Dept of ECE

RESISTOR COLOR CODE CHART COLOR BLACK BROWN RED ORANGE YELLOW GREEN BLUE VIOLET GRAY WHITE GOLD SILVER NO COLOR FIRST FIGURE 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NIL NIL NIL SECOND FIGURE 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 NIL NIL NIL MULTIPLIER TOLERANCE 1 10 100 1000 = 1K 10 K 100 K 1000K = 1M 10 M 100 M 1000M 0.1 0.01 NIL NIL 1% 2% 3% 4% NIL NIL NIL NIL NIL 5% 10% 20%

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE EXPT NO: 1 DATE: STUDY OF BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

AIM: To study and identify the basic electronic components and devices.

ELECTRONICS: Electronics is the branch of science, engineering and technology that deals

with electrical circuits involving active electrical components such as vacuum tubes, transistors, diodes and integrated circuits, and associated passive interconnection

technologies. The nonlinear behavior of active components and their ability to control electron flows makes amplification of weak signals possible and is usually applied to information and signal processing. Similarly, the ability of electronic devices to act as switches makes digital information processing possible.

ACTIVE COMPONENT: The components which generate or modify energy in the form of current or voltage are called as active components. Example: Voltage sources, Current sources, Transistors, etc.

PASSIVE COMPONENT: The components which store the energy in the form of current or voltage are called as passive components. Example: Resistors, Capacitors, Inductors, etc.

RESISTOR: A resistor is a passive two-terminal component of an electrical circuit that resists the flow of electrical current. A resistor has two terminals across which electricity must pass, and is designed to drop the voltage of the current as it flows from one terminal to the next. A resistor is primarily used to create and maintain a known safe current within an electrical component. Resistance is measured in ohms (), after Ohm's law. This rule states that electrical resistance is equal to the drop in voltage across the terminals of the resistor divided by the current being applied to the resistor

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE CAPACITOR:

A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in an electric field. The forms of practical capacitors vary widely, but all contain at least two electrical conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference (voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops across the dielectric, causing positive charge to collect on one plate and negative charge on the other plate. Energy is stored in the electrostatic field. An ideal capacitor is characterized by a single constant value. Capacitance is measured in farads (F). This is the ratio of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them. Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies.

INDUCTOR: An inductor (or reactor or coil) is a passive two-terminal electrical component used to store energy in a magnetic field. An inductor's ability to store magnetic energy is measured by its inductance, in units of henries. Inductors called chokes are used as parts of filters in power supplies or can be used to block AC signals from passing through a circuit.

DIODE: A diode is a semiconductor device with two terminals, typically allowing the current to flow in only one direction. A diode contains two electrodes that act in much the same manner as semiconductors. The positive or p-type is usually the anode and the negative or ntype is the cathode. The most common function of a diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction), while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). This unidirectional behavior is called rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

Transistor

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE ZENER DIODE:

A Zener diode is a voltage reference device that makes use of the reverse bias characteristics of a doped positive-negative (P-N) junction, which is made of positive (P)type and negative (N)-type semiconductor materials. While a normal diode has a relatively high reverse-breakdown voltage, a Zener diode has a reverse breakdown as low as 1.2 volts direct current (VDC). The Zener diode, like the normal diode, has a band to mark the cathode, or the negative electrode. In forward bias, where the anode is positive and the cathode is negative, the Zener diode works like a normal diode. Zener diodes are widely used as voltage references and as shunt regulators to regulate the voltage across small circuits.

LIGHT EMITTING DIODE: A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor diode that glows when a voltage is applied. LEDs are used as indicator lamps in many devices and are increasingly used for other lighting.

TRANSISTOR: A transistor is a semiconductor device used to amplify and switch electronic signals. It is composed of a semiconductor material with three terminals (E-Emitter, B-Base, C-Collector) for connection to an external circuit. A voltage or current applied to one pair of the transistor's terminals changes the current flowing through another pair of terminals. Because the controlled (output) power can be much more than the controlling (input) power, a transistor can amplify a signal. Today, some transistors are packaged individually, but many more are found embedded in integrated circuits. There are two types of transistors, NPN and PNP.

TRANSFORMER: A transformer is an electrical apparatus designed to convert alternating current from one voltage to another. It can be designed to "step up" or "step down" voltages and works on the magnetic induction principle. A transformer has no moving parts and is a completely static solid state device, which ensures under normal conditions, a long and trouble-free life. It consists, in it's simplest form, of two or more coils of insulated wire wound on a laminated steel core. When an alternating voltage is introduced to one coil, called the primary, it creates

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

Multimeter

Cathode Ray Oscilloscope

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

a fluctuating magnetic field in the iron core. This fluctuating field then induces an alternating voltage in the other coil, called the secondary or output coil. The change of voltage (or voltage ratio) between the primary and secondary depends on the turns ratio of the two coils.

VOLTMETER: A voltmeter is a device used to measure the voltage or potential difference between two points in an electrical circuit. Voltage is measured in volts (V). Analog voltmeters move a pointer across a scale in proportion to the voltage of the circuit; digital voltmeters give a numerical display of voltage by use of an analog to digital converter.

AMMETER: An ammeter is a device used to measure the electric current in a circuit. Electric currents are measured in amperes (A), hence the name. Instruments used to measure smaller currents, in the milliampere range, are designated as milliammeters

MULTIMETER: A multimeter or a multitester, also known as a VOM (Volt-Ohm meter), is an electronic measuring instrument that combines several measurement functions in one unit. A typical multimeter may include features such as the ability to measure

voltage, current and resistance. Multimeters may be used in analog or digital circuits-analog multimeters (AMM) and digital multimeters (often abbreviated DMM or DVOM.)

CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE: The cathode ray oscilloscope is an electronic-display device containing a cathode-ray tube (CRT) that generates an electron beam that is used to produce visible patterns, or graphs, on a phosphorescent screen. The graphs plot the relationships between two or more variables, with the horizontal axis normally being a function of time and the vertical axis usually a function of the voltage generated by the input signal to the oscilloscope.

RESULT: Thus the basic electronic components have been studied and identified.

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

Soldering

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE EXPT. NO: 2 DATE:

10 SOLDERING OF BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS AND CHECKING ITS CONTINUITY

AIM: To solder and desolder the basic electronic components in Printed Circuit Board (PCB) and check its continuity. COMPONENTS REQUIRED: S. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Name Soldering Iron Solder Flux Vacuum Plunger (Solder Sucker) Needle Nose pliers Wire stripper Digital multimeter Range Quantity 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

THEORY: Soldering: Soldering is the process in which two or more metal items are joined together by melting and filling a filler metal into the joint, the filler metal has a relatively low melting point. The filler metal used in the process is called solder. Soldering Accessories: Soldering iron: A soldering iron is a tool used for applying heat to two adjoining metal parts such that the solder may melt and fill between those parts, binding them securely and conductively. A soldering iron is composed of a heated metal tip and an insulated handle. Heating is often achieved electrically by passing current through a heating element. Solder: Solder is an alloy (mixture of tin and lead), typically 60% tin and 40% lead where it is melted to join metallic surfaces. It melts at a temperature of about 200oC. Coating a surface is called tinning because of the tin content of solder. The best size of solder for electronic circuit boards is SWG (Standard Wire Gauge). BSAU GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

11

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE Flux:

12

Flux is used to prepare the surfaces of the conductors prior to soldering. Flux removes oxidation from the conductors and maintains oxide-free surfaces at elevated temperature during the soldering process. This allows all surfaces to wet properly. The most common flux used in hand soldering of electronic components is rosin, a combination of mild organic acids extracted from pine tree. Soldering Iron Tip: The most commonly used soldering iron tip is iron-clad which has long life spans. Iron-clad tips cannot be filed or sanded when they become oxidized but they must be replaced. Many tip shapes are available but miniature needle or chisel point tip are best for most work. Copper tip is also used but they have the disadvantages of short lifespan and poor wetting properties. Desoldering: Desoldering is the removal of solder and components from a circuit for troubleshooting, repair purposes and to salvage components. Vacuum Plunger and soldering iron are mainly used in desoldering. Desoldering requires application of heat to the solder joint and removing the molten solder so that the joint may be separated. Copper wick usage is another technique used for desoldering. Continuity test: A continuity tester is an item of electrical test equipment used to determine if an electrical path can be established between two points; that is if an electrical circuit can be made. The circuit under test is completely de-energized prior to connecting the apparatus. The tester consists of an indicator in series with a source of electrical power, terminating in two test leads. If a complete circuit is established between the test leads, the indicator is activated. The indicator may be an electric light or such a device might also be fitted with a buzzer. This led to the term Buzzing out a circuit (Which means to test for continuity).

PROCEDURE: SOLDERING: 1) Place the soldering iron in its stand and turn it ON. The iron will take few minutes to reach its operating temperature of about 400oC. 2) Wait few minutes for the soldering iron to warm up. BSAU GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

13

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

14

3) Melt a little solder on the tip of the iron. This is called tinning and it will help the heat to flow from the irons tip to the joint. 4) Hold the soldering iron like a pen neat the base of the handle. 5) Touch the soldering iron onto the joint to be made. Make sure it touches both the component lead and the track. 6) Hold the tip there for few second and geed a little solder onto the joint. It should flow smoothly onto the lead and track to form a volcano shape as shown in the diagram. Apply the solder to the joint. 7) Take away the solder, then the soldering iron, while keeping the joint still. Allow the joint to cool down before you move the circuit board. 8) Thus the component is soldered completely. DESOLDERING: With a desoldering pump (Solder sucker) 1) Set the pump by pushing the spring-loaded plunger down until it locks. 2) Apply both the pump nozzle and the tip of your soldering iron to the joint. 3) Wait a second or two for the solder to melt. 4) Then press the button on the pump to release the plunger and suck the molten solder into the tool. 5) Repeat if necessary to remove as much solder as possible. 6) The pump will need emptying occasionally by releasing the spring-loaded plunger. With solder remover wick (copper braid): 1) Apply both, the end of the wick and the tip of the soldering iron, to the joint. 2) As the solder melts, most of it will stick onto the wick. 3) Remove the soldering iron and then the wick. 4) Cut off and discard the end of the wick coated with solder.

RESULT: Thus the basic electronic components have been soldered and desoldered in a PCB and its continuity has been checked.

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE BREADBOARD: FIGURE 1:

15

BREADBOARD LAYOUT:

TO MEASURE VOLTAGE:

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE EXPT. NO: 3 DATE: BREADBOARD ASSEMBLY OF SIMPLE ELECTRONIC CIRCUIT

16

AIM: To assemble a simple electronic circuit in the bread board and check its output. COMPONENTS REQUIRED: S. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 Resistor Voltmeter Ammeter Regulated Power Supply (RPS) Bread board Connecting wires Name Range 1 K (0 10) V (0 10) mA (0 30) V Quantity 3 1 1 1 1 few

THEORY: The Breadboard A breadboard is a temporary circuit board for testing and prototyping circuits, no soldering is done on the board, this mean it is faster and easier to prototype circuits. Figure 1 shows a breadboard. A breadboard has lots of holes. The 2 rows of holes at either end are for power one for positive (gray) one for negative (black). The power strips go horizontally in 5's where as the component strips go vertically also in 5's. A circuit is completed when all the desired strips form a loop and are all connected sequentially. ICs are inserted across the central gap with their notch or dot to the left. Wire links can be made with single-core plastic-coated wire of 0.6mm diameter (the standard size). Stranded wire is not suitable because it will crumple when pushed into a hole and it may damage the board if strands break off. When putting parts on breadboard you must concentrate on their connections, not their positions on the circuit diagram.

PROCEDURE: To measure voltage: 1) Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram without the voltmeter.

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE TABULATION: Parameter Theoretical Practical Source Voltage VS (V) Voltage across R1 V1 (V)

17

Voltage across R2 or R3 V2 (V)

TO MEASURE CURRENT:

TABULATION: Parameter Theoretical Practical Current through R1 I1 (mA) Current through R2 I2 (mA) Current through R3 I3 (mA)

THEORETICAL CALCULATION: Source voltage VS: Voltage across R1 is V1 = I1R1 Voltage across R2 or R3 is V2 = I2R2 or I3R3

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

18

2) To measure to voltage across the resistor R1 (V1), connect the voltmeter in parallel to R1 . 3) The resistor R2 and R3 are in parallel to each other. So the voltage across both the resistors R2 and R3 are same. 4) To measure the voltage across the resistor R2/R3 (V2), connect the voltmeter in parallel to the resistor R2/R3. 5) Tabulate the readings in the tabular column. 6) According to Kirchhoffs voltage law, the source voltage (VS) generated from the RPS must be equal to the sum the voltage drop across R1 (V1) and across R2 (V2). To measure current: 1) Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram without the ammeter. 2) To measure the current (I1) flowing through the resistor R1 connect the ammeter in series with the resistor R1. 3) To measure the current (I2) flowing through the resistor R2 connect the ammeter in series with the resistor R2. 4) To measure the current (I3) flowing through the resistor R3 connect the ammeter in series with the resistor R3. 5) Tabulate the readings in the tabular column. 6) According to Kirchhoffs Current law, the current I1 entering a node is equal to the sum of the currents I2 and I3 leaving the node.

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

19

To find the current flowing through R1: Req = R2 || R3 = Total resistance R = R1 + R2 Current flowing through R1 is I1 = VS/R1

Current flowing through R2 is

Current flowing through R3 is

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

20

RESULT: Thus the simple electronic circuit is assembled in the bread board and its output is verified.

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

21

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: (Half wave rectifier without capacitor)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM: (Half wave rectifier with capacitor)

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE EXPT NO: 4 DATE: HALF WAVE RECTIFIER

22

AIM: To study half wave rectifier with and without filter.

COMPONENTS REQUIRED: S. No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Transformer PN junction diode Resistor Capacitor CRO Bread board Connecting wires Name Range 230 Volts / 15 0 15 Volts, 200 mA 1N 4007 1 K 1000 F (0-20) MHz Quantity 1 1 1 1 1 1 few

THEORY: The process of converting AC voltage and current to Direct current is called rectification. An electronic device that offers a low resistance to current in one direction and a high resistance in the other direction is capable of converting a sinusoidal waveform into a unidirectional waveform. Diodes have this characteristic, which makes it a useful component in the design of rectifiers. In order to achieve a constant/pure DC voltage at the output, filtering should be done to the pulsating DC output of the rectifier. The output varies with the variation in AC mains. Hence a voltage regulator is used to maintain the output voltage at the same value.

PROCEDURE: Half Wave Rectifier: (i) Without Capacitor filter: 1. Test your transformer: Give 230v, 50Hz source to the primary coil of the transformer and observe the AC waveform of rated value without any distortion at the secondary of the transformer. BSAU GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE
MODEL GRAPH:

23

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE 2. Connect the half wave rectifier as shown in figure. 3. Calculate the amplitude and time period of the input waveform. 4. Calculate the amplitude and time period of the output waveform. 5. Plot the waveform using a graph sheet.

24

(ii) With capacitor: 1. Connect the half wave rectifier with filter circuit as shown in fig. 2. Connect CRO across load. 3. Keep the CRO switch in ground mode and observe the horizontal line and adjust it to the X-axis. 4. Switch the CRO into AC mode and observe the waveform. 5. Calculate the amplitude and time period of the output waveform and the plot it in a graph sheet.

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE TABULATION: Parameter Observation No of division Amplitude Input No of Division Time period Time/Div t1 t2 Volts/Div

25

Peak to peak value (VPP) = No of Div * Volts/Div (V)

T = (t1 + t2) * Time/Div (ms)

No of division Amplitude Output without filter Time period

Volts/Div

Peak value (VP) = No of Div * Volts/Div (V)

No of Division t1 t2

Time/Div

T = (t1 + t2) * Time/Div (ms)

No of division Amplitude Output with filter Time period

Volts/Div

Peak to peak value (V) = No of Div * Volts/Div (V)

No of Division Time/Div t1 t2

T = (t1 + t2) * Time/Div (ms)

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)

Dept of ECE

26

RESULT: Thus the Half-wave rectifier, with and without filters are constructed.

BSAU

GE 103 Engineering Practices Laboratory

I Sem (B.TECH)