Expt. No.

: Date: AIM:

RADIATION PATTERN OF ANTENNAS

To study and plot the radiation characteristics of Yagi-Uda Antenna and Loop Antenna and to study its performance using MATLAB. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: THEORY: YAGI UDA ANTENNA: Yagi-uda or simply Yagi antennas are the most high gain antennas. It consists of a driven element, a reflector and one or more directors. i.e., Yagi uda antenna is an array of a driven element (or active element where the power from the transmitter is fed or which feeds received power to the receiver and one or more parasitic elements (i.e., passive elements which are not connected directly to the transmission line but electrically coupled). The driven element is a resonant half wave dipole usually of metallic rod. The parasitic elements of continuous metallic rods are arranged parallel to the driven element. They are arranged collinearly and close together with one reflector and one director. Due to the current flow in the driven element, voltage will be induced in parasitic elements. The phase and currents flowing due to the induced voltage depend on the spacing between the elements and upon the reactance of the elements. The reactance may be varied by dimensioning the length of the parasitic element. The spacing between driven Synthesized RF transmitter (VRFT 06VT) Synthesized RF receiver (VRFT 06VR) Antenna mounting setup Yagi antenna (receiver side) Dipole antenna (transmitter side) Antenna Intelligent Controller N-N cable 2 Nos. BNC-BNC cable 1No.

and parasitic elements are of the order of 0.1 to 0.15. The parasitic element in front of driven element is known as director and its number may be more than one, whereas the element in the back of it is known as reflector. The reflector is 5% more and director is 5% less than the driven element. General Characteristics: Yagi uda antenna has unidirectional beam of moderate directivity with light weight, low cost and simplicity in feed system design. It provides gain of the order of 8db or front to back ratio of about 20db. If three elements array (i.e., one reflector, one driven element and one director) is used, then such type of Yagi-uda antenna is generally referred to as beam antenna. It is also known as super directive or super gain antenna due to its high gain and beam width per unit area of the array. If greater directivity is desired, further elements may be used. It is a fixed frequency device i.e., frequency sensitive and a band width of about 3% is obtained. This much bandwidth is sufficient for television reception. LOOP ANTENNA: The loop antenna is a radiating coil of any convenient cross-section of one or more turns carrying RF current. It may assume any shape. (Example: Rectangular, square, triangular, hexagonal and circular). A loop antenna of more than one turn is called as frame. Currents are of the same magnitude and phase throughout the loop if dimensions are small in comparison to wavelength. Applications: Radio receiver. Aircraft receiver. Direction finding. UHF transmitters. Disadvantages: Suitable for low and medium frequencies only and not for high frequency. Transmission efficiency is very poor. Spurious induced voltages are produced if near by loops are present.

TABULAR COLUMN: Sl. No Angle (Degree) Gain(dBm)

PROCEDURE: YAGI UDA ANTENNA: Make the connection as shown in figure. Switch on the Antenna Intelligent controller, Synthesized RF transmitter and receiver. Set the RF frequency of (VRFT-06VT) and (VRFT-06VR) to 850 MHz (using 6 keys key pad). Connect the Yagi antenna to the receiver side. Connect the Dipole antenna at the transmitting end to get a good radiation pattern of Yagi antenna. Press the switch on the stepper motor setup. You will notice auto/manual mode in the Antenna intelligent controller select the required one. Note down the various angles (degree) and corresponding gain in the tabular column. Plot the antenna radiation pattern using Antenna Pattern Plotting Software, LCD in Antenna intelligent controller and Dot matrix printer. LOOP ANTENNA: Make the connection as shown in figure. Switch on the Antenna Intelligent controller, Synthesized RF transmitter and receiver. Set the RF frequency of (VRFT-06VT) and (VRFT-06VR) to 850 MHz (using 6 keys key pad). Connect the loop antenna to the receiver side. Connect the Dipole antenna at the transmitting end to get a good radiation pattern of loop antenna. Press the switch on the stepper motor setup. You will notice auto/manual mode in the Antenna intelligent controller select the required one. Note down the various angles (degree) and corresponding gain in the tabular column. Plot the antenna radiation pattern using Antenna Pattern Plotting Software, LCD in Antenna intelligent controller and Dot matrix printer.

TABULAR COLUMN: Sl. No Angle (Degree) Gain(dBm)

RESULT:
Thus the radiation characteristics of Yagi-Uda Antenna and Loop Antenna and its performance were studied using MATLAB.

PROGRAM CODE: clc; clear all; close all; d=input('Diagonal distance of Antenna (cm): '); f=input('Operating Frequency (GHz): '); pt=input('Transmitted Power (dB): '); pre=input('Received power at LOS for E plane (dB): '); prh=input('Received power at LOS for H plane (dB); '); w=3/(f*10); disp('Wavelength: '); disp(w); Rmin=(2*(d*d))/(w*100); disp('Minimum Distance: '); disp(Rmin); ge=4*pi*(Rmin*(10^(-2))/w)*(sqrt(10^(pre/10)/10^(pt/10))); gaine=10*log10(ge); disp('Gain for E plane: '); disp(gaine); gh=4*pi*(Rmin*(10^(-2))/w)*(sqrt(10^(prh/10)/10^(pt/10))); gainh=10*log10(gh); disp('Gain for H plane: '); disp(gainh); for i=1:100 theta(i)=pi*(i-1)/99; Ge(i)=abs(pre)*sin(theta(i))^8; Gh(i)=abs(prh)*sin(theta(i))^8; end figure(1) polar(theta,Ge); title('E plane'); figure(2); polar(theta,Gh); title('H plane'); SAMPLE INPUT AND OUTPUT: INPUT:

RADIATION PATTERN

Diagonal distance of Antenna (cm): 9 Operating Frequency (GHz): 9.296 Transmitted Power (dB): -21 Received power at LOS for E plane (dB): -32 Received power at LOS for H plane (dB); -35.9 Wavelength: 0.0323 Minimum Distance:

50.1984 Gain for E plane: 17.4107 Gain for H plane: 15.4607 OUTPUT:

E plane 90 40 120 30 60

150

20

30

10

180

210

330

240 270

300

H plane 90 120 30 40 60

150

20

30

10

180

210

330

240 270

300

Expt. No.: Date: AIM:

MEASUREMENT OF VSWR OF TRANSMISSION LINE IN BALANCED AND UNBALANCED CONDITION

To measure the VSWR interference of transmission line in balanced and unbalanced condition. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: o Transmission line trainer kit o Cathode Ray Oscilloscope o Resistive load o Capacitive Load o Inductive load FORMULA USED: VSWR=

THEORY: Transmission line trainer have specification like frequency domain analyzer, resistor impedance analyzer and the domain reflectometer. It has a 30-300 MHz sweep souce, with detector it is calibrated attenuator and it displays standing waves/maxima minima on CRO. It uses actual co-axial lines ratner man simulated one. It is used for impedance matching. It measures VSWR, reflection coefficient, Characteristic impedance, velocity of propagation, dielectric constant and signal attenuation in TDR and it also measure parameters of 50, 75 and 300 cables and study time domain reflectometry, location and nature of discontinuous, open/short mismatched terminators etc. It offers a complete view of the transmission line in analog and digital domain, which is essential for complete understanding of transmission line behavior.

DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN: a) 50 cable Termination Open Matched 75 Load short Load 220pF Load inductance b) Lossy cable Termination Unmatched Open Load short Load 220pF Load inductance c) 75 cable Termination Unmatched Open Load short Load 220pF Load inductance Vmax Vmin VSWR Vmax Vmin VSWR Vmax Vmin VSWR

LOSSES IN TRANSMISSION LINE: There are three main sources of losses in RF transmission lines. They are: o Copper losses o Dielectric losses o Radiation losses In telecommunication, standing wave ratio is the ratio of the amplitude of a partial SW at an antinode (maximum) to the amplitude at an adjacent node (minimum) in an electrical transmission line. The SWR is usually defined as a voltage ratio called the VSWR. It is also possible to define the SWR in terms of current resulting in the ISWR, which has the same numerical value. The power standing wave ratio is defined as the square of the VSWR. SWR is used as an efficiency measure for transmission lines, electrical cables that conduct radio frequency signals used for purpose such as connecting radio transmitters and receivers with their antennas and disturbing cable television signals. An ideal transmission line would have an SWR of 1:1 with all the power reaching the destination and no reflected power. PROCEDURE: Set up the equipment Connect the transmission line at the load out terminal. The slope will display a standing wave. This is due to the reflection from the other end of the line due to impedance mismatches. The load input provides a purely resistive transmitter. Adjust the impedances measure control so that the standing wave on the CRO are minimized.

RESULT: Thus the measurement of VSWR impedance of the transmission line in balanced and unbalanced conditions were done.

Expt. No.: Date:

MEASUREMENT OF ATTENUATION AND IMPEDANCE OF TRANSMISSION LINE ANALYZER

AIM: To measure the attenuation and the input impedance of the transmission line at different distances by using Transmission Line Analyzer. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: 1. Transmission line trainer kit 2. Patch cards 3. 20 MHz dual Oscilloscope 4. Multi-meter 5. Connecting Probes FORMULA USED: V= f *l*360/ THEORY: Concept of matched line: Though the concept of matched line is not treated in this manual in detail but the subject is certainly known to the students from the theoretical course. We have already found out the characteristic impedance of the line as 50 from the previous experiment. The short-circuited resistance of the line when measured with Digital Multimeter is shown to be 18.Therefore the total effective resistance of the line is 68. Assuming generator resistance Rg as 50 we must connect 18 Ri in series with the generator to match the line. For this purpose, it is recommended that the student must set Ri to 18 using DMM and RL to 68 initially and this setting should be utilized for all the experiments wherever terminated line experiment is done. Measuring the attenuation of line: The ohmic resistance R and the conductance G are responsible for energy disputation in the form of heat. These losses, which determine the attenuation characteristics, are expressed in terms of attenuation a and can be calculated by a=20 log (V2/V1)

Where, V1 = Amplitude of signal at input V2 = Amplitude of signal at output In this experiment we will measure the attenuation for the different trunks of transmission line available on the trainer. Measuring the input impedance of the line: The input impedance of the line depends on features like the ohmic resistance, the conductance, the inductance and the capacitance. It is also related to the resistance that loads the line at the opposite end and to both the frequency and voltage of the signal. The purpose of the first part of the test is to measure the input impedance of the line under different load conditions: 1. Line terminated with matched load 2. Open line 3. Short circuited line In the second part of the test we will measure the phase displacement between the input voltage and current, under the 3 conditions of line termination. When the modulus and phase displacement are known the impedance vector is fully identified. PROCEDURE: For measuring the attenuation of line: Adjust Ri and RL for 18 and 68 respectively with the help of DMM. Make the connections as shown in figure. Set the sine-wave frequency to approx 100 KHz and level to 0.4V. Oscilloscope Ch I shows applied input Ch II shows outputs. Measure the signal level at Input, and at 25, 50, 75 and 100m lengths. Now calculate the attenuations in dB at various lengths by the formula given below. a=20 log (V2/V1) The attenuation is approx -2dB at 100m. Try the same with open-ended line and short-ended line.

TABULAR COLUMN: MAGNITUDE RESPONSE: V1 (input) Matched Unmatched Matched V2 (output) Unmatched Attenuation = 20log(V2/V1) Matched Unmatched

Length (m) 25 50 75 100

PHASE RESPONSE: Co-ordinates Length (m) x 25 50 75 100 Matched y V2 (output) Unmatched x y Matched Unmatched =tan-1(x/y)

For measuring the input impedance of the line: Adjust Ri and RL for 18 and 68 respectively with the help of DMM. Make the connections as shown in figure. A 1 resistance in series between the generator and the transmission shown in figure allows measuring the value of input current. Set the sine-wave frequency to approx 100 KHz and level to 0.4V. Take readings of Vin and Vm (across 1) on oscilloscope. Calculate the input impedance according to the following formula: Zin = Vin / I = Vin / Vm x 1 at this frequency Change the frequency to 1 MHz and the values of Vin and Vm at this frequency. Note down these results. The input impedance at 100 KHz is around 80 and at 1MHz is around 50 Repeat the experiment with shorted and open line. line as

RESULT: Thus attenuation and impedence of the transmission line was calculated and tabulated.

Expt. No.: Date: AIM:

DESIGN OF FOLDED DIPOLE USING SPECTRUM ANALYZER

To design the folded dipole and check its frequency spectrum using spectrum analyzer. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: o TV antenna wire o Spectrum Analyzer o Probes FORMULA USED: = = where wavelength (m) c velocity of light (3x108) m/s f Frequency (GHz) l Length of the antenna wire (m) THEORY: A very important variation of conventional half wave dipole is the folded dipole. One of the applications of the folded dipole is impedance matching. A folded dipole is made of two half wave dipole, one continuous and the other split at the centre. Both have been folded and joined together in parallel at the ends. The split dipole is fed at the center by a transmission line, which is balanced. The radiation pattern of a folded dipole is same as the half wave dipole conventional dipole but the input impedance of the former is high. A folded dipole differs mainly from a

DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COLUMN:

Frequency (Hz)

Gain (dB)=log (Gain)

conventional dipole mainly on two concepts via directivity and broadness in bandwidth. The directivity of the folded dipole in bidirectional because of the distribution of currents in the parts of the folded dipole, input impedance becomes higher. As the radii of the two conductors are equal, the current flows in the two dipoles are equal in magnitude and phase. The input impedance at the terminals of the folded dipole antenna is equal to the square of the number of conductors comprising the antenna times the impedance at the terminals of a conventional dipole. The folded dipole antenna is then connected to the spectrum analyzer. Spectrum analyzer is an instrument which displays the electrical signal value in frequency domain. It geographically displays voltage or power as a function of frequency on a cathode ray oscilloscope, the selectivity and wide range of spectrum analyzer useful for communicating and measuring low level modulation. There are two basic types of spectrum analyzer, swept tuned and real time analyzer. PROCEDURE: Design the antenna length from the given frequency using Then form the antenna as dipole. Connect one positive end of crocodile line to a wire the middle of the folded dipole. Connect BNC end of one crocodile wire to the tracking generator button and others to the detector of the spectrum analyzer. Switch on the tracking generator button. Note down the clip in the curve around the given frequency. Plot the graph.
=

RESULT: Thus the folded dipole was designed and its operating frequency was checked.

Expt. No.: Date: AIM:

TESTING OF FILTERS USING NETWORK ANALYZER

To design and obtain the gain response and phase response of low pass filter and high To design different digital filters and to study its response using MATLAB

pass filter using network analyzer.

SOFTWARE USED: MATLAB THEORY: A Network analyzer is a network system that measures both amplitude and phase of a microwave signal over a wide frequency range in a reasonably small time. In network analyzer, the basic principle of measurement is to generate an accurate reference signal and compare this with respect to the test signal whose amplitude and phase are to be measured. A sweep signal generator feeds a power divider or splitter that converts into two signal the test signal and the reference signal .The device under test (DUT) is fed with the test signal and length equalizer takes in the reference signal .These test and reference signal are then converted to a standard IF frequency by a harmonic frequency converter .The output of the harmonic frequency converter is then used to determine the amplitude and phase of the test signal. A network is quite useful for measurement of both passive as well as active microwave components or network parameter .It is used for measurement of both impedance and gain characteristics of microwave devices .It uses a stimulus response method for testing over the frequency range of intersect .As these parameter are a function of frequency with complex variable, a swept frequency measurement becomes imminent.

A network analyzer can be scalar or vector .A scalar network analyzer provides only magnitude characteristics of microwave devices as a function of frequency .A vector network analyzer can measure complex reflection or transmission characteristics of microwave devices .The principle of measurement in both these methods is the same in that they compare the incident or input power with the transmitter or reflected waves depending upon the parameter to be measured. A vector network analyzer on the other hand can measure complex transmissionreflection characteristics of several microwave devices as a function of frequency, i.e. it measure both magnitude and phase information .It also compares the incident RF signal with the transmitted and reflected signal for measurement purpose . The major difference between vector network analyzer and scalar networks analyzer is the receiver architecture ,complexity and detection technique .In a scalar network analyzer, a diode detector is employed whereas the vector analyzer employs a multi channel receiver that is linear in its conversion characteristics .The broadband swept signal is converted to a fixed IF by employing fundamental or harmonic mixing .Magnitude of the signal can be measured in each of the receiver channels while phase relationship between any two receiver channels could also be measured .Thus complex impedance , phase delay characteristics , electrical delay , group delay and distance to fault in transmission structure measurement can be easily performed using vector analyzer. FILTERS Low pass prototype is the base for all types of filters such as high pass filter band pass filter and band stop filter. Scaling and transformations are used to design any filter from the prototype. Prototype filter elements can be scaled at any characteristic impedance and cut-off frequency. Let us design three elements low pass filter with 100 kHz cutoff frequency and 50ohm characteristic impedance. Step1: Get prototype elemental values from appendix = .035 = . 7 = .03 5 Step 2: use frequency and impedance scaling as given

= = = PROCEDURE: 1) The filter was connected to the signal output and the other end is connected to port 2 of the network analyzer. 2) Select the network analyzer which will ope aresponse graphic window. 3) Select the measurement and s21 to get the frequency response of the filter. 4) Select start menu and enter 50khz then select stop frequency and enter 200khz. 5) Then adjust the scale as reference.Position as5divscale/div=5db/div and reference value as -5db. 6) This will give the frequency response display. 7) Then select marker search and port on bandwidth switch and bring the cursor to the center. 8) Take the bandwidth reading low high and center frequency and also the Q factor and loss. 9) Then select format and select phase this will give the phase response. 10) Adjust the scale as division equal to 20 scale/div=90 and reference=180. 11) To see both the frequency and phase response together select display and number of traces equal to 2 then select allocate trace for display. RESULT: Thus the testing of filters using Network Analyzer and its performance were compared using network analyzer.

Digital BPF using Butterworth Approximation and Bilinear Transformation PROGRAM CODE: clc; alphap=2; alphas=30; omegap=[0.2 0.8]; omegas=[0.4 0.6]; [N,Wc]=buttord(omegap,omegas,alphap,alphas); disp(N); disp(Wc); [Nu,De]=butter(N,Wc,'bandpass','s'); disp(Nu); disp(De); [Nu1,De1]=bilinear(Nu,De,1); disp(Nu1); disp(De1); [H,W]=freqz(Nu1,De1); plot(W,abs(H)); axis([0 3.5 0 2]); title('frequency response of butterworth BPF using bilinear transformation'); xlabel('Normalized frequency'); ylabel('Magnitude |H(z)|'); OUTPUT:

Digital HPF using Chebyshev Approximation and Bilinear Transformation PROGRAM CODE: clc; alphap=2; alphas=70; omegap=0.2; omegas=0.4; [N,wc]=cheb1ord(omegap,omegas,alphap,alphas); disp(N); disp(wc); [Nu,De]=cheby1(N,0.1,wc,'high','s'); disp(Nu); disp(De); [Nu1,De1]=bilinear(Nu,De,1); disp(Nu1); disp(De1); [H,w]=freqz(Nu1,De1); plot(w,abs(H)); title('frequency response of chebyshev HPF using Bilinear transformation'); xlabel('Noramlized frequency'); ylabel('Magnitude |H(Z)|'); OUTPUT:

Digital LPF using Chebyshev Approximation and Bilinear Transformation PROGRAM CODE: clc; alphap=2; alphas=30; omegap=0.2; omegas=0.4; [N,wc]=cheb1ord(omegap,omegas,alphap,alphas); disp(N); disp(wc); [Nu,De]=cheby1(N, 0.1,wc,'s'); disp(Nu); disp(De); [Nu1,De1]=bilinear(Nu,De,1); disp(Nu1); disp(De1); [H,w]=freqz(Nu1,De1); plot(w,abs(H)); title('frequency response of chebyshev LPF using Bilinear transformation'); xlabel('Noramlized frequency'); ylabel('Magnitude |H(Z)|'); OUTPUT:

PROGRAM CODE:

FIR FILTER design using Window

clear all; clc; hold on; N=25; alpha=(N-1)/2; eps-0.001; wc=3.14/2; n=0:1:N-1; hd=(sin((n-alpha+eps)*3.14)-sin(wc*(n-alpha+eps)))/((n-alpha+eps)*3.14); wn=0:0.001:3.14; wr=boxcar(N); hrect=hd.*wr'; [h,w]=freqz(hrect,1,wn); plot(w/3.14,20*log(abs(h)),'-k'); %Hanning window wh=hanning(N); hann=hd.*wh'; [h1,w]=freqz(hann,1,wn); plot(w/3.14,20*log(abs(h1)),'-.k'); %hamming window whm=hamming(N); hamm=hd.*whm'; [h2,w]=freqz(hamm,1,wn); plot(w/3.14,20*log(abs(h2)),'--k'); %Blackman indow wbl=blackman(N); hblack=hd.*wbl'; [h3,w]=freqz(hblack,1,wn); plot(w/3.14,20*log(abs(h3)),'-k'); title('frequency response of low pass FIR filter for different windows'); xlabel('Normalized frequency'); ylabel('Magnitude |H(z)|'); legend('rectangular','hanning',' Hamming','Blackman');

OUTPUT:

Digital HPF using Butterworth Approximation and Bilinear Transformation PROGRAM CODE: clc; alphap=2; alphas=30; omegap=0.2; omegas=0.5; [N,wc]=buttord(omegap,omegas,alphap,alphas); disp(N); disp(wc); [Nu,De]=butter(N,wc,'high','s'); disp(Nu); disp(De); [Nu1,De1]=bilinear(Nu,De,1); disp(Nu1); disp(De1); [H,w]=freqz(Nu1,De1); plot(w,abs(H)); title('frequency response of butterworth HPF using Bilinear transformation'); xlabel('Normalized frequency'); ylabel('Magnitude |H(Z)|'); OUTPUT:

Digital LPF using Butterworth Approximation and Impluse Invariance transformation PROGRAM CODE: clc; alphap=2; alphas=30; omegap=0.2; omegas=0.5; [N,Wc]=buttord(omegap,omegas,alphap,alphas); disp(N); disp(Wc); [Nu,De]=butter(N,Wc,'s'); disp(Nu); disp(De); [Nu1,De1]=impinvar(Nu,De,1); disp(Nu1); disp(De1); [H,W]=freqz(Nu1,De1); plot(W,abs(H)); title('frequency response of butterworth LPF using Impluse variance'); xlabel('Normalized frequency'); ylabel('Magnitude |H(z)|'); OUTPUT:

Expt. No.: Date: AIM:

MEASUREMENT OF EYE PATTERN

To study eye pattern using fiber optical link. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: Link-B Kit with power supply. Patch chords. 1-Meter Fiber cable. 20 MHz Dual Channel Oscilloscope. THEORY: The eye-pattern technique is a simple but powerful measurement method for assessing the data-handling ability of a digital transmission system. This method has been used extensively for evaluating the performance of wire system and can also be applied to the optical fiber data link. The eye-pattern measurements are made in the time domain and allow the effects of waveform distortion to be shown immediately on an oscilloscope. An eye-pattern can be observed with the basic equipment. The output from a pseudo random data pattern generator is applied to the vertical input of an oscilloscope and the data rate is used to trigger the horizontal sweep. This result in the type of pattern shown in the figure which is called the eye pattern because the display shape resembles a human eye. To see how the display pattern is formed, consider the eight possible 4-bit-long NRZ combinations. When these 16 combinations are superimposed simultaneously, an eye pattern as shown in the figure is formed. To measure system performance with the eye-pattern method, a variety of word pattern should be provided. A convenient approach is to generate a random data signal. SThis type of signal generates ones and zeros at a uniform rate but in a random manner. A variety of pseudo random pattern generators are available for this purpose. The word pseudo random means that generate combination or sequence of ones and zeros. A pseudo random bit sequence comprises four different 2-bit-long combination, eight different 3-bit-long combination, sixteen different 4-bit-long combination, and so on

MODEL GRAPHS:

up to a limit set by the instrument. After this limit has been generated, the data sequence will repeat. A great deal of system performance information can be deduced from the eyepattern display. They are signal amplitude distortion, timing jitter and system rise. TIME INTERVAL: The width of the eye opening defines the time interval over which the received signal can be sampled without error from intersymbol interference. AMPLITUDE DISTORTION: The height of the eye defines the Amplitude distortion. The maximum distortion is given by the vertical distance between the top of the eye opening and the maximum signal level. The greater the eye closure, difficult to detect the signal. NOISE MARGIN: The height of the eye opening at the specified sampling time show the noise margin or immunity to noise .Noise margin is the percentage ratio of the peak signal voltage V1 for an alternating bit sequence to the maximum signal voltage V2 as measured from the threshold level. NOISE MARGIN= (V1/V2)*100 TIMING JITTER: Timing jitter is also referred as edge jitter or phase distortion. If the signal is sampled in the middle of the time interval then the amount of distortion T at the threshold level indicates the amount of jitter. Timing jitter is given by Timing jitter=(T/Tb)*100 where Tb - one bit interval. PROCEDURE: Make connection as shown in the fig. Connect the power supply cables with proper polarity to Link-B kit. While connecting this , ensure that the power supply is OFF. Keep switch SW7 as shown in fig.to generate PRBS signal. Keep switch SW8 towards TX position. Keep switch SW9 towards TX1 position.

TABULAR COLUMN: Input bit Data rate (bps) Input 32k 64k 128k interval (Tb in ms) Distortion time (T in ms) Timing Jitter (T/Tb)x100 Noise margin (V1/V2)x100

 Keep the switch SW10 to EYE PATTERN position. Select PRBS generator clock at 32 KHz by keeping jumper JP4 at 32K position . Keep Jumper JP5 towards +5V position. Keep Jumper JP6 shorted. Keep Jumper JP8 towards TTL position. Switch ON the power supply. Connect the post DATA OUT of PRBS generator to the IN post of digital buffer. Connect OUT post of digital buffer to TX IN post Slightly unscrew the cap of LED SFH756 (660nm).Do not remove the cap from the connector. Once the cap is loosened, insert the one meter fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back. Slightly unscrew the cap of RX1 Photo Transistor with TTL logic output SFH551V. Do not remove the cap from the connector .Once the cap is loosened, insert the other end of fiber into the cap. Now tighten the cap by screwing it back. Connect CLK OUT Of PRBS Generator to EXT.TRIG. of Oscilloscope . Connect detected signal TTL OUT to vertical channel Y input of oscilloscope .Then observe EYE PATTERN by selecting EXT.TRIG KNOB on oscilloscope as shown in fig .Observe the eye pattern for different clock frequencies .As clock frequency increases the EYE. Opening becomes smaller. RESULT: Thus the eye pattern characteristics were studied using fiber optic link.

Expt. No.: Date: AIM:

MEASUREMENT OF BIT ERROR RATE

To Measure the Bit error Rate of P-N Sequence for the 32 Bit, 64 Bit. 128 Bit EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: Link-B kit with power supply. Patch chords One meter fiber cable 20MHz dual channel oscilloscope THEORY: BIT ERROR RATE: In telecommunication transmission, the bit error rate(BER) is a ratio of bits that have errors relative to the total number of bits received in a transmission. The BER is an indication of how often a packet or other data unit has to be retransmitted because of an error. Too high a BER may indicate that a slower data rate would actually improve overall transmission time for a given amount of transmitter data since the BER might be reduced , lowering the number of packets that had to be present. BIT ERROR RATE MEASUREMENT: A BERT (bit error rate tester) is a procedure to measure the BER for a given transmission The BER, or quality of the digital link, is calculated from the number of bits received in error divided by the number of bits transmitted. BER = (Bits in Error) / (Total bits transmitted) Using bench test setup, this is easily measured by means of a comparator in which the transmitted bits are matched in an EXOR gate with the received bits. Diagram shows the schematic of the device used for measurements.

If the bits are alike at the EXOR gate input when clocked in from the D flip flop, the output is low .If they are different, the EXOR output goes high, causing an event count. The event counter can be set for various time periods. In general, the longer the time period, the more the accurate count. A Random character generator and white noise source should be used for these measurements. The number of bit error depends upon the amount of noise entering the system. White noise , or background noise has an average or RMS value that is exceeded periodically by peaks that rise many times the level. These Peak only for a very short period of time. When the peak equals or exceeds the signal level, that is noise energy = bit energy, there is 50/50 chance of error. The peak time periods can be computed statistically from the error function. Initial sequence be 1 0 0 1 be the 4 bit switch setting on SW7. CLOCK STATES 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 D1 D2 D3 A 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 D4 B 1 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 1 1 C

TABULAR COLUMN: Noise intensity At 32kbps: Low Medium High At 64kbps: Low Medium High At 128kbps: Low Medium High Error Count Decimal Value BER

In link-B PRBS sequence is generated by using a 4- bit shift register whose feedback is completed by the EX-OR gate. Hence the sequence repeats constantly with a period corresponding to 16 clock states. Length of the sequence = 24 = 16. Now the Pseudo Random Sequence pattern is C =1010111100010011

PROCEDURE: The general connections that are made for eye pattern has to be made eye pattern has to be made. Connect TTL OUT to bit error rate event counter data IN port and port IN of noise source. Connect port OUT of noise source to port RX DATA of BER event counter. Connect CLK OUT of PRBS generator to CLK IN of BER event counter. Press switch SW11 to start counter. Vary port P3 for noise event to observe effect of noise level on the error count. Observe the error count LED for error count in received signal in time 10seconds. RESULT: Thus the Bit error rate was studied using fiber optic link.

Expt. No.: Date:

STUDY OF OPTICAL FIBER EVENTS USING OPTICAL TIME DOMAIN REFLECTOMETER

AIM: To study the principles of OTDR operation and to find the length of each optical fiber event spools that is connected to the OTDR. EQUIPMENTS REQUIRED: o o o o o A laser diode source with high speed modulator and a PC based pulse generator. An APD detector. A coupler module. An oscilloscope and A few fiber events

FORMULA USED: Distance between events = ime ta en to reach the distance ime ta en to reach the distance = Speed of light in fiber = Speed of light in fiber ime noted in oscillator

Speed of light in vaccum efractive index

THEORY: Optical Time Domain Reflectometer (OTDR) is an essential instrument that can give a complete picture of the events in a fully deployed fiber. The basic building blocks of OTDR are: o A light source that is capable of launching high power at high speed to get the narrow pulse width possible. This is usually a laser diode that can give more power and having very fast rise and fall times to operate at higher speeds. o A detector that detects even the very small power of the reflected pulses from reflective events and backscatters light from the fiber. This is usually an APD that can detect even very low powers. o A processing block (usually a processor) to process the data obtained from the reflections and the backscattering and to display as a processed curve and to give the measurements.

DIAGRAM:

TABULAR COULMN: Peak Number 1st peak 2nd peak 3rd peak Distance in meter

PROCEDURE: Switch ON the source (modulator) and the APD receiver. Generate the pulse from the pulse generator. Choose the smallest pulse width so that smaller length events can be well within the detectable region. Adjust the collimating lens of the laser source such that a very fine spot may be focused on to the fiber tip. This is to ensure that maximum power couples into the fiber. Adjust the X-Y positioned such that the fiber is in line with the spot and the light couples into the fiber. Adjust the collimating lens further to ensure that the maximum power couples into the fiber. Use power meter to decide on this. Observe the pulse in one channel of the oscilloscope and the APD output on the other channel of the oscilloscope. Unlock and slightly release the first connector of the fiber events that connects to the directional coupler so that effects similar to the dead zone of the OTDR will be nullified. The first pulse is the reflection from the first events that connects to the directional coupler. The second pulse is the reflection from the second event and so on. Slightly remove one connector in the middle of the event and observe the effect of received pulses on the oscilloscope. Completely disconnect the last event and see the number of pulses disappearing from the oscilloscope. Restore all the events intact and note down the total time between each pulse seen in the oscilloscope (APD output). Compare the above effects with a professional OTDR is available. Find the distance between the events using the following formulae. Distance between events = ime ta en to reach the distance ime ta en to reach the distance = Speed of light in fiber = RESULT: Thus the length of the each optical fiber event spools connected to the OTDR are found and compared. Speed of light in fiber

ime noted in oscillator

Speed of light in vaccum efractive index

Expt. No.: 12 Date:

OPTICAL, MICROWAVE LINK DESIGN USING MATLAB

AIM: To simulate the microwave and optical link design using MATLAB SOFTWARE USED: MATLAB

PROGRAM CODE: clc; clear all; d=input('Enter the Distance between the Stations: '); f=input('Enter the Frequency: '); r=input('Enter the Reliability: '); B=input('Enter the Antenna Bandwidth: '); x=input('Enter the minimum Carrier to Noise Ratio: '); lf=input('Enter the Feeder Loss: '); lb=input('Enter the Branching Loss: '); g=input('Enter the Diameter: '); At=((4*3.14^2*g^2*f*10^18)/(9*10^16)); Ar=At; fd=30*log10(d)+10*log10(6*.125*7.4)-10*log10(1-r)-70; lp=20*log10(4*3.14/(3*10^(8)))+20*log10(f*10^9)+20*log10(d*10^3); N=-174+10*log10(B*10^6); cmin=x+N; Pt=fd+lp-At-Ar+lb+lf+cmin; disp('The Free Space Path Loss: '); disp(lp); disp('The Fading Margin: '); disp(fd); disp('Cmin: '); disp(cmin); disp('Power Transmitted:'); disp(Pt);

MICROWAVE COMMUNICATION LINK DESIGN

SAMPLE INPUT AND OUTPUT: INPUT: Enter the Distance between the Stations: 50 Enter the Frequency: 7.4 Enter the Reliability: 0.999 Enter the Antenna Bandwidth: 7.72 Enter the minimum Carrier to Noise Ratio: 30 Enter the Feeder Loss: 9.4 Enter the Branching Loss: 3 Enter the Diameter: 4.8 OUTPUT: The Free Space Path Loss: 143.8014 The Fading Margin: 18.4120 Cmin: -75.1238 Power Transmitted: -1.4932e+005 OPTICAL FIBER LINK DESIGN PROGRAMCODE: clc; clear all; Ps=input('Enter the LED output power: '); PsdBm=10*log10 (Ps/0.001); disp (PsdBm); C=input('Enter the number of Connectors: '); Closs=input ('Enter the Loss at each Connector: '); Lc=C*Closs; L=input ('Enter the Length: '); a=input ('Enter the Attenuation: '); CL=L*a; S=input ('Enter the number of Splices: '); Sloss=input ('Enter the Loss at each Splice: '); Ls=S*Sloss; SM=input ('Enter the System Margin: '); TL=CL+Lc+Ls+SM; Pr=input ('Enter the Receiver Sensitivity: '); fprintf('\nTotal Loss:%f',TL); fprintf('\nPower Received:%f\n',Pr); Pt=PsdBm-Pr; fprintf ('Total Loss:%f',Pt);

SAMPLE INPUT AND OUTPUT: INPUT: Enter the LED output power: 0.0001 -10 Enter the number of Connectors: 2 Enter the Loss at each Connector: 1 Enter the Length: 4.8 Enter the Attenuation: 3 Enter the number of Splices: 4 Enter the Loss at each Splice: 0.2 Enter the System Margin: 6 Enter the Receiver Sensitivity: -32 OUTPUT: Total Loss:23.200000 Power Received:-32.000000 Total Loss:22.000000 RESULT: Thus the microwave and optical link were designed and simulated using MATLAB

FEATURES: Fiber optic transmitter : Two wavelengths(660 nm and 950 nm) Fiber optic receiver : 2 types (PIN photodiode, Photo Transistor detector) On board function generator Numerical Aperture measurement Fiber optic analog link Fiber optic digital link. Pulse code modulation using CODECchip Manchester coding / decoding 16 channels time division multiplexing Two 8 bit marker Channel indication Bit indication Noise source Bit error measurement PRBS generator Eye pattern Voice communication PC to PC communication using Rs232 interface Switch faults Multimedia based interactive e-manual SPECIFICATIONS Transmitter : 2 fiber optics LED Transmitter 01 : Peak wavelength of emission 950nm Infrared (SFH 450V) Transmitter 02 : Peak wavelength of emission 660nm (SFH756V) Receiver : 2 photo detector Receiver 01 : Photo transistor with responsivity of 80 / W (SFH 350V) Receiver 02 : Photo detector with TTL logic output (SFH 551V) Modulation techniques Digital communication with pulse code modulation (PCM) using Motorola MC145502 CODEC chip Coding/ decoding : Manchester coding/decoding technique Noise generator : White noise source output Amplitude : 0 ~ 5Vpp PRBS generator : 16-bit switch selectable Clock : 32 KHz, 64 KHz, 128 KHz Bit error rate : 10-bit counter with LED indication upto 255 count measurement Multiplexing : Time division multiplexing, 16 channels (64 Kbits/Sec)

ADVANCED FIBER OPTIC COMMUNICATION TRAINER KIT

Figure: Advanced Fiber Optic Communication Trainer Kit

Frame marker : Two 8-bit user selectable markers in alternate frames Data rate : 1.024 MBits / Sec Voice PCM : 2 channels voice PCM with telephone hand sets (A Law) Analog input : 1Vpp Analog bandwidth : 300 KHz FWHM spectral width : 100 nm PC to PC communication : PC to PC communication using 660 nm and 950 nm LED through RS-232 standard RS-232PortType : Two9PinD typeconnector Baudrate : Maximum 115.2KBps Baud Fiber optic cable : Type: plastic optical cable, stepindex,multimode Core refractive index-n1 : 1.492 Clad refractive index-n2 : 1.406 Numerical aperture Acceptance angle Fiber diameter Outer diameter Number of Fibers Fiber length Switch Faults Test points Interconnections Power supply : 0.50 : 60 : 1000microns : 2.2mm :4 :1Meter,3Meter : 8 switch faults : 45 test points : 2mm banana sockets : GND,+5V,+12V, -12V

 FEATURES

TRANSMISSION LINE ANALYZER KIT

SPECIFICATIONS

Actual transmission line provided Characteristics of transmission line including attenuation, phase delay, matching, frequency response and standing waves Measurement of attenuation, input impedance and phase displacement Fault localization within the line Detailed instruction manual Set of required patchcords

Transmission line Coaxial Cable 100m (25m x 4 ) Impedance matching 0ohm to 100ohm variable load (quantity 2), 1ohm fixed load Interconnections 2mm sockets on all input / output connections Test Points 10 On-board circuit mimic Illustrates functional blocks for ease of experimentation Supporting Equipments FG20DDS DSO-050C5 / 20MHz dual trace CRO DMM-20 LCR-010H / LCR-010B Not supplied along with trainer

Figure Transmission Line Analyzer Kit

FEATURES Simultaneously tracks upto 12 satellites Receiver and satellite status indicator Land navigation Navigation updates every second One pps output for timing measurement LED indication with beeper for receiver section Software interface with signal strength indication and survey window Mains supply and battery operated Multimedia based interactive e-manual SPECIFICATIONS GPS Receiver board Frequency : 1.575 GHz Channels Onboard clock and system processor Receiver sensitivity Update rate Acquisition time : -165dBW minimum : 1 second : 15 seconds warm : 12

GPS RECEIVER BOARD

Position accuracy Non-differential GPS : 15 meters RMS (100 meters with selective availability on) Velocity accuracy : 0.2 m/s RMS steady state One-pulse-per-second : 1 microsecond at rising edge accuracy of PPS pulse Electrical Characteristics Input voltage : +3.6Vdc ~ 6.0Vdc regulated 150 mVpp ripple Input current : 120 mA typical,140mA maximum 20 mA while in power down Software interface Dual channel CMOS / TTL level with user selectable baud rate (300, 600, 1200, 2400, 4800), NMEA0183 Version2.0 ASCII output (GPALM, GPGGA, GPGSA, GPGSV, GPRMC,GPVTG, PGRME, PGRMT, PGRMV, PGRMF, LCGLL, LCVTG) Inputs Initial position, date and time (not required)- Earth datum and differential modeconfiguration command, almanac Outputs : Position, velocity and time -Receiver and satellite status -Geometry and error estimates

Figure GPS Receiver Board

Binary TTL output data format, Binary format phase data LED and beeper indication for self check cycle LED indication for active RS-232 interface GPS Antenna MCX style connector Typical attenuation : 30dB/100meter@1GHz (RG-174 cable) Operating frequency : L1 1575.42 1.023 MHZ (typical) Input impedance : 50 Ohm VSWR Polarization Azimuth coverage Elevation coverage antenna element Axial ratio Filtering Total gain Noise Figure Power consumption Mounting method : 1.5(typical ) : Right hand circular : 360 degree : 0 degree to 90 degree minimum at 0 Degree elevation : 3 dB (typical) : -40 dB (1670MHz) (typical) -40 dB (1480MHz) (typical) : 24 dBi (typical ) w/6m. cable : 1.0 dBi (typical), 1.5 dB (typical) : 20 mA (typical) : Magnet

Gain characteristics of : Gain: 3.0 dBi (typical) - 10 dBi

Power requirements : 5 Vdc

4 Switch faults 2 mm banana socket interconnection, (GND, +12V) / Battery.