reliability, or
flight safety. Procedural restrictions may include bans on flight in instrument
meteorological conditions (IMC), prohibition on single pilot flight, or prohibition on flight
without a crew chief and flight engineer. Electromagnetic vulnerability restrictions may
place restrictions on flight within close proximity to transmitters with specified output
power in identified frequency ranges. These restrictions may be more or less restrictive
than those in the operator's manual. If necessary, these may be presented in graphical
format, and included as an appendix to the CFR. An example follows: "The contractor
shall not perform flight into known or forecast moderate or more severe icing conditions."
C-6
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
C-2.2.5.2 INSPECTIONS
This element should include additional or modified inspection requirements for
inspections performed during preflight, postflight, and periodic or phase maintenance on
the air vehicle systems or mission equipment packages (MEP), and not contained in
referenced maintenance manuals. These inspections may be necessitated by additional or
modified equipment for modification programs, may be based on experience gained during
prototype air vehicle flight and maintenance operations, or may be desirable to address
concerns surfaced or to verify analysis performed during the design phase. An example
would be the requirement to inspect fire control computer connections for moisture or
corrosion after flight in visible moisture.
C-2.2.6 APPENDICES
Appendices may be used to show configuration data, list references, provide
operating and maintenance limitations figures, other graphical data, and information which
is too voluminous for inclusion in the main body of the CFR. Additionally, when a limited
amount of classified information is to be a part of the CFR, a classified appendix may be
used to allow the main body of the CFR to remain unclassified. All appendices used
should be referenced in the appropriate paragraph of the CFR, and should be packaged in
the order in which they are referred to in the CFR.
C-7
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
ATTACHMENT TO APPENDIX C
DEFINITIONS
C-8
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX C
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
AR = army regulation
ATCOM = aviation and troop command
AWR = airworthiness release
CFR = contractor flight release
ECPs = engineering change proposals
FAA = federal aviation administration
GAR = government flight representative
IMC = instrument meteorological condition
IR = infrared
KO. = contracting officer
MEP = mission equipment package
MIL = military
MWOs = modification work orders
PA = procuring activity
PM = program/project/product manager
POC = points of contact
RPM = revolutions per minute
SAQ = statement of airworthiness qualification
SOF = safety of flight
SOP = standing operating procedure
TB = technical bulletin
WSMO = weapon systems management officer
C-9
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX C
REFERENCES
C-10
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
APPENDIX D
ELEMENTS OF AN AIRWORTHINESS RELEASE (AWR)
D-1 INTRODUCTION
AR 70-62, Airworthiness Qualification of US Army Aircraft Systems , (Ref. 1), prohibits
Army aviators from operating an air vehicle in the performance of official duties if there is no
airworthiness release, interim statement of airworthiness qualification, statement of airworthiness
qualification, or airworthiness approval. The US Army Aviation and Troop Command (ATCOM)
is the approval authority for airworthiness of standard and nonstandard Army air vehicles for
which it has engineering cognizance. As implied, the ATCOM does not have engineering
cognizance for all Army air vehicles. Depending on how the air vehicle was acquired, the Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA), National Aeronautics and Space Agency (NASA), US Air Force
(USAF), and US Navy (USN) might still have engineering cognizance. Occasionally, the
ATCOM Directorate of Engineering can accept responsibility for a modification to an air vehicle
it did not qualify. However, the original qualification and design requirements must either be
known or ATCOM must be able to establish sufficient engineering cognizance to validate the
modification.
An airworthiness release (AWR) is the technical document that ATCOM issues to provide
interim operating and maintenance information necessary for safe flight operation of an air vehicle
system, subsystem, and allied equipment. Other agencies signify airworthiness approval by means
other than an AWR, such as a type certificate or supplemental type certificate. An AWR (type
certificate, etc.) is required prior to operation of a new air vehicle system or a fielded air vehicle
system that has undergone a major modification as defined in AR 705-24, Management of Test
and Support Aircraft, (Ref. 2). An AWR is also required prior to operation of an air vehicle with
FAA, USAF, NASA, or USN airworthiness approval, if operator's manuals are unacceptable.
Format of the AMR should be in accordance with the established standard operating
procedure (SOP) of the approving authority.
D-2 CONTENTS
Contents should be as specified in the following paragraphs.
D-1
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
D-2.1.2 ADDRESSEE
The AWR will be addressed to the owner of the air vehicle and the agency incorporating
the change or performing the test (if a standard Government test organization), and the
project/product manager if one has cognizance of the change or test. Informational copies should
also be sent as a minimum to the major command (MACOM) of the air vehicle, systems, or test
activities. If the air vehicle is owned by an operational unit, the organization responsible for
maintenance oversight (ATCOM Directorate for Maintenance, for example) should be provided
an informational copy. If the air vehicle is undergoing formal materiel release processes, the
organization responsible for technical testing (Army Material Systems Analysis Activity
[AMSAA], for example) should be provided an informational copy. Both the cognizant procuring
activity safety office and the service office responsible for safety oversight (Test and Evaluation
Command [TECOM] safety office, for example) should also be provided copies of the AWR.
The user and the approving organization use the AWR to document the configuration
authorized for flight and attendant changes to flight and maintenance procedures. If the AWR is
not properly addressed and distributed, preliminary airworthiness evaluation (PAE), airworthiness
and flight characteristic (A&FC) testing, operational test (OT), follow on evaluation (FOE),
concept evaluations, and use of special mission modified air vehicle can be delayed at a significant
cost. Crews, support personnel, facilities, and equipment idled by misdirected AWRs can quickly
expend valuable program resources.
If technical testers and evaluators or cognizant safety personnel do not receive copies of
the AWR in a timely manner, the materiel release and safety release for the air vehicle can be
delayed, causing later delays in all program activities.
D-2.1.3 SUBJECT
The subject of the AWR should clearly identify that this is an airworthiness release for a
specific ground or flight test, evaluation, or operation of one model, design, and series Army air
vehicle with identifying serial number(s). The subject should summarize the special mission or
modification addressed in each particular AWR. Model, design, and series' prefixes and suffixes
should be included. The general form is: "Airworthiness Release for (ground/flight)
(test/evaluation/operation) of the (model identification XX-00Z) (air vehicle type) with (identify
special mission/other major modification from the basic model identifier)". An example follows:
"Airworthiness Release (AWR) for Test Flights of UH-60L Helicopter, S/N 89-XXXXX with the
Portable Engine Analyzer Installed"
D-2.2.1 REFERENCES
References cited in the main body of the release should be listed in the order in which they
are referenced, or they may be included in an appendix. If an appendix is used, that appendix
should be cited in this paragraph. Operations and maintenance manuals, contract numbers,
Government and contractor specifications, test plans, previous FAA/MIL type certificate(s), and
systems safety assessments should be cited, as appropriate. Changes to referenced documents
should require changes in references with an accompanying revision of the AWR. When such
changes affect air vehicle configuration, procedures, limitations, or restrictions, appropriate
D-2
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
changes to the other elements of the AWR should be accomplished. An example of references
follows:
a. Technical Manual 55-1520-XYZ-10, 8 January 1988, through Change 15, 29
November 1991, Operator's Manual, UH-lH Helicopters.
b. Contractor's System Specification ###### (as necessary to define configuration).
* The underlined portion of the paragraph number and title identifies the paragraph number and
title in the AWR.
c. Technical Manual 55-1520-XYZ-23, 8 January 1988, through Change 5, 29 November
1991, Aviation Unit Maintenance Manual. UH-lH Helicopters.
d. System Safety Assessment, 9 February 1989,
UH-lH Helicopter, US Army Aviation and Troop Command Safety Office.
e. Federal Aviation Administration Type Certification, Bell Helicopter Model 206, 3
February 1976.
D-2.2.2 PURPOSE
The purpose of the AWR should be defined by reference to the subject air vehicle
model(s), serial number(s), test types, dates and time intervals, and termination criteria. While
this purpose may be brief for a modification of a previously qualified air vehicle, an air vehicle
undergoing developmental testing may have more extensive testing requirements. A brief
description should also be provided to define developmental qualification or required modification
testing. An example is as follows: "This memorandum constitutes an Airworthiness Release
(AWR) in accordance with AR 70-62, for the purpose of authorization to conduct maintenance
test flights on UH-60L Helicopter, serial number 89-XXXXX, with the Portable Engine Analyzer
installed. Three tests shall be performed, using personnel trained and certified by the major
command. This AWR is terminated upon test completion."
D-2.2.3 CONFIGURATION
Configuration of the subject air vehicle should be defined in this element of the AWR by
reference to contractor or Government specifications and drawing numbers, modification work
orders (MWOs), technical bulletins (TBs), approved engineering change proposals (ECPs), etc.
Software for automatic flight controls, engines, and weapon systems should be described or
identified by release number.
These references should be included in paragraph 1 of the AWR (described in paragraph
D-2.2.1) or may be included in an appendix to the AWR. The referenced documents should
completely and clearly identify the configuration to be operated, tested, or evaluated, including
serial numbers for the air vehicle and installed or modified equipment. Other serial numbers of
unmodified components are included in the air vehicle historical records, and need not be cited
here. An example is as follows:
"The basic UH-60 Rotorcraft is defined in the reference lx manual with exceptions noted
in the respective DD Form 250 acceptance document. UH-60L rotorcraft serial number 89-
12345 is modified by the temporary installation of the portable engine analyzer per reference lx
and drawing number AABBCC for conduct of maintenance test flights only. The Portable Engine
Analyzer installed may be any one of serial numbers PEA-001, -003, or -004."
Changes to the configuration during subsequent revisions should be documented accordingly by
each revision number.
D-3
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
D-2.2.4.2 PROCEDURES
This element should identify, by reference, the approved ground and flight operations of
the air vehicle. Additional requirements for operating, preflight, and post flight procedures should
also be discussed. The AWR should be prepared in compliance with the minimum equipment
required for flight conditions specified in AR 95-1, Flight Regulations, (Ref. 4). An example
paragraph follows: "The helicopter shall be operated in accordance with the reference “lx”
Operator's Manual and this document. All flights performed with Portable Engine Analyzer
equipment installed are to be conducted only with approved maintenance test pilots. If there is a
conflict between the reference lx manual and this document, this document shall prevail.
Maintenance test flights shall be performed in accordance with the reference “ly” Technical
Manual."
D-2.2.4.3 LIMITATIONS
This element should include limitations which are different or missing from referenced
operator's manual. Such limitations may include, but are not limited to, flight envelopes,
operating limitations for fatigue critical components, and mission equipment operating limitations.
An example follows: "Flight with the Portable Engine Analyzer installed shall be limited to the
conditions for a maintenance test flight per reference lx and the following:
1. Maximum main rotor speed shall be 334 revolutions per minute (RPM).
D-4
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
2. Takeoff profiles and engine operating limits shall be maintained in accordance with
Figures ly - lz of portable engine analyzer svstem specification (reference lx)."
D-2.2.4.4 RESTRICTIONS
Changes to flight envelope, weight and balance, flight and mission equipment operation,
and environmental limitations should be cited. These restrictions may be more or less restrictive
than those in the referenced operator's manuals. If necessary, these may be presented in graphical
format, and included as an appendix to the AWR. An example follows:
1. Flight shall be accomplished only during day visual meteorological conditions (VMC).
2. Flight shall be accomplished only over areas suitable for emergency landing.
3. The portable engine analyzer is to be installed single engine only. Dual engine
installation is prohibited."
D-5
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
from as a handhold. The cables should be adequately protected from vibration, chafing, or
stretching. Cables should not be clamped to control tubes or cables, fuel lines, hydraulic lines,
etc." Calibration of the portable engine analyzer shall only be performed by manufacturer's
representatives authorized in writing by the ATCOM Directorate for Engineering."
D-2.2.5.2 INSPECTIONS
This element should include additional or modified inspection requirements needed during
preflight, post flight, and periodic or phase maintenance on air vehicle systems or mission
equipment packages (MEP), that are not contained in referenced maintenance manuals. These
inspections may be necessitated by additional or modified equipment for modification programs,
and may be based on experience gained during prototype air vehicle flight and maintenance
operations. Special or supplemental inspection procedures, to include special test equipment,
should also be defined. The application of these additional or modified inspections to modified air
vehicle may be simple. However, a prototype air vehicle may not have well established
maintenance inspection frequencies. This lack of established requirements may require reference
to an attachment for complete definition.
All nonstandard installations which attach to primary structure, attach to dynamic
components, or which have the potential of initiating a crack will require supplemental
inspections. Installations which could disable essential avionics and electrical systems; initiate fire;
damage fuel, pneumatic, and hydraulic lines; jam or damage controls; damage hub and rotor
blades; or strike an occupant, or cause an occupant to fall from the air vehicle will be inspected
for progressive wear and damage.
If avionics or electrical system changes are involved, a qualitative electromagnetic
compatibility (EMC) test should be conducted prior to first flight to demonstrate that the newly
installed equipment is not a source of, or victim of, electromagnetic interference (EMI). This
should be accomplished by monitoring the performance of all new and existing subsystems as the
individual subsystems are operated in turn. The operation of this equipment must include a power
on/power-off cycle, initializing or warm-up (if applicable), and all modes of operation. All
equipment should be in the "inflight" configuration and should be operated using air vehicle
generated power. The flight test portion of the EMC test should be conducted under day visual
meteorological conditions (VMC).
An example of the inspection element follows: "A pre-flight visual
inspection shall be made of the portable engine analyzer to ensure that no
progressive structural deterioration is occurring, that there is no loss of security
and that no damage to the host air vehicle exists."
D-6
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
D-7
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
D-2.2.5.5 WEIGHING
This element should contain procedures for compliance with air vehicle
weight and balance as contained in AR 95-3, General Provisions, Training.
Standardization and Resource Management(Ref. 5). The proper forms to be
included in the logbook of the subject air vehicle should be identified. The forms
defined by MIL-STD-1374, Weight and Balance Data Reporting Forms for
Aircraft (Including Rotorcraft),
(Ref. 6) should be used to document modifications to production air vehicles and
weight and balance conditions for prototype air vehicles. As a minimum, the DD
Form 365F defined by Ref. 8 should be included in the air vehicle logbook. Other
forms, such as the DD Form 365A and DD Form 365C, should be included in the
air vehicle historical records, and the cognizant engineering activity should require
copies of all cited forms. Special instructions should be noted in that the subject
air vehicle will not be loaded outside the center of gravity (cg) limits. If any
deviation from the approved limits exist and are acceptable for test conditions,
reference shall be made in the paragraph of this AWR where operational
restrictions are specified (par. 4.4). Examples of the AWR citation follow:
The DD Form 365F for UH-60L rotorcraft serial number 88-12345 is
included at attachment A to this AWR.
The DD Forms 365A and 365C for UH-60L rotorcraft serial numbers 89-
12345, 89-67890, 90-23456, and 91-34567 are included at attachment A to this
AWR. These forms should be used to update individual rotorcraft DD Forms
365F prior to flight under the conditions of this AWR. This AWR is not
authorization to operate these rotorcraft outside established weight or center of
gravity envelopes.
D-8
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
Each AWR should contain only the applicable logbook entries required by
the preparer. Logbook entries should be in accordance with DA PAM 738-751,
Functional Users Manual for the Army Maintenance Management System -
Aviation (TAMMS-A), (Ref. 9)
The explanation and proper use of the various DA 2408 series forms is
included in (Ref. 6). Entries should be made on Department of Army (DA) Form
2408-13-1/2408-13-1-E. The appropriate status symbol should be specified in
the AWR, with a reference of the AWR release date entered in the Fault
Information Block. A red dash should be used in the status block for procedures
that are required prior to the next flight, i.e., EMC tests, special inspections,
and/or functional checks. For readiness reporting purposes, AWRs which require
perpetual circle red "X" write-ups (semi-permanent restrictions) shall not cause
the air vehicle to be reported as partially mission capable (PMC). For those
purposes, air vehicles which are nonstandard configured and operating under the
AWR may be reported as fully mission capable (FMC).
The air vehicle DA Form 2408-15/2408-15-E should be annotated to
reflect the successful completion of the EMC test and/or special inspections and
to cite the AWR by subject and date. The DA Form 2408-15/-15-E need to be
annotated to reflect temporary installations, as well as, permanent changes to
configuration.
An exact copy of the AWR describing the operating procedure,
limitations, and restrictions should be inserted in the air vehicle logbook and
another copy inserted in the Air Vehicle Historical Record File.
D-9
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
D-2.2.9 APPENDICES
Appendices may be used to show configuration data, list references,
provide operating and maintenance limitations, figures, other graphical data,
and information which is too voluminous for inclusion in the main body of the
AWR. Additionally, when a limited amount of classified information is to be a
part of the AWR, a classified appendix may be used to allow the main body of
the AWR to remain unclassified. All appendices used should be referenced in
the appropriate paragraph of the AWR, and should be packaged in the order in
which they are referred to in the AWR.
D-10
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
APPENDIX D
LIST OF ACRONYMS AND ABBREVIATIONS
A&FC = airworthiness and flight characteristic
AMSAA = army material systems analysis activity
AWR = airworthiness release
cg = center of gravity
ECP = engineering change proposal
EMC = electromagnetic compatibility
EMI = electromagnetic interference
FAA = federal aviation administration
FMC = fully mission capable
FOE = follow on evaluation
MACOM = major command
MEP = mission equipment package
MWO = modification work orders
NASA = national aeronautics and space administration
PAE = preliminary airworthiness evaluation
PMC = partially mission capable
RPM = revolutions per minute
SAQ = statement of airworthiness qualification
SOP = standing operating procedure
TB = technical bulletins
TECOM = test and evaluation command
USAF = us air force
USN = us navy
UT = user test
VMC = visual meteorological conditions
D-11
15 AUG 96
Rotorcraft and Aircraft Qualification
APPENDIX D
REFERENCES
D-12
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX E
ELEMENTS OF A STATEMENT OF AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION (SAQ)
E-l INTRODUCTION
E-2 CONTENTS
E-2.1.3 SUBJECT
The cover sheet or first page of the SAQ should clearly identify that this is
an Interim/Final Statement of Airworthiness Qualification for a specific type
(ground or flight) of test, evaluation, or operation of one model, design, and series
Army air vehicle with identifying serial number(s). Applicable operating units may
be identified. Model, design, and series prefixes and suffixes should be included.
An example follows:
INTERIM STATEMENT OF AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION FOR OPERATIONAL
FLIGHT TEST OF YAH-68A HELICOPTERS SERIAL NUMBERS 95-00001, 95-00002, 95-
00003, 95-00004, AND 95-00005 or SERIAL NUMBERS 95-00001 THROUGH 95-00005
E-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
E-2.2.1 REFERENCES∗
References cited in the main body of the SAQ should be listed in the order in which they are
referenced, or may be included in an appendix. If an appendix is used, that appendix should be
cited in this paragraph. Operations and maintenance manuals, contract numbers, Government and
contractor specifications, AQSRs, previous Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) or military
certificate(s), and systems safety assessments should be cited as appropriate. An example follows:
CONTRACT NUMBER
CONTRACTOR'S SPECIFICATION NUMBERS ###### (AS NECESSARY TO DEFINE
CONFIGURATION)
AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION SUBSTANTIATION REPORT NUMBER ##### FOR
THE YAH-68A ROTORCRAFT OPERATOR'S MANUALS AND CHECKLISTS TM 55-1520-
XYZ-10 AND TM 55-1520-XYZ-lOCL (DRAFT AND/OR FINAL, WITH CHANGES
CITED) MAINTENANCE MANUALS TM 55-1520-XYZ-23 (DRAFT AND/OR FINAL,
WITH CHANGES CITED) TO&E NUMBERS. Changes to referenced
documents should not require changes in the SAQ. When there are changes to rotorcraft
configuration,procedures, limitations, or restrictions, changes to the other elements of the SAQ
will not normally be required. These changes normally require issuance of a separate
airworthiness release (AWR) reflecting those changes. AWRs are covered in Appendix D of this
handbook.
E-2.2.2 PURPOSE
The SAQ constitutes the final Airworthiness Release (AWR) issued in conjunction with
the Airworthiness Qualification Substantiation Report (AQSR). An AQSR is described in
Appendix F of this handbook. While this purpose may be brief for a modification of a previously
qualified air vehicle, an air vehicle undergoing developmental testing may have more extensive
testing requirements. Because of the extensiveness of the testing requirements, the purpose of the
SAQ may be quite involved for these developmental air vehicles.. Issuance of the SAQ normally
completes the airworthiness qualification process.
E-2
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
SAQ, and should completely and clearly identify the configuration of each air vehicle to be
operated, tested, or evaluated. When individual air vehicles are configured differently, citation of
a reference unique to one or more air vehicles should identify, by serial number, applicable air
vehicle.
E-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
E-4
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
Only frequencies which have changed from those specified in the maintenance manual
should be included in this paragraph. Three types of frequency of inspection changes may be
required. Scheduled maintenance inspections which have frequencies changed from maintenance
manual frequencies should be cited. Additionally, new scheduled inspection requirements may be
generated due to equipment additions in a modification program or based on experience gained
during prototype air vehicle flight and maintenance operations. Finally, excessive repetition of
scheduled inspections may induce maintenance related failures, and inspection frequencies may be
reduced in order to evaluate the effect on safety.
Inspection frequency changes should identify the scheduled inspection and revised
frequency (expressed in days, flight hours, cycles, rounds, etc.). An example follows:
INSPECTION REQUIREMENT REV. FREQUENCY
CLEAN & LUBRICATE ARMAMENT SYS, XM-201 2000 ROUNDS CLEAN &
LUBRICATE ARMAMENT SYS, XM-201 MONTHLY
The consequences of failure to perform a required inspection should be clearly specified. In the
previous example above, failure to lubricate the armament system in accordance with revised
frequencies could require a restriction from use of the armament system until the inspection is
complete. Appropriate logbook entries caused by uncompleted inspections should be explained in
this section of the SAQ.
E-2.2.5.2 LIMITED LIFE AND FLIGHT SAFETY PARTS If retirement lives (point at
which overhaul or repair is either unauthorized or not economical) are different from those lives in
approved, referenced maintenance manuals, the retirement lives of these fatigue critical parts
should be included in the SAQ. The part should be clearly identified along with the retirement
criteria, expressed in flight hours, calendar time, exposure, etc. When flight safety parts (FSP) are
involved, the procedures for identification, monitoring, surveillance, and disposition should be
identified if different from procedures in approved maintenance manuals. If procedures are not
established, par. 3-13 of this handbook provides procedures for handling of FSP.
E-5
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
E-2.2.8 APPENDICES
Appendices may be used to show configuration data, list references, provide operating and
maintenance limitations figures, other graphical data, and information which is too voluminous for
inclusion in the main body of the SAQ. Additionally, when a limited amount of classified
information is to be a part of the SAQ, a classified appendix may be used to allow the main body
of the SAQ to remain unclassified. All appendices used should be referenced in the appropriate
paragraph of the SAQ, and should be packaged in the order in which they are referred to in the
SAO.
E-6
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX E
GLOSSARY
NOTE - An operating procedure, practice, or condition that must be highlighted. CAUTION -
An operating procedure, practice, or condition which, if not strictly observed, could result in
damage to or destruction of equipment, or minor injury to personnel. WARNING - An operating
procedure, practice, or condition which, if not correctly followed, could result in severe injury to
personnel or loss of life, or loss of a major system.
E-7
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX E
DA = department of army
IR = infrared
PA = procuring activity
TB = technical bulletin
E-8
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX E
REFERENCES
1. AR 70-62, Airworthiness Qualification of US Army Aircraft Systems
, 15 July 1978.
E-9
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX F
ELEMENTS OF AN AIRWORTHINESS QUALIFICATION SUBSTANTIATION
REPORT (AQSR)
F-l INTRODUCTION
AR 70-62, Airworthiness Qualification of US Army Aircraft Systems ,(Ref. 1) requires
that an Airworthiness Qualification Substantiation Report (AQSR) be published after successful
completion of an airworthiness qualification program. The AQSRwill be prepared by the
Government organization which has engineering cognizance over the subject air vehicle. Format
should be in accordance with (IAW) the appropriate organization's Standing Operating
Procedure (SOP), and should contain, as a minimum, the following elements insubpars. F-2.1
and F-2.2.
Distribution statements as provided for in Department of Defense Directive Number
5230.24, Distribution Statements on Technical Documents,(Ref. 2) should be considered for
use on sensitive technical information.
F-2 CONTENTS
F-2.1.1 INTRODUCTION ∗
F-2.1.1.1 PURPOSE
This element should define the primary and secondary purpose of this AQSR. Normally,
the primary purpose of an AQSR is to document the results of the airworthiness qualification
program(s) for an identified air vehicle and to provide the basis for the issuance of a Statement
of Airworthiness Qualification (SAQ) in accordance with AR 70-62 (Ref. 1). The secondary
purpose of the AQSR is to provide data and applicable references which can be used to evaluate
subsequent changes to the identified air vehicle. For a modification program, this AQSR should
provide the data for previously qualified, unmodified components or subsystems which need not
be requalified.
F-1
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
F-2
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
and should require issuance of a separate AWR. AWR contents are described in Appendix D of
this handbook.
F-2.1.2 DEFINITIONS
This element should contain, as a minimum, terms and definitions which are peculiar to
this document. Definitions of terms defined in referenced publications need not be repeated
here.
F-3
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
the methods for developing test and evaluation strategies, and description of new qualification
methods employed should be included.
An example of such a new technology might be an artificial intelligence subsystem
designed to reduce operator and or maintainer workload. Quantification of workload should be
described, along with the evaluation criteria, criticality of functions performed, and allowance
for error (including false alarm and failure to detect or act rates) for the subsystem. When tasks
performed by the subsystem are critical to flight safety, results of safety assessments for the
subsystem should be included.
F-4
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
F-5
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
TABLE F-1
LANDING
GEAR
124567890-11 Left Main Wheel 13 Limit Sink Speed, S12456 77
Spindle 10 Deg Left
FUSELAGE
125678901-13 Left Front Main 10 Limit Sink Speed, S12567 95
Transmission 10 Deg Left
Mount
identified should identify the report and specific paragraph or page containing component life
calculation. When extensive amounts of data are to be provided, these data may be contained in
a table in the text or an appendix to the AQSR. An example of a summary is shown in TABLE
F-2.
TABLE F-2
COMPONENT LIFE SUMMARY FOR CRITICAL COMPONENTS
LANDING GEAR
124567890-11 LEFT MAIN WHEEL SPINDLE 24 MONTHS S12456 99
FUSELAGE
125678901-13 LEFT FRONT MAIN 5437FH S12567 36
TRANSMISSION MOUNT
F-6
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
F-2.1.7 OPERATING RESTRICTIONS This element should list or depict op erating limits
and restrictions which appear in the operator's manual, and provide justification for those limits
and restrictions. When extensive amounts of data will be provided, graphical presentation of
limits should be considered. Where applicable, the reason for this specific limit, such as a test or
analysis reference, should be cited. When multiple limitations conflict, an application criteria
should be described.
Due to varying temperatures, pressure altitudes, gross weight s, and airspeeds, many of
the limits are more clearly presented by use of a family of curves. For example, at a given
temperature and pressure altitude, airspeed limitations at various gross weights may be depicted
using a set of curves. Each curve represents predicted power required at various airspeeds. On
the same curve, an engine or transmission limit may depict both maximum torque-limited
airspeed and maximum airspeed due to power available. This curve is repeated at other
combinations of temperature and pressure altitude, thus forming a family of curves.
Other limitations may be generally applied, with discrete sublimits under certain
circumstances. An example may be maximum wind speed for engine starting. The general limit
may be 30 knots, with lower limits when the wind is from the two aft quadrants relative to the
aircraft nose. These sublimits may need to be graphically depicted in a chart.
As applicable, this paragraph should cover, but not be limited to, the following list of
restrictions:
1. Minimum crew requirements should be addressed to define the Additionally, non-
pilot crew members, such as crew chiefs, flight engineers, gunners, hoist operators, etc. required
for ground or flight operation, should be identified.
2. Plots of permissible propeller, rotor, or prop rotor operating revolutions per minute
(RPM) versus gross weight at various altitudes and airspeeds should be provided. Any other
peculiar airspeed limitations, such as maximum airspeed allowable when opening cargo doors or
with cargo doors open, should be specified.
3. Wind velocity limitations for starting and rotor engagement and sideward and
rearward flight should be identified. Sideward and rearward flight limitations should be depicted
graphically, showing, when available, data points used to establish limitations. Limitations on
flight in specified turbulence conditions should be cited.
4. Continuous and maximum torque limits for engines and drive systems components
should be defined. When one condition, such as transmission, exhaust gas temperature, etc.,
limits system torque, this condition should be identified, along with reference to substantiating
data. Curves may be used to depict these limits.
5. Bank angle limits for normal operation and operation following selected subsystem's
failures should be identified. An example would be a limitation on bank angle when one
hydraulic system is inoperative.
6. Minimum and maximum rotor speed limits for normal operation, ground or flight idle,
and autorotation should be identified. When applicable, maximum engine speed for rotor
engagement and rotor brake application should be identified.
7. Left and right sideslip limits at various airspeeds should be identified.
8. When limited by sink rates, maximum rates of descent for vertical, autorotative, and
roll-on landings should be identified.
9. Flight maneuver load factor limitations ( Vn diagram) should be provided.
F-7
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
10. Gross weight versus center of gravity (CG) limit ations should be identified. When
the permissible CG range changes with increasing gross weights, these limitations may be shown
in a figure.
11. When applicable, cargo limitations should be identified. Cargo floor loading
limitations (pounds per square inch [PSI], total load in cargo compartment, etc.) and maximum
tiedown limitations should be listed. When tiedown limitations have different lateral, forward, or
rearward values, this fact should be emphasized.
12. External cargo hook and rescue hoist limitations should be identified when
applicable. These limitations should consist of maximum loads, hoist speeds, and number of
cycles as appropriate.
13. Environmental restrictions, such as flight in icing conditions, should be identified.
14. Auxiliary power unit (APU) operating limitations should be identified. Examples of
such restrictions are limitations on usage time, starting main engines, etc.
F-2.2.1 INTRODUCTION
Volume II should contain a paragraph-by-paragraph review of the s ystem control
document(s) (detail specification, AQS, etc.) All items covered in the specification-test matrix of
Chapter 2 of this handbook which affect airworthiness should be listed here.
F-8
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
TABLE F-3
PARAGRAPH COMPLIANCE LIST
SOURCE: DERIVED FROM NARRATIVE DESCRIPTION LIST
6.3.1.4.1 (a) Completion of Fatigue Test on One Partial IAW SAQ Para A.B.C.D(1)
Specimen for Each Critical Design
Component
6.3.1.4.1 (b) Static Test to Limit Load for Critical Full IAW SAQ Para A.B.C.D(2)
Airframe Components
6.3.1.4.1 (c) Flight Control Software Documonstration Full IAW SAQ Para A.B.C.D(2)a
6.3.6.6.1.2 Bench Overstress Test of Main Full IAW SAQ Para A.B.D.C(3)b
Transmission
6.3.6.6.1.2 Bench Overstress Test of Canted Tail Full IAW Para A.B.D.C(3)b
Rotor Gearbox
GLOSSARY
When a definition is not included in the text, a glossary of terms used in this appendix will be
included. A list of acronyms used and their meanings should also be provided.
INDEX
An index should be provided which will allow location of major subjects within the AQSR.
As a minimum, the index should list subjects and page numbers or appendices for all numbered
elements of the AQSR.
F-9
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX F
CG = center of gravity
FH = flight hours
PN = part number
F-10
15 AUG 96
ROTORCRAFT AND AIRCRAFT QUALIFICATION
APPENDIX F
REFERENCES
F-11