Age of religious wars Chapter 3 The Psychology of Limited Wealth There was no longer a struggle for survival, as in the

e middle ages. The commercial revolution, which included the putting out system was in full swing. This created so many textiles. However, agriculture was still by far the largest occupation and Europe did not have economic techniques to produce as much as its people needed for comfort. Transportation was slow, business was risky. After 1590, population stopped growing. Europes wealth was unevenly distributed o The west had a larger share than the east o Social classes The difference between propertyless and propertied was widening. The ones without property got nothing and were hoping to survive. The laboring classes had somewhat harsher conditions in 1715 than in 1559.

POPULATION Population records are not very accurate because they come from registers of clergy or marriage, deaths, and governmental census, which was not very exact. After Black Death, population began to grow for about 100 years from the mid-15th century. By late 16th century the count was probably near a 100 million. Around 1590 the population stopped growing in many parts. o There were sharp population losses followed by a gradual increase Why did population stop growing and started to fluctuate? o The death rates rose and fell wildly. The birthrate was much more regular. o Harvest were poor War time conditions intensified because the winters were cold and people were not able to receive food. The poor starved. Less babies were conceived during famine. If a woman lost her mate, there was no baby. Some women were malnourished to a point where they were not menstruating and miscarrying. Some were aborting out of despair. In French woman fertility increased after famine o Weather conditions worsened- bad cold year People were too weak to resist diseases and the plague came back (16 and 17 c) Population pressure pushed landless into cities, so there was urbanization. Things did get better o By late 17 century plague disappeared. The black rat was replaced with the brown rat, which does not have black fleas. The plague though was used to relieve population pressure and when it was gone the state reached its tolerable maximum during the late 16 century. In Spain, they mismanaged their economic resources so the population decreased. Germany lost a lot of people to the 30 years war. Englands population increased because they had little people before o After 1715 the birthrate increased, people had good harvests, the plague ended and people lived longer. Scientific livestock breeding, soil chemistry, steam power, and machines helped agriculture. Poor people though had a hard life. died before adulthood. Young people were married older in their mid-20s because both many times had to work for 10 or more years without an income to learn the job. Agriculture and Industry Things were still mostly made by hand Broadly the food production became capitalist o European landlords rented land, take half the tenants crops for rent, or have wage labor. Eastern European farmers were driven deeper into serfdom however.

The village of Wigston Magna had three huge strips of land and each farmer had a small piece of each strip of the land, some more than others. o There was more diversity of food coming in. Spices from Asia, corn from America. There were not widespread. Spain vs England o In Spain 3% held 97% of land. The members of the Mesta, or sheep ranchers organization were given special privileges by government. They took up a lot of land that was used for agriculture which resulted in people moving to cities, loss of harvest and more poverty. English landlords enclosed their land, but this did not assume major proportions until the 18 and 19 century. The English farmers worked their land more efficiently. They took better care of their land. Dutch o Had bad land but they built dikes and drainage canals to keep water out and windmills to dry land. They began raising tulips. o Were really good at dying cloths. France o They invented a new way to making superlative sparkling wine. They already were famous for wine though. Clothes o Elementary consumer needs- cloth and textile- produced a lot by the putting out system Very basic, sometimes they didnt even dye cloth because it requires skill o Luxury silk and clothes were produced in towns and sold to the rich. Required a lot of skill, expensive material and machine o Textile workers sewed the clothes. They were organized into guilds. England o Harvested a lot of coal o Produced a lot of iron They did not know how to process these though, they only harvested a lot This is called industrial revolution o The rest of Europe remained stable in metal production Transportation improved a little o Horse-drawn carriages were equipped with spoked wheels and springs o Pony express took a week to deliver mail 600 miles By large, 17 century economy suffers from underproduction. People worked at jobs that created necessary things, but there still were not enough of them.

Dutch Commercial Capitalism Made profit by being middlemen- bought, sold, and traded Converted raw materials into products- dyehouses, sugar and salt refineries They got into power because they possessed many ships of all sizes. Their ships were great. Had seven provinces, which were independent and worked together. Holland though, was the most prosperous, contributing to of the countrys income. Merchants pooled their resources- look at Dutch East India Company o West India company had less success because of other nations there More important than the West and East India companies was the North Sea Fishing industry. o They had fleets to catch herring, haddock, cod, and some whales. They also had a lot of ships. The first slave trade was done using a Dutch ship. Amsterdam o Pop growth from 30,000 to 200,000 from 1516. o Safe from Spanish because ports had shallow harbors and it was inland from the North Sea o A lot of Merchants- nobody could outcompete them because of their numbers They would bring in so many things and then in Amsterdam raw materials were processed and sold.

People stopped by in Amsterdam because the market has everything. Printed books in other languages. The Dutch republic was a Calvinist state. o Calvin would not feel good there though because they did not permit clergy to interfere with politics. o They were tolerant of Jews, Anabaptists, and Catholics. o Sent Calvinist missionaries into Asia Dutch commercial prosperity was limited to upper and middle class. Amsterdams business structure was based on 16 century models.

Property and Privilege Class lines were formalized and there were clear distinctions between everything in different classes. Differences between upper, middle, and lower classes got larger An economy based on hand production offered only limited wealth. For people at the top, increased wealth meant they can live like kings. The people at the bottom remained as poor as they were and were prevented by underproduction from achieving any improvement. Gregory King described the pop in England to be 5.5 mill in 1696. 2.7 mill of these had increasing wealth of the kingdom- these people held some kind of stake in the society- land, office, or a profession or craft. They were the haves because they had new things. The other 2.8 million were the have nots, struggling for basic living supplies. These inclided agricultural wage laborers, domestic servants, soldiers, sailors, paupers. o The wage workers were just as draining as paupers because they did not make enough money and thus had to be supported by charity. o Liberty referred to enjoyment of special advantages not open to other men. In Venice a circle of 2000 nobles possessed the liberty of governing their state: they had an oligarchic monopoly on administration which prevented the Venetian middle and lower classes from choosing their legislators. o Freedom meant exemption from restrictions which unprivileged people had to observe. An apprentice who served for years obtained the freedom of his craft: he could now make things for profit To keep unprivileged in their place, they were punished. Beggars were whipped and pilloried. Instead of long imprisonment, a person could be executed, or have a body part cut off. Convicts were sometimes transported to colonies. Crime on property was punished as crime on another person. Slavery happened because when people say dark skinned people, they classified them unprivileged and placed them way lower than themselves because they were not Christian and not civilized. o First Columbus brought West Indies as slaves but they made bad slaves because they were easily killed off. In 1511 the first slave ship went to Spanish America. o Many more Africans than Europeans came to America, about 1.3 million in 17 century. o A problem for slavers was how to transport slaves most efficiently without losing too many. o Some slaves were treated ok while others were treated so badly that they died fast. It was cheaper for slave-owners to restock from Africa rather than give good living conditions. Nobody rejected slavery at this point. Women and Witchcraft Jean Bodin- wives must be controlled and under men. They should not be beaten but she should be disciplined. Role of women changed o More sex-segregated jobs- they spent more time working with other females and doing housework in 16 and 17 century. The tasks of washing and cleaning became more time consuming as standards of living rose. o The nobles created many separate rooms, which needed more female help so females from poor classes were drawn into work as servants. o Women were more likely to live past childbearing age than men. As conditions worsened, they noticed many older women widowed in the community. The stereotype of a widow was elderly, impoverished, unemployable, lonely and highly vulnerable. o Also, women who converted to Protestantism were taught to read so they can read the bible.

Protestant churches were very suspicious of female activism. They wanted women to only be wives and mothers, silenced in churches and ask husbands. o Witchcraft lasted from 1560s to 1660s. During the first half of the 16 century there were really not that many trials. Then, the trials significantly increased. Why which trials o The intense religious reawakening of the 16 century. People realized that the Devil intervened in human affairs. Evildoers could go into contract with the devil and get power for it. Sin, heresy, magic and demonology were made into witchcraft. o There was an intense craving for supernatural explanations and cure. Why the weather was bad, why people were poor. Often trouble started when someone begged for food and the person rejected. o Women were spiritually weaker o Female witches could fornicate with the devil. o Witches were ugly and poor because they were alone.

The Price Revolution People were more conscious about money than they were before. Spanish brought home so much gold to enlarge the European gold supply by 20 percent. This gold was smuggled and very abundant. o Spains wealth circulated through Europe. In the Price Revolution, Spain was hit the hardest. Inflation occurred and prices rose three times. As more bullion came in, the more money there was to spend and the more demand for a commodity. People developed a taste for new things. The rich could afford these so it was not a problem for them. For the poor, however, this was a huge problem because their wages did not rise. The landlords did whatever was possible to not pay them more money. Relative to the prices, their wages were too low. Among the most important effects of the price revolution was the strain it placed upon the government budgets. The taxes were no longer a good income to buy things so the government had to borrow money for things. o Phillip II of Spain- the last 30 years of his rule were wars against Moors, Turks, Dutch, French and English. He thought silver from America would pay for everything. He received 2 million ducats in every treasure fleet but that was nothing compared to how much he spends (6 million annually). His subjects paid a lot of tax, including a sales tax of 14% on every transaction. Their revenues reach ten million by 1590. He failed to meet the costs of war. He was spending 12 mill ducats annually. The Armada alone cost him 10 mill. He borrowed a lot. When he died 2 years later, he left Spain in debt with 100 mill ducats. This decline continued into the first half of the 17th century. After 1630 silver imports declined, population pressure relaxed, and prices stabilized. Wages got better. Spain sank down real bad, while France, England, and Dutch prospered. What did Louis XIV and Great Elector have that Phillip II lacked? o General 17 century rise in living standards among property holders and in the accumulation of wealth o Wider circulation of specie and an increased reliance on credit o Government were devising better techniques to deal with taxes Capitalism and Calvinism Max Webber suggested that Protestantism influenced beginning of modern capitalism o Capitalist spirit is a highly synthesized pursuit of profit rather than greed for gain, power, and glory Medici did it for greed Calvins doctrine of predestination produced in his adherents character traits of inner loneliness and outer discipline, asceticism and drive. There were many who attacked him. Mercantilism Mercantilism is an economic doctrine based on the theory that a nation benefits by accumulating monetary reserves through a positive balance of trade, especially of finished goods. Mercantilism dominated Western European economic policy and discourse from the 16th to late-18th centuries.[1] Mercantilism was a cause of

frequent European wars in that time and motivated colonial expansion. Mercantilist theory varied in sophistication from one writer to another and evolved over time. Favours for powerful interests were often defended with mercantilist reasoning. High tariffs, especially on manufactured goods, are an almost universal feature of mercantilist policy. Other policies have included: Building a network of overseas colonies; Forbidding colonies to trade with other nations; Monopolizing markets with staple ports; Banning the export of gold and silver, even for payments; Forbidding trade to be carried in foreign ships; Export subsidies; Promoting manufacturing with research or direct subsidies; Limiting wages; Maximizing the use of domestic resources; Restricting domestic consumption with non-tariff barriers to trade. Mercantilism in its simplest form was bullionism, but mercantilist writers emphasized the circulation of money and rejected hoarding. Their emphasis on monetary metals accords with current ideas regarding the money supply, such as the stimulative effect of a growing money supply. Specie concerns have since been rendered moot by fiat money and floating exchange rates. In time, the heavy emphasis on money was supplanted by industrial policy, accompanied by a shift in focus from the capacity to carry on wars to promoting general prosperity. Mature neomercantilist theory recommends selective high tariffs for "infant" industries or to promote the mutual growth of countries through national industrial specialization. Currently, advocacy of mercantilist methods for maintaining high wages in advanced economies are popular among workers in those economies, but such ideas are rejected by most policymakers and economists.

The Puritan Revolution Puritans formed a Calvinist movement against Catholics. James I- made Scottish subjects to only obey the king and all other constitutional forms existed at the kings pleasure. o Always asked Parliament for money, and never got any. Charles I o Ordered the parliament to adjourn. He vowed to govern without Parliament. The Long Parliament, which remained from 1640-1653 triggered the biggest revolution. The revolution was Puritanism vs Anglicanism and parliamentary self-government vs royal absolutism. English Puritanism and The Puritan Revolution Christmas in general was dealt a severe setback in 17th Century England. "Puritans" was the name given in the 16th century to an extreme group of Protestants within the Church of England who thought the English Reformation had not gone far enough in reforming the doctrines and structure of the church; they wanted to purify their national church by eliminating every shred of Catholic influence. In addition, they wanted the Church of England purified of any liturgy, ceremony, or practices which were not found in Scripture. Thus, the name of "Puritans." The Bible was their sole authority, and they believed it applied to every area and level of life. Associated exclusively with no single theology or definition of the church although many were Calvinists the English Puritans were known at first for their extremely critical attitude regarding the religious compromises made during the reign of Elizabeth I. Many of them were graduates of Cambridge University, and they became Anglican priests to make changes in their local churches. They encouraged direct personal religious experience, sincere moral conduct, and simple worship services. Worship was the area in which Puritans tried to change things most; their efforts in that direction were sustained by intense theological convictions and definite expectations about how seriously Christianity should be taken as the focus of human existence. They first got the name Puritans due to their attempt to "purify" the Church of England and especially to remove any traces of the Roman Catholic Church. In

addition, Puritans disapproved of Christmas and Easter on the grounds that these holidays were invented by man and not prescribed by the Bible, and as such could not be Holy. It should be noted, in fairness, that the observation of Christmas in those times was not the same as today, and often featured excesses which today would also be condemned, including gluttony, drunkenness, home invasions, aggressive begging (with an express or implied threat of harm), rioting, and immoral behavior. [1] The criticisms leveled by the Rev. Increase Mather and the Rev. Cotton Matter (below) were true. The Puritans particularly had trouble with the "date" of Christs birth, noting that the early Church fathers had simply co-opted the mid-winter celebrations of several pagan societies, which was, as we have seen, true. After James I [2] became king of England in 1603, Puritan leaders asked him to grant several reforms. At the Hampton Court Conference (1604), however, he rejected most of their proposals, which included abolition of bishops. He did approve a new version of the Bible, known today as the "King James Version." Due to governmental persecution, many separated from the Church of England, and left the country. [3] James had had managed to restore royal power in Scotland without provoking a major rebellion and without using undue force. His virtues, however, contributed to his undoing. His success in Scotland made him overconfident and arrogant. His love of political theory and scholarly disputations led him to define the royal prerogative at time when they should have been left vague enough to be stretched in case of need. He never lost an opportunity to lecture Parliament about his powers in terms that seemed extreme even for his day. He was equally careless with the religious susceptibilities of his subjects and was always ready to lecture them on theology and church organization. This combination of learning and lack of tact led one continental statesman to refer to him as "the wisest fool in Christendom." [4] The split between Anglican and Puritan was widened by James, who took a strong stand in support of the prelates because his experience with the presbyterian form of church government in Scotland led him to believe that "Presbytery agreeth as well with a monarch as god and the devil. Then Jack and Tom, and Will and Dick shall meet at their pleasure, censure me and my council and all our proceedings." He swore to make the Puritans conform or "harry them out of the land." The seeds for revolution were being sewn. [5] On the death of James I in 1625, his son Charles I (1600-1649) ascended the throne. Charles had not been raised to rule. His childhood had been spent in the shadow of his brother, Prince Henry, who had died in 1612, and Charles had little practical experience of government. However, Charles, was more attractive than his father. He was a devout Anglican and, after the first few years of his marriage, a devoted husband. No king was ever more anxious to protect his poorer subjects. He upheld the craftsman against the manufacturer, the wage-earner against the employer, and the peasant against the gentry who wanted to enclose the land. Unfortunately, these virtues were overshadowed by his autocratic, uncompromising character and by policies that antagonized the most powerful classes in the kingdom. The Stuarts, it seems, lacked the political finesse of the Tutors, especially in dealing effectively with Parliament. Charles dissolved Parliament in 1625, 1626 and finally in 1629, after which he ruled alone until 1640. The government and the church hierarchy, especially under the Archbishop of Canterbury, William Laud, [6] became increasingly repressive as Laud tried to force complete conformity with the Anglican doctrine and ceremony, causing many Puritans to emigrate. Those who remained formed a powerful element within the Parliamentarian Party. Neither King Charles nor Archbishop Laud were tender in their dealings with the Puritans, those who opposed them had their ears cut off and their noses slit. Laud controlled the hated Star Chamber, and used it for his own purposes. In 1637, Charles ordered the Scots to accept a new prayer book based on Laud's High-Church ideas. The Scottish people were far more strongly Presbyterian than the English, and when the bishop of Edinburgh tried to use the new service, an angry woman threw a stool at him. This action touched off a riot and led to a National Covenant to resist religious innovations. The Covenanters abolished episcopacy and seized Edinburgh Castle. Charles invaded Scotland, precipitating the First Bishops War, but his military weakness required Charles signed the Treaty of Berwick in 1639.

In the mean time, Charles called upon Sir Thomas Wentworth, first Earl of Strafford and Lord Deputy of Ireland, who called up the 8,000 man strong Irish army. Charles, however, lacked the money to fund an army for a new war against the Scots. This drove Charles to convene the Short Parliament, April 13, 1640 in an attempt to raise the necessary money, but was rebuffed. Charles dissolved the Short Parliament on May 5, 1640. Although still lacking money, Charles challenged the Scots again. In 1640, the Scottish Covenanters again invaded and took Northumberland and Durham, supported by Parliament and the Puritans. Charles was unable to prevail and concluded the Second Bishops War with the Treaty of Ripon, [7] and agreed that the Scottish army would remain on English soil and receive payments until a peace was concluded. Charles then called the Long Parliament on November 3, 1640 in the hope of getting money to pay off the Scots, but once in session, the House of Commons showed little disposition to vote taxes until its grievances had been heard (listed as the "Grand Remonstrance" [8]). The deputies abolished the courts of the Star Chamber and of the High Commission, which had exercised the ecclesiastical jurisdiction of the crown, and passed acts requiring that Parliament be held every three years and that the king's chief minister be executed. Parliament also passed a militia bill, the purpose of which was to raise an army. Charles fearfully acquiesced and continued to raise his own army but later was goaded by his wife into entering the Commons with a band of followers on January 4, 1642, to arrest John Pym [9] and four other members who had been instrumental in Parliaments "Grand Remonstrance" in 1641. "The birds," Charles discovered, "had flown," but with this action the English Civil War (1642-1646, 1648, 1649-1651) began. The King fled London on January 10th. [10] At first, the opposing forces were about evenly divided; the first battle took place on October 23rd, 1642 at Edgehill in Warwickshire it was a draw. [11] In 1643 the war widened. Charles negotiated a cease-fire with the Catholic rebels in Ireland that allowed him to bring Irish troops to England. But the intervention of Scotland on the side of Parliament in 1643 (on the creation of the Solemn League and Covenant) and the formation of a well-trained English army (the "Roundheads" [12]) turned the tide against the king, who was defeated at Newbury on September 20, 1643. [13] Subsequent defeats of the royalist army in the battles of Marston Moor (July 2, 1644), [14] Newbury (October 27, 1644), [15]Naseby (June 14, 1645) [16] and Oxford (June 24, 1646) left Charles no recourse but to surrender (to the Scots in May 1646, who turned him over to the Puritans in February 1647 on payment of an appropriate ransom; he subsequently escaped on November 11, 1647 from Hampton Court to the Isle of Wight, and made a separate peace with the Stuart Scots). Royalist uprisings in Kent and Wales in April 1648 were put down quickly. The victors then quarreled. The Presbyterian wing of the Puritan movement, supported by the Scots, sought to set up a constitutional monarchy with Charles at its head and their creed as the established church of England. In this, they were opposed by the army, which was more radical than parliament. Many soldiers wanted a republic and still more were Independents, a left-wing branch of Puritanism. The Independents favored religious toleration for all except the Catholics and Anglicans and opposed Presbyterianism as the established church. Added to these political and religious grievances, Parliament refused to pay the troops. Charles saw his chance. He tried to play the army against Parliament, and the Scots against the English, until all but the staunchest royalists had lost faith in him. Finally, Oliver Cromwell (1599-1658), in disgust, [17] put an end to the farce by defeating the invading Scottish Royalist army in August, 1648 at Preston, purging Parliament of ninety-six Presbyterian members and other suspected royalists (and leaving only about 60 members), [18] and seizing, trying, and executing Charles I on January 30, 1649. The monarchy was terminated, [19] the House of Lords was dissolved, the Anglican Church was abolished, and the Commonwealth was declared. England was now ruled by a Council of State. In that same year, Cromwell commands armies sent first to crush Ireland in August, and then to crush Scotland, July, 1650.

Charles II, supported by royalists in both Scotland and Ireland, renewed the war in 1650. Cromwell defeated the Scottish Royalists at Dunbar on September 3, 1650. A year later, Charles II led another Scottish army into England, but was defeated at Worcester on September 3, 1651. [20] The Puritan government initially governed by the Long Parliament from 1640 to 1648, followed by the Rump Parliament from 1648 to 1653, and later led by Cromwell [21] as Lord Protector from 1653 to 1658 ushered in a very restrictive era called the "Puritan Revolution" (or "the Cromwellian Persecution" [22]). Disgusted with the infighting he saw, Cromwell dissolved the Rump Parliament and replaced it with the Nominated ("Barebones") Parliament in 1653.
Oliver Cromwell (25 April 1599 3 September 1658) was an English military and political leader and later Lord Protector of the Commonwealth of England, Scotland and Ireland. Born into the middle gentry, Cromwell was relatively obscure for the first 40 years of his life. After undergoing a religious conversion in the 1630s, he became an independent puritan, taking a generally (but not completely) tolerant view towards [1] the many Protestant sects of his period. An intensely religious mana self-styled Puritan Moseshe fervently believed that God was guiding his victories. He was elected Member of Parliament for Huntingdon in 1628 and for Cambridge in the Short (1640) and Long (164049) Parliaments. He entered the English Civil War on the side of the "Roundheads" or Parliamentarians. Nicknamed "Old Ironsides", he was quickly promoted from leading a single cavalry troop to become one of the principal commanders of theNew Model Army, playing an important role in the defeat of the royalist forces. Cromwell was one of the signatories of King Charles I's death warrant in 1649, and, as a member of the Rump Parliament (164953), he dominated the short-lived Commonwealth of England. He was selected to take command of the English campaign in Ireland in 164950. Cromwell's forces defeated the Confederate and Royalist coalition in Ireland and occupied the country bringing to an end the Irish Confederate Wars. During this period a series of Penal Laws were passed against Roman Catholics (a significant minority in England and Scotland but the vast majority in Ireland), and a substantial amount of their land was confiscated. Cromwell also led a campaign against the Scottish army between 1650 and 1651. On 20 April 1653 he dismissed the Rump Parliament by force, setting up a short-lived nominated assembly known as the Barebones Parliament, before being invited by his fellow leaders to rule as Lord Protector of England, Wales, Scotland [2] and Ireland from 16 December 1653. As a ruler he executed an aggressive and effective foreign policy. After his death in 1658 he was buried in Westminster Abbey, but after the Royalists returned to power in 1660 they had his corpse dug up, hung in chains, and beheaded. Cromwell is one of the most controversial figures in the history of the British Isles, considered a regicidal dictator by [3] [4] historians such as David Hume, a military dictator by Winston Churchill, but a hero of liberty by Thomas Carlyle and Samuel Rawson Gardiner. In a 2002 BBC poll in Britain, Cromwell was selected as one of the ten greatest [5] Britons of all time. However, his measures against Catholics in Scotland and Ireland have been characterised [6] [7] as genocidal or near-genocidal, and in Ireland his record is harshly criticised.
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