5 Engine Control Systems

5.1

Lambda

Control
heavily depend on !ue to measurement operation re"uires how accuand computaa closed

In stoichiometric rate the air-fuel tional tolerances, loop control.

engine operation, emission levels ratio can be kept at 1. sufficiently accurate stoichiometric

5.1.1 #toichiometric $peration of #I %ngines

In #I engines, the air-fuel ratio is either very lean at part load or stoichiometric at medium and high load. stoichiometric ratio of 1 should lead to an ideal combustion. &igure 5.1 shows the emissions at different air-fuel ratios. &or ' 1, the emissions of RC, CO and ($) are relatively low. !ue to turbulence and local inhomogeneity of the gas mi)ture, real combustion actually produces RC, CO and ($) at the same time. *y means of a catalytic converter, these raw emissions can be effectively reduced. It can be seen in &igure 5.+ that the emission rates after the catalytic converter vary highly with the air-fuel ratio , change of the average -.1. would already double the emission rates. /herefore, it is important to have an accurate closed loop lambda control to guarantee an average air-fuel ratio within a window smaller than -.1. around ' 1. 0hen engine speed and tor"ue change actual, lambda deviations of + 1. over a short period of time are allowed. If the average accuracy can be held, such deviations go into both directions. 0ithin the volume of the catalytic converter e)cursions of the air-fuel ratio in one direction are compensated by those in the opposite direction. t the engine e)haust, short time lambda deviations of a few percent do not deteriorate the emissions after the catalytic converter.

1--

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

-+ 2.3
+.4 1.5 1.+ -.6 -.56 -.71 1.- 1.-8 1.14

($, [g|kWh]
+-.15.1-.5.-956 -.71 1.- 1.-8 1.14

:C4, [g|kWh]
5.-

6.4.+.-.56 -.71 1.- 1.-8 1.14

Figure 5.1 ;easurement of e)haust gases, o)ygen -+ , hydrocarbon HC, nitrogen

o)ide ( $) and carbon mono)ide C$. /he concentration before the catalytic converter are indicated by dotted and the concentrations after the catalytic converter by straight lines.

/he block diagram of the lambda controlled #I engine is shown in &igure 5.1. /he amount of in<ected fuel is controlled by the engine control unit which gets its feedback from the lambda sensor in the e)haust pipe as well as the mass air flow signal in the inlet pipe. dditional variables like engine speed and engine temperature are also used in the control scheme. Catalytic Converter /he catalytic aftertreatment reduces the emissions considerably =supposing a correct lambda control at - 1>. !ue to turbulences and flame propagation, the air-fuel mi)ture is still incompletely burned. (o)ious gases like RC, CO and ($) are converted to C$+, :+$ and (+ by the catalytic converter. /he converter is integrated into the e)haust pipe. It consists of a ceramic or metal carrier substrate covered by a wash coat with an e)tremely large surface which is again covered with a thin layer of platinum and rhodium as shown in &igure 5.4 /he ratio of platinum to rhodium is appro)imately + to 1. !epending on the engine si?e about 1 - 1 g of the precious metals are used. /hey both support the chemical reactions, @latin supports more the o)idation of C$ and HC and

5.1. LAMBDA CONTROL

1-1

RC, 21--I g|kWh]

1.-

+.-

1.+.-

1.$ $A.7769 -.775 9 1.- 1.--+B -.776 -.775 1.- 1.--+

NO4Lx, [g|kWh] 1.-

C$C, [g|kWh]
1.+.-

1.+.-

1.$ $A.776 -.775 1.- 1.--+ -.776 -.775 1.- 1.--+ &igure 5.+ %mission rates of an engine after the catalytic converter at a static op-

erating point =engine speed 15-- r and tor"ue / - 65 (m>.

verage lambda =5--

cycles> should be within the indicated window.

rhodium supports more the reduction of the nitrogen o)ides ($). Deduction and o)idation processes are simultaneously running in the catalytic converter. /he conversion ratio is defined as the relative change of the gas concentration before and after the catalytic process.
CT
'(#

__

C !"

C$%&

C!"

=5.1>

/he conversion ratio has typical values of C) ical reactions are listed below, $)idation of RC and C$,
=5.+> =5.1> =5.4> =5.5>

7- .. /he most important chem-

1-+

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Figure 5.3 *lock diagram of a lambda controlled #I engine. Figure 5.4 %)ploded view of a catalytic converter.

5.1. LAMBDA CONTROL

Deduction of ($),
1-1

C$
:C+ C + =m

(+

C$+

=5.6>

C - ($ =m C 9>

(+ C 9:+ $ C m C$+ =5.8>

:+ C ($ (+ C :+ $ =5.5> $ther catalytic reactions,

#$+ C -+ #$+ C 1:+ -5:+ C ($

+ +(:1 C -+ E 2NH3 C C:4 :+ C 9-+

#$1 :+ # C +:+ $

( :1 C :+ $ +($ C 1:+HCN C 1:+

:+$
=5.7>

=5.1-> =5.11>

=5.1+> =5.11> =5.14> /he conversion ratio is influenced by the air-fuel ratio and the converter volume. !eviations of ' F 1. can be compensated for a short period of time. t stationary engine operation, the conversion ratio is high, even if the converter would be already partly damaged. !uring transients, e)cursions in the air-fuel ratio occur, leading to higher emissions. !uring the warm-up phase of the engine and the e)haust pipe, temperatures are too low for chemical reactions and the conversion ratio is poor. /he catalytic converter has to reach temperatures beyond 1-- oC to be effective. /here are several possibilities to accelerate engine warm-up. G fast heating of the e)haust pipe can be obtained by an ignition angle retard of e.g. 1-- F i F +--. /he combustion is shifted to a phase of the thermodynamic cycle, where the e)haust valves are already opened. n additional start-up catalytic converter is mounted very close to the engine where the e)haust gases get hotter soon. fter the warm-up period, this converter is bypassed.

G &resh air is added to the e)haust gases by a secondary air pump. /he engine runs with a rich mi)ture = F 1>. /he additional combustion process in the e)haust pipe heats up the catalytic converter. G /he catalytic converter is electrically heated. In order to reduce the re "uired heating power, the heater is concentrated in the region of the converter where the e)othermic reaction first starts.

1-4

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Figure 5.5 Hirconium dio)ide sensor

5.1.+ $)ygen #ensor

lambda sensor is used to measure the concentration of o)ygen -+ in the e)haust pipe. /he sensor is mounted in the collective e)haust pipe where the individual e)haust pipes from the cylinders end in. In engines with 6 or more cylinders two lambda sensors are used. In &igure 5.6 it can be seen, that the output voltage increases sharply at - 1. /hus the stoichiometric point can be determined. Hirconium !io)ide #ensor /he sensor consists of a solid ceramic electrolyte =?irconium dio)ide>, which conducts o)ygen ions at temperatures above +5-oC. /he outer electrode is covered with platinum. /he o)ygen partial pressure on the surface of the ceramic material is thus identical with the one inside the catalytic converter. /he inner electrode has a direct contact with the ambient air. /he e)haust gases flow around the outer electrodes. &igure 5.5 shows the construction of a Hirconium !io)ide #ensor. *ecause of a difference in the partial o)ygen pressure p=-+> inside and outside of the e)haust pipe, there is an electrolytic voltage between the electrodes,
=5.15>

/he internal resistance ranges from 1-8 0 at +-- oC to 5 1-1 0 at 5--oC. &igure 5.6 shows a characteristic step in the sensor voltage curve close to - 1. /his step is caused by the increase of the o)ygen partial pressure over several orders of magnitude inside the e)haust pipe around - I. /ypical values for

5.1. LAMBDA CONTROL

1-5
-.6 -

-.4I
-.+-I

Figure 5.6 $utput voltage of ?irconium dio)ide sensor

the open circuit voltages are,

,.-./)!0h1 # 5-- - 1--- +2

,*./345"1 # 5- - +-- +2

/he response time ranges from 15 to 1$ms. #trontium /itanate #ensor #trontium /itanate is a ceramic semiconductor material. Its conductivity de pends on the material temperature and o)ygen partial pressure. Conductivity in strontium titanate is less influenced by surface effects at high temperatures than in other materials. /he dependance of the probe resistance from the temperature decreases at higher temperatures leaving the dependance on lambda only. s can be seen in &igure 5.8, the strontium titanate sensor has a planar structure. /he resistance characteristic of the sensor is shown in &igure 5.5 n advantage of the planar device is its short response time of a few milliseconds after lambda deviations. /he protection pipe around the sensing device adds however further delays. *ecause of its operation at temperatures around 5-- C it can be fitted closer to the engine. In the engine model =see #ection 5.1.1> this leads to shorter time delays T4xh between e)haust valve and lambda sensor.

5.1.1 %ngine ;odel for Lambda Control

&igure 5.7 shows a suitable model of the engine for lambda control, CY L is the number of cylinders

1-6

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

0$64)7.8"g 3594)

04 )5+7.0 (4"($) 3594)

0$64 &.7.8"g 3594)

:43;4; 0$"&50&( h45&7.8"g 4340&)$;4 3594) (%<(&)5&4 :43;4; 0$"&50&(

Figure 5.7 @lanar structure of the strontium titanate sensor

1-+

1-1

1-o

1--1 I l t 1 -.7 -.75 1.- 1.-5 1.1

Figure 5.8 Desistance characteristic of the strontium titanate sensor

5.1. LAMBDA CONTROL

1
CY##L

1-8

J
1+ A CYL II n

K1

+=k-

1>

Figure 5.9 %ngine model for lambda control

is the respective cylinder 1, . . . , CY L is the time needed for one crankshaft revolution is the time delay between e)haust valve and lambda sensor

k
1 n
T4xh

Its simplified step response can be seen in &igure 5.1-. &uel is in<ected into the intake manifold and sucked into the cylinders at phase-shifted time periods. /his leads to the stair-step characteristic as a very simplified step response. &or controller design the steps are appro)imated by a first-order lag element with the following structure =see also &igure 5.1->,

=3,4

1 C T3,4 (
=5.16> /he combustion can be modeled as a delay time T<")" continuing until the opening of the e)haust valve. nother delay time T4xh results from the time the e)haust gas needs to get to the lambda sensor.
T4)h

varies in dependence of the mass air :ow between +- and 5-- +( Th%) " , time between opening of inlet and e)haust valves /l,e , the appro)imation delivers +=L- L LI>.
..

/he delay times can be summed up to,

T;,4 # T4xh C T<%) "

&igure 5.11 shows the simplified engine model containing only one lag time /l ,e and only one delay time T;,4 . /ypical values of the parameters are,
T;,4 .

1--

+(

1.$s

/l,e , 5- +( . . . -.5 s

1-5

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

(&4> 0h5"g4 $ ? )4 ? 4)4"04 35+<;5

Figure 5.10 #tep response and its appro)imation by a first-order lag =CLLM4> T ; .4

Figure 5.11 #implified dynamic portion of the engine model

#ince the model parameters vary significantly with the operating conditions of the engine, the parameters of the lambda control are adapted in dependence of the engine operating point =feed forward adaptation>. %ach control parameter is stored in a map over the engines operating points.

5.1.4 Lambda Control Circuit

/he characteristic between the output voltage N and the air-fuel ratio is nonlinear. fter several years of operation this characteristic slightly ages. /herefore the most stable measuring range of the characteristic is taken for control purposes. &igure 5.1+ shows, that it is located in the steep linear range of the characteristic. /he sensitivity factor in this range is =L . $utside the measurement range the characteristic is cut off. /he center of the measurement range $ is not at the desired reference value re f but is determined e)clusively by the stability of the characteristic. /he lambda reference value )4 ? must however lie within the range 2 o L , $ C L3. /he offset of o against the reference value )4 ? can be compensated e.g. by a directiondependant integral time constant of the @I controller.

5.1. LAMBDA CONTROL

1-7

'

'o

&igure 5.1+ Inverted -characteristic with limiting range L Figure 5.13 Closed loop-control circuit of the lambda control

/o get the classical structure of a control loop, the sign of the characteristic voltage N ='> is inverted. t the input of the controller a non-linear function is representing the range cut-off. /he closed loop-control circuit comprises a non-linear element and a delay time. /herefore it performs a limit cycle. &or an analytic calculation the method of the harmonic balance 2+43 is used where the input of the non-linear element receives a sine function with the limit cycle amplitude g, =5.18> &rom the output signal N=t> only the first term Nl=t> of a &ourier e)pansion is taken. /his approach is <ustified by the fact that higher order oscillations in the &ourier e)pansions are much more damped in the control loop than the first

11-

N=t> 5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS $ to

Figure 5.14 Limiting of the output sine function N=t>

order oscillation. /he amplitude of Nl=t> e"uals the &ourier coefficient Nl =see &igure 5.14>. /he time to is given by the ratio of L to g, #olving the integral and dividing by g leads to a gain (= g> of the nonlinear element for the first &ourier term, If the output range is strongly limited, meaning L FF g, the gain can be
appro)imated by,

=! O>

= >PL
T0
(

=5.1

0e assume the controller to be a @I-element with the following structure,

IK

/i s Pc
=5.17>

/he factor represents the steady-.state relationship between controller variable and air-fuel ratio . &irst the time parameter T0 is chosen to compensate the time lag T3,4 of the engine,

T0

T3,4 =5.+->

5.1. CONTROL
111 Figure 5.15 Control loop after lag compensation

LAMBDA

*ecause /l,e depends strongly on the operation point of the engine, T0 needs to

be adapted. &igure 5.15 shows the resulting structure of the control loop after compensation. /he open-loop transfer function results to
=5.+1> O=s> - ( =! g> s I- P-Ic

and the open-loop fre"uency response to /he stability limit of the closed-loop system is at
=5.+1>

/he fre"uency of the limit cycle O=<>,

is calculated from the imaginary part of

0ith 0g - + the real part yields,

=5.+6>

=5.+8>

=5.+5>

/he stability criterion of the control loop is given by =&igure 5.16>, Inserting %"uation 5.+6 into %"uation 5.+8 leads to or with %"uation 5.15
=5.+7>

11+

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS I+@G/A>I

+K /

8r /i P9

T5 4 I

K 9,K9 . 9
-I

\
~(DAg)
l1

'_ ) ) -/___// Re{(

I I |I |I

Figure 5.16 Doot locus diagram of lambda control

/he dependence of the delay time T;,4 on the operating point of the engine re "uires a feed-forward adaptation of the integral time constant /i. /he ma)imum amplitude of the limit cycle has been constrained by the lambda-window to,
=5.1->

%"uation 5.+7 determines the minimum value of the integration time constnant /i . Conse"uently the lambda control loop reacts relatively slow to dynamic transitions between operating points =see also &igure 5.+->. !uring long transient times, the lambda value leaves the 1 . window. In such situations, no)ious emissions are no longer reduced by the catalytic converter.

5.1.5 ;easurement Desults

If we assume the volume of the catalytic converter to be around 20 -.-16m1, then it contains an air mass of about +5 # -.$+kg =and no)ious e)haust gases>. t full engine load and speed, a mass air :ow of ma - 6-- kgBh shall run through the e)haust pipe. It will stay &0 # +5|+5 1+- +( in the catalytic converter. t engine idling, mass air :ow might be at Dkg|(. /his would stay &0 1+ s in the converter. /he fre"uency of the lambda control limit cycle must therefore be above

CC

G -. I :? at idling,

o 1-

:? at full load and speed.

5.1. LAMBDA CONTROL

111

&igure 5.18 shows measurement results of the lambda control factor & at an appro)imately stationary operating point of the engine. (o)ious emissions and before and after catalytic treatment are shown in one diagram. t stationary engine operation the catalytic converter has a high conversion ratio. &igures 5.15 and 5.17 show measurement results of the lambda control during dynamic engine transients of a driving test cycle. Dotational speed and load vary a lot during acceleration and deceleration. t dynamic engine transients we observe fast rotational speed variations e.g. caused by gear changes. #ince the integration time constant is limited by the lambda control limit cycle amplitude, mismatches occur where the lambda window is left and high peaks of no)ious emissions are generated.

5.1.6 daptive Lambda Control

/he dynamic performance of the lambda control is strongly restricted by the following parameters,
o given delay time of the engine T;,4 =see #ection 5.1.1> o amplitude of limit cycle

g F 1. =see %"uation 5.1->

/he integration time constant /i of the controller is constrained to the lower limit given in %"uation 5.+7. t engine transients to another operating point, the actual lambda needs up to several seconds for arriving back to the stoichiometric mi)ture =see &igure 5.+->. !uring this transition time the lambda window is left. In this section the remaining control errors shall be eliminated by an adaptive feed-forward control. *y that the original lambda control is relieved from compensating mismatches in transients. daptation of a &eed-forward Control ;ap /he lambda control loop compensates errors of the air-fuel ratio by a multiplicative correction factor & . /hese lambda correction factors are stored into a feed-forward control map in all engine operating points. Instead of performing the error compensation by the original lambda control loop, it can now be performed by the right & from the feed-forward control map without time delay. /he lambda mismatches during transients are thus overcome. /he problem is how to adapt the correction factors & in the feed-forward control map, when some engine operating points are only very rarely visited, due to special habits of individual drivers. %ventually an adaptation is even impossible. :igh no)ious e)haust emissions would thus remain during transients into these rarely visited operation points. /herefore a globally valid lambda compen-

sation approach is used rather than a local adaptation of correction factors in all engine operating points.

114

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , , 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 t,[s
0.5

Figure 5.17 %missions of lambdcontrolled engine at stationary with n - 15$$Qmin, / - 65 ( m, before and after catalytic converter

engine

operation

5.1. LAMBDA CONTROL

115
1--

5- -

2s3 +-1--

6-1--

1--

152s3

2s3

Additive lambda o !et error" since the absolute value of this offset is identical over the entire engine operating range, its impact is mostly felt at low engine power outputs. t medium or high power output, the relative error from the offset may be neglected. n e)ample is air lege bypassing the mass air :ow meter. ;ultiplicative lambda errors, since the gradient of the linear lambda function between fuel and air mass :ow is affected, its impact is e"ually felt at any engine operation. n e)ample is the air density error at :ap type air :ow meters. /his simplified error model is supported by practical e)perience in engine management systems.

116

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

5- I

t, 2s3 +-1-2s3

6-= 1-=
2s3

1-=

15Figure 5.19 %missions of lambda controlled engine after catalytic conversion, &/@:/+ driving-cycle

/he additive and multiplicative air mass :ow would have been
/he correct

errors

shall

now

be

compensated.

=5.11>

=5.1+>

/he corrupted characteristic is then /he compensation scheme comprises three steps.

5.1. LAMBDA CONTROL

118

:!&h!" &$34)5"04(
&igure 5.+- Control action & at the transition to a new operating point L(& +?

&h4

Figure 5.21 #implified error model for the lambda characteristic

115

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

a.> t medium and high engine power outputs, the additive error can be neglected.

9oM

C 9 o =5.11>

/he remaining multiplicative lambda error can then be compensated by the regular lambda control loop which generates a control output factor & inversely proportional to . It is averaged to suppress the limit cycle.
=5.14>

In the absence of errors, & product

would have been e"ual to 1 =stoichiometric>. /he 1 +5,o =5.15>

recovers the uncorrupted air-fuel ratio. /he control output is low-pass filtered into and is stored in a non-volatile memory at medium and high engine power outputs. PH i FA =5916> /aking advantage of the compensation factor FH i , the corrected mass air flow ma,$ can be calculated from the measured one a.
=5.18>

*y application of FR i , the gradient of the lambda characteristic is turned back to o. b.> /his is now employed at low engine power outputs. /he additive offset error ma can no longer be neglected.
=5.15>

=5.17>

Inserting %"uation 5.14 and 5.16 we get /he lambda control loop generates a multiplicative correction factor & low engine power output. It is averaged to suppress the limit cycle.
ELO # EA

also at

/he correct mass air :ow can be calculated as

=5.4->

=5.41>

c.> n additional control loop for compensating the additive error is now installed. ;erging %"uation 5.17 and 5.41 yields
=5.4+>

5.1. LAMBDA CONTROL

117 Figure 5.22 dditional integral controller for offset correction

If the two correction factors

ELO # FHz' for - $

=5.41> would be identical, then the offset error would be eliminated. /his is achieved by an additional integral control loop, which gets the difference FRi - EL$ at its input, and which generates the unknown offset ,0$)) at its output. /he lambda characteristic can now be corrected by subtracting ,0$)). /he corrected lambda characteristic is =5.44> #ince the original lambda control loop is unloaded from the correction task, there are no more mismatches during engine transients. *oth FH i and ,0$) ) are stored in a non-volatile memory, so that they are correcting the lambda characteristic even at open-loop operation. Desults of the Olobally Ralid Compensation In &igure 5.+1, a bypass leakage of -.1 mm+ was introduced into the intake system.

t stationary engine operation, the control output factor & first corrects the resulting air-fuel ratio. /his correction is then slowly shifted from the closed loop control to the adaptive compensation scheme. /he control output factor & slowly returns to a limit cycle around an average value of 1. /he real gain of global compensation comes when driving through engine transients such as shown in &igure 5.+4. /he vehicle is following the speed profile of an emission test. /he control output factor & is limited in its adaptation speed by the minimum value of the integration time constant. 0hen the ma<or portion of all lambda mismatches is globally compensated, the closed loop control is mostly relieved from the correction task. /he limited transient speed of & is no longer leading to no)ious e)haust emission spikes.

1+-

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

, , . , , ,, , , , , , . , , , 7 Q ; 10 i 11 19 1
n ?An3

Figure 5.23 Control output factor & with a bypass leakage in the intake system

5.+ Idle #peed Control

s a rule of thumb, fuel consumption of internal combustion engines increases proportional to engine speed at idling. /herefore, the idle speed should be made as low as possible. /he reduced engine idle speed can be held up with less engine power output. Contrary to that, load tor"ue variations such as the switch-on of the air condition compressor motor stay constant. %ngine tor"ue output steps compensating such loads thus increase relative to the basic tor"ue re"uired to keep the engine running. /his is a challenge for the idle speed control. /he actuation variable at #I engines is the mass air :ow into the engine, at !iesel engines the in<ected fuel amount. problem are gas pedal movements of the driver at idling. /hey modulate the actuation variable in competition to the control actuator, which also varies the same variable. 0hen the driver e.g. slowly increases the mass air flow in #I engines, the controller will reduce its actuator signal in order to regulate the

speed to the reference level. If in a ne)t step the driver would release the gas pedal, the control actuation takes some time to adapt to this. 0ith an improper design, the engine might stall in such situations. /he control scheme of #I engines presented in this section measures the engine speed and estimates the intake manifold pressure. /he dynamic behavior of the control loop is determined by the intake manifold =see #ection 1.+.6>, the energy

5.F. IDLE SGEED CONTROL

1+1
N, 1-2k hm

6- 1+- 15- +4- t, 2s3

:!&h 5;5>&5&7C$"
v, 2k hm3

1-- &igure cycle 5.+4 Desults of globally valid lambda compensation when driving through test

conversion process and the tor"ue balance at the crankshaft, which are modeled in the following section. t !iesel engines, the intake manifold model and the feedback of the intake manifold pressure are dropped.

5.+.1 %nergy Conversion ;odel and /or"ue *alance

/he energy conversion process is e)tremely comple) and highly nonlinear. In a simplified approach, the stationary dependence of the combustion tor"ue T0$+< from intake manifold pressure and engine speed shall be represented by a nonlinear map f+=n,pm>, which can be measured at all engine operating points. /he dynamic behavior is separately considered by a combination of first order lag time /l,e and a delay time T;,4 . /he lag time appro)imates the phase shifted operation of the engine cylinders, as seen in lambda control =see #ection 5.I.1>.

)
Q QAe

F/CY

I>

9 CY##L "#

=5.45>

1++

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

&igure 5.+5 @lant model for idle speed control of #I engines

/he delay time T;,4 covers the delay between the middle open position of the intake valves of a cylinder and the middle position of the energy conversion process. It shall be appro)imated by
T;,4 991J=4n>

=5.46> which is only half the value compared to that at lambda control. *oth time constants vary inversely proportional to engine speed. /he tor"ue balance at the crankshaft is

=5.48>

n engine with open clutch, i.e. without the driveline, has a moment of inertia in the range of E -915 9 9 $.1- kg +F *y introducing normali?ed variables, we get FH& I "$ . ;/"|"$1
#. T$

__

T0$+<

T3$5;

;& T$ T$

=5.45>

=5.47> with a time constant t ma)imum tor"ue output and engine speed

I
+F ,

-.1 kg

"$ /o

6--- min- I , - 1-- N+,

the time constant is TI # -.61s. 0hen accelerating from low engine speed with ma)imum tor"ue, the time constant TI is an order of magnitude smaller. Contrary, TI is an order of magnitude larger at high engine speed and minimum tor"ue output, e.g. when coasting. /he load tor"ue comprises friction, au)iliary drives and disturbances. /he complete plant model for idle speed control is shown in &igure 5.+5.

5.F. IDLE SGEED CONTROL

1+1

p, 2A

@,

@,

#I II##I I##$

% 5 10 t&

# !

~ J ~,

9C

&igure 5.+6 Comparison of measured and calculated manifold pressure

/he mass air flow a into the engine is measured, whereas the average intake manifold pressure m is calculated by integrating model %"uation 1.5-. comparison of measured and calculated manifold pressure is shown in &igure 5.+6. /aking into account the shifted scale for the model variables, there is an e)cellent tracking of the model to the real engine.

5.+.+ #tate #pace Control

In many vehicles, the idle speed is actually controlled with a @I! controller. /he differentiating ! portion is sometimes shifting the ignition angle, due to the smaller delays between angle advanceQretard and tor"ue response. In this book,

a state space controller shall be used, which feeds back the model pressure m and the measured engine speed n. ny unwanted driver actuation of the mass air flow generates a much faster response of the manifold pressure compared to that of the engine speed. /he engine delay time T;,4 cannot be compensated by the differentiating ! portion of the @I! control. &or this reason, state space control is superior to @I! control of the idle speed at #I engines. In a first step, the two maps f I =n,pm> and f+=n,pm> are lineari?ed at the idle speed operation point a,- , no, pm$ . Introducing first order differentials

1+4

ENI &@I ENF

&@+

and difference variables, we get

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

K K K K K K K K
J?3 O"
"##"$

J?3 J>+
J?F >+ >+$

O" "##"$

qf2 J>+
>+ >+$

=5.5->

=5.51> =5.5+> /he differential e"uation from the manifold model =%"uation 1.54> is Laplace transformed, and becomes together with %"uation 5.51 ( D>+ #_ ENI ."$# DN
pm,$ ma,o no ma,o pm,- ma,o

E>3

Ao DG+

C !. =5.51>

/he incoming air :ow !;a,in serves as a control input !N. %"uation 5.5+ is also Laplace transformed and e)tended by the engine lag and delay times.

/his is now inserted into the tor"ue balance =%"uation 5.45>. (eglecting the disturbance load tor"ue /lo5; for control purposes, we get /he stability analysis of the plant model and the controller design shall now be done by neglecting time constants T;,4 and T3,4. /he subse"uent approach simplifies to a second order linear state space model /he poles of the open-loop system are obtained from the characteristic e"uation

;4&/(I_ A1 # =5.58>

5.F. CONTROL
1+5

IDLE

SGEED

C =&@I pm,$
'
T"

FN2 no ' sC =&(I &@+ - &@I FN2 '' pm,- no KK +5,$ TI T$ 1 ' T" TI

+5,O

T$
=5. 55 >

Inserting %"ution 5.47 forTI and %"uation 1.51 for T" , this becomes
+
!2

S & @l FN2
C L
/+p

'
>
s

S
C

&(I
L

&@+

&@I

FN2

' (

(
/--

E--

+pE > - $ =5.57>

/he characteristic e"uation is independent of a specific normali?ation of the variables. /he two poles are

&@I

&(+ T 79

/ +@E-

&(+ T &@I +8rE A /

&or

the open-loop idle speed plant becomes unstable. /he controller shall be implemented by a proportional feedback

fold pressure and the engine speed.

//

DG+

I
#=N

- J =>,

@mA!(o

ma,o J --U J no

/he second order model of the closed-loop system is then =5.61>

=5.6+>

mani-

=5.61> of the s

2 IM Q -= C > - = C > Q 2
I
* no E

I
FN

@m,o

)N

L TJ T$ TI T$ E L no E
KKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKKK

=5. 64> /he control dynamics shall be determined by pole placement. /he characteristic e"uation of the closed-loop system is

;4&/(_I # AC1 # $ ,
S2

=&@I
/n

G+.
/n ,

,o

C & (+
C

'J s

ma,o
>+ ,o

TI T$ 1
=>

C
no =N

J S &@I

KKJ2

'

& (+ S & (l
T" +5 , T"

'

&@+ pm,o J
T"

KK n
=5. 65 >

1 TI T$

T" +5,K

1 TI T$ I

1+6

.G
+5,!"

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

Figure 5.27 *lock diagram of idle speed control

/he characteristic e"uation of a second order system with desired poles sl and
s+ is s+ =sl C s+> s
#l +2

$ =5.66>

comparison yields the control parameters

=> # #T"/(1

s+>

&@I

mA$

&(+

=5.68>

+5,o - E lo a n d

KN -

=5.65> In the practical calibration process of the idle speed control to an actual engine, these parameters can be tuned to make up for the neglected lag time /l, e and delay time T;,4 . /he complete block diagram of idle speed control is shown in &igure 5.+8. /he multiplication factor =R for the reference speed nre f is selected, so that the closed-loop system has no offset, i.e. n - $ and pm - $. /his is applying for the absence of disturbance load tor"ues. proportional control does however show still a stationary control offset in the case of disturbance inputs or parameter variations. /his is why an additional integral controller is introduced, which reduces stationary offset to ?ero. /he problem with integral control is, that a disturbance input from the driver could result in control actions integrating to its range boundaries. If the driver relin"uishes his input, the engine might stall.

5.F. IDLE SGEED CONTROL

>, [+<5)]
1+8
700 500 300 100 100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30

, 2s3
&igure 5.+5 #peed response after driver impulse input, without integral control

/here are however a number of ways to overcome such a so-called wind-up effect. heuristic approach could be used to interrupt integration, when a disturbance input from the driver is detected, e.g. by monitoring the throttle position. If #I engines would be throttled by a modulation of their intake valves instead of the throttle body butterfly, the intake manifold model could be deleted, simplifying the controller design. /he same applies for !iesel engines.

5.+.1 ;easurement Desults

/he idle speed controller was applied to a two-liter four cylinder #I-engine with power steering, automatic transmission and air condition. /he idle speed nin the absence of load disturbance tor"ues was 8+-mi n-I. &igure 5.+5 shows an aperiodic decay of the speed response after an acceleration impulse from the driver. (o additional integral control was applied in this test. /here is no undershoot when the speed levels off into its stationary value. In &igure 5.+7 various disturbance loads are applied to the state space control without integral control. /he stationary speed level is going down with increas-

1+5

5. ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS

AHn VE

AHn VE

$ 1 + 1 4 5 6 t,

Figure 5.29 #peed levels at various load tor"ues, without integral control

ing load tor"ue. /he stationary offset can be eliminated by means of additional integral control and feed-forward control of disturbance tor"ues. /his is demonstrated in &igure 5.1-. very critical case has been tried out in &igure 5.11. 0hen the engine speed sharply drops after a disturbance input from the driver, the position stick of the automatic transmission is shifted to !rive. /he resultant speed response shows only a small undershoot even in this case. /he idle speed control of !iesel engines can be done in a similar way. /here are two ma<or differences of the plant in comparison to #I-engines,

1. /he +.

intake manifold is unthrottled, so that the engine is getting the ma)imum possible mass air flow a in each operation point. 0ith direct fuel in<ection, the lag time /l,e may be significantly reduced.

/hese two points simplify the control design. complication would be turbo charging, which introduces a significant time constant for the response of the mass air :ow a to gas pedal transients.

5.1 Pnock Control

5.1.1 Pnocking at #I %ngines
!uring a combustion cycle, a portion of the air-fuel mi)ture may self-inflame, be fore it is reached by the flame front coming from the spark plug. /he condition

for this to happen is, that the self-inflammation time is shorter than the propagation time of the flame front. /he self-inflammation delay /id is appro)imated by 0oschni 211-3 as
/A?d - $.44ms

e)p=465-PQ> =pQpo>-1A17

=5.67> #elf-inflammation preferably happens at locations within the combustion chamber, which are distant from the spark plug, and which show high temperature