Modue 12309

Apply Proper Grounding & Shielding

of Instrumentation Wiring
Instrumentation Trainee Task Module 12309
Ob|ectves
Upon completion of this module, the trainee will be able to:
1. Identfy the mnmum requrements for groundng n an nstaaton.
2. Identfy the mnmum requrements for shedng n an nstaaton.
3. Propery termnate an equpment ground per drawng specfcatons.
4. Propery termnate an equpment shed per drawng specfcatons.
Prerequstes
Successfu competon of the foowng Task Modue(s) s requred before
begnnng study of ths Task Modue: Instrumentaton Leve 3, Task
Modues 12307 and 12316.
Requred Tranee Materas
1. Tranee Modue
2. Requred Safety Equpment
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 2
APPLY PROPER GROUNDING AND
SHIELDING OF INSTRUMENTATION
WIRING
COURSE MAP
Ths course map shows a of the Wheels of Learning task modues n the
thrd eve of the Instrumentaton currcua. The suggested tranng order
begns at the bottom and proceeds up. Sk eves ncrease as a tranee
advances on the course map. The tranng order may be ad|usted by the
oca Tranng Program Sponsor.
LEVEL 3 COMPLETE
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 3
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Topic .
Page
1.0.0 Introducton
............................. 6
2.0.0 Groundng
.............................. 6
2.1.0 Groundng for Fre Preventon ...................
7
2.2.0 Groundng for Eectrca Shock Avodance
.............7
2.3.0 Groundng for Equpment Ground Faut Protecton ........... 8
2.4.0 Groundng for Lghtnng Protecton ..................
8
2.5.0 Groundng for Eectrca Nose Contro ...............
9
3.0.0 Types of Grounds
........................... 9
3.1.0 Safety Grounds
........................... 9
3.2.0 Sgna Grounds
........................... 11
3.3.0 Snge-Pont Ground Systems ....................
13
3.4.0 Mutpont Ground Systems
...................... 15
3.5.0 Hybrd Grounds
........................... 15
3.6.0 Practca Low-Frequency Groundng .................
15
3.7.0 Hardware Grounds
.......................... 17
3.8.0 Snge-Ground Reference for a Crcut ................
19
3.9.0 Ampfer Sheds
........................... 21
3.10.0Groundng of Cabe Sheds
...................... 22
3.11.0Ground Loops
............................. 25
4.0.0 Nose
................................. 27
4.1.0 Capactve-Couped Nose
....................... 27
4.2.0 Inductve-Couped Nose
....................... 29
4.3.0 Drecty-Couped Nose
........................ 30
5.0.0 Instrumentaton Shedng
...................... 32
6.0.0 Eectrca Sgna Nose
......................... 32
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 4
7.0.0 Shedng
............................... 33
7.1.0 The Effectveness of Shedng ...................
33
7.2.0 Fed Characterstcs and Shedng Matera ............
33
7.3.0 Shed Geometry
........................... 34
7.4.0 Nose Reducton
............................ 34
7.5.0 Sgna Cabe Instaaton
....................... 35
7.6.0 Shed Termnaton
.......................... 36
7.7.0 Use of Mutpe Sheds
........................ 37
8.0.0 Sgna Cabe Types
......................... 37
8.1.0 Fo Sheds
.............................. 37
8.2.0 Braded Cabe
............................ 37
8.3.0 Coaxa Cabe
............................ 37
9.0.0 Practca Instrument Shedng ...................
38
9.1.0 Ampfer Shed
............................ 38
9.2.0 Sgna Entrances to a Shed Encosure
............... 39
9.3.0 Shed-Dran Drecton
........................ 41
9.4.0 Shed Connectons - Segments
.................... 41
Trade Terms Introduced In Ths Modue
Absorption: The abty of shedng to absorb magnetc feds.
Attenuates: To decrease the eve of an eectrca sgna.
Bonded: The permanent |onng of metac parts to form an eectrca
conductve path.
Chokes: A term used for a co.
Common Mode Voltages: A votage of the same poarty on both
termnas.
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 5
Electromagnetic shield: Iron used to shed eectromagnetc feds.
Electrostatic shield: A braded copper shed that surrounds the
nsuated sgna ead.
erromagnetic: A term used to descrbe permeabty.
ilter capacitors: A capactor used as part of a fter network n a crcut.
!round "#EC$: A conductng connecton, whether ntentona or
accdenta, between an eectrca crcut or equpment and the earth, or to
some conductng body that serves n pace of the earth.
!rounded "#EC$: Connected to earth or to some conductng body that
serves n pace of the earth.
!rounded Conductor "#EC$: A system or crcut conductor that s
ntentonay grounded.
!rounding Conductor "#EC$: A conductor used to connect equpment
or the grounded crcut of a wrng system to a groundng eectrode or
eectrodes.
!rounding Conductor% E&uipment "#EC$: The conductor used to
connect the noncurrentcarryng meta parts of equpment, raceways, and
other encosures to the system grounded conductor, the groundng
eectrode conductor, or both, at the servce equpment or at the source of
a separatey derved system.
!rounded% E''ecti(el) "#EC$: Intentonay connected to earth through
a ground connecton or connectons of suffcenty ow mpedance and
havng suffcent currentcarryng capacty to prevent the budup of
votages that may resut n undue hazards to connected equpment or to
persons.
!rounding Electrode Conductor "#EC$: The conductor used to connect
the groundng eectrode to the equpment groundng conductor, to the
grounded conductor, or to both, of the crcut at the servce equpment or
at the source of a separatey derved system.
!round*ault Circuit*+nterrupter "#EC$: A devce ntended for the
protecton of personne that functons to de-energze a crcut or porton
thereof wthn an estabshed perod of tme when a current to ground
exceeds some predetermned vaue that s ess than that requred to
operate the overcurrent protectve devce of the suppy crcut.
!round*ault Protection o' E&uipment "#EC$: A system ntended to
provde protecton of equpment from damagng ne-to-ground faut
currents by operatng to cause a dsconnectng means to open a
ungrounded conductors of the fauted crcut. Ths protecton s provded at
current eves ess than those requred to protect conductors from damage
through the operaton of a suppy crcut overcurrent devce.
,ilohert-: A thousand cyces
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 6
#ormal Mode Voltages: A votage nduced across the nput termnas.
.ptical couplers: A devce that coupes a sgna between two crcuts
usng fber optcs.
/eactance: The opposton, ether nductve or capactve, to a current n
an AC crcut.
/e'lection: The abty of shedng to refect eectrc feds.
Shunt* A term used to ndcate parae.
1.0.0 INTRODUCTION-
Groundng and shedng s an mportant part of any nstrumentaton
nstaaton. Proper groundng and shedng procedures must be foowed
to ensure an effectve and safe eectrca envronment. Ths course covers
the mnmum requrements that must be met when nstang or workng
on nstrumentaton.
2.0.0 GROUNDING-
Groundng means a connecton to earth. The connecton can be va
structura stee, metac ppng, eectrca equpment, raceways, and
grounding conductors (wres). Groundng practces are a requrement for a
safe and secure facty. Most factes have many conductors connected to
earth such as budng stee, utty condut, and renforcng bars. The
conductors that carry power current can be earthed ony n very specfc
ways. The other earthed conductors form a grd that must eventuay
connect to the earthed power conductors.
A of these conductors form a grd that s an ntegra part of a groundng
system. The deberate earthng of the power system provdes:
1. Fre protecton
2. Eectrca shock avodance
3. Equpment ground faut protecton
4. Lghtnng protecton
5. Eectrca nose contro
6. Lmtng of hgh votage.
These needs are somewhat nterreated and must not be treated as
separate ssues by desgners. Groundng schemes can be but that meet
a of these requrements or a mted subset.
Proper groundng s a requrement of the Natona Eectrca Code (NEC:
ANSI/ NFPA-70). Ths code does not address the ssues of nose contro or
reducton. Specfcay, t s not nvoved wth the performance of
equpment, ony ts eectrca safety. The systems desgner must fnd a
way to meet code requrements and st provde a nose-free system.
2.1.0 GROUNDING FOR FIRE PREVENTION
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 7
Heat can be generated by current fow n poor connectons. Heat s smpy
I
2
R: 100 A fowng n 0.1O generates 1 kW. Ths heat coud become a fre
hazard.
Connectons between conductors are apt to be a weak spot n a
conductve path. Heat can be generated n defectve equpment or n
equpment mpropery operated. Ths heat can gnte any nearby
combustbe matera. If the crcuts are ocated n meta housngs, any fre
that resuts s not apt to spread.
2.2.0 GROUNDING FOR ELECTRICAL SHOCK AVOIDANCE
The smpest way to avod shock s to nsuate a conductors carryng a
votage. Ths can be accompshed by the use of nsuatng |ackets and
further by ocatng a power conductors n properygrounded meta
housngs, equpment housngs, or n the earth. Fences and other forms of
mechanca guards are aso used to keep peope away from hazardous
areas.
A shock hazard exsts f a power conductor fauts to ts housng. At ths
moment the housng s at the potenta of the power conductor. The
housng s momen-tary unsafe. If the housng s not a ow mpedance
back to the overcurrent protecton, the housng stays unsafe. The housng
s unsafe unt the overcurrent detector opens the crcut. Ths may take
cyces, seconds, or even mnutes dependng on the magntude of the faut
current.
Anyone touchng the housng and another grounded conductor can be
eectrocuted. To avod ths possbty, a meta surfaces that may come
nto contact wth a power conductor are bonded together and connected
back to the servce entrance ground and earth va a low-impedance path.
Under no crcumstances shoud these meta conductors carry any oad
current. Ths method of groundng makes sure that there w never be a
etha potenta dfference between any of the earthed conductors n a
facty.
Insuaton can be used to reduce shock hazard. Items wth a ot of use
wear out. Excessve heat causes nsuaton to become brtte and crack
apart. A frayed cabe can be a etha ob|ect. For exampe, a dangerous
stuaton can occur when the safety conductor n a hand dr s not
connected. If the body of the dr comes n contact wth a power
conductor and the user s standng n water, he may be eectrocuted. The
thrd wre or equpment groundng conductor shoud not be defeated.
Many deaths resut each year from fauty equpment groundng.
2.3.0 GROUNDING FOR EOUIPMENT GROUND FAULT PROTECTION
Equpment fauts shoud not be aowed to persst. Consder an equpment
housng that s earthed but not grounded by a separate conductor. If
there s a faut, the equpment housng may be eectrcay "hot." If an
overcurrent detector s not trpped, the excess current fow that resuts
can damage the equpment. Groundng the housng n a proper manner
forces the repar of the equpment so that t s not further damaged and t
cannot become a fre hazard.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 8
Another good exampe of a shock hazard occurs when filter capacitors are
paced from the power conductors to a meta chassis that s not grounded
by an equpment groundng conductor. The chasss assumes a potenta of
one-haf the power votage or about 60 V. A person touchng a grounded
conductor and the chasss w receve a shock.
2.4.0 GROUNDING FOR LIGHTNING PROTECTION
Lghtnng puses can carry currents n excess of 100,000 A. Currents of
ths magntude can destroy eectrca equpment, damage structures, and
eectrocute humans and anmas. It s cear that some form of ghtnng
protecton shoud be paced n most factes, partcuary where senstve
or crtca eectroncs are operated. The best protecton conssts of
provdng a convenent and drect path for ghtnng current to fow to
earth. Ths path shoud be deberatey desgned and nstaed. The NEC
covers some aspects of ths requrement, but the controng document s
the Natona Lghtnng Protecton Code (ANSI/NFPA-78).
The current need not fow n a crcut to do damage. The magnetc fed
near the path of current fow s very ntense. Ths rapdy changng fed
can nduce arge votages nto senstve crcuts. If the ghtnng puse
shoud enter a groundng grd, the mpedance shoud be ow enough to
avod any etha potenta dfferences.
If ghtnng currents enter a facty on the power conductors, a reatvey
hgh-mpedance crcut may cause the current to "sde fash" or foow a
path through ar, wood, or concrete. A hgh mpedance resuts when there
s a sharp bend or oop n the current path. If the path s through stee
encased n concrete, mosture n ths path can turn to steam, whch can
crack or damage the structure. The resutng exposon can start a fre. If
the ghtnng current shoud gnte nsuaton wthn the eectrca system
and t s encosed n a meta housng, ths type of fre s not apt to spread.
Lghtnng need not strke a facty drecty to cause damage to eectroncs.
Ground potenta dfferences n the vcnty of a strke can exceed 10,000
V. If sgna or power wrng s not correcty handed then energy can enter
a facty on these conductors and damage equpment.
Lghtnng-reated n|ures are rather rare. However, ths s no reason to
avod ghtnng protecton ssues n budng constructon. Attempts to
provde ghtnng protecton often fas short. Even wth good protecton,
ghtnng paths are often unpredctabe and damage can resut.
There s tte chance of testng for ghtnng safety. Factes that appear
safe may fa. Good protecton requres an understandng of bondng and
low-inductance wrng.
2.5.0 GROUNDING FOR ELECTRICAL NOISE CONTROL
Every par of conductors can support the transport of eectrca energy.
One of these conductors can be a ground or the earth. Grounds ncude
power conductors, safety conductors, budng stee, or utty conduts.
These conductors make many connectons to the earth. Currents fowng
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 9
n these grounds mpes that there must be potenta dfferences between
ground ponts. Ths mutpcty of grounds causes many of the nose
probems encountered n eectroncs. In genera, these potenta
dfferences cannot be shorted out by addng conductors. Ths s
partcuary true at frequences above a few kilohertz. Fortunatey there are
technques for handng a nose probems that need not be n confct wth
power safety. Desgners not famar wth sound nstrumentaton processes
may seek soutons that create a hazard. Both ssues need to be we
understood. Frst, what consttutes good safe power engneerng and
second, how nose-free systems can be but wthn ths framework.
3.0.0 TYPES OF GROUNDS-
Groundng s one of the prmary ways of mnmzng unwanted nose and
pickup. Proper use of groundng and cabng, n combnaton, can sove a
arge percentage of a nose probems. A good ground system must be
desgned.
One advantage of a we-desgned ground system s that t can provde
protecton aganst unwanted nterference and emsson. In comparson, an
mpropery desgned ground system may be a prmary source of
nterference and emsson.
Grounds fa nto two categores: (1) safety grounds and (2) sgna
grounds. If the ground s connected to the earth through a ow mpedance
path, t may be caed an earth ground. Safety grounds are usuay at earth
potenta, whereas sgna grounds may or may not be at earth potenta. In
many cases, a safety ground s requred at a pont that s unsutabe for a
sgna ground, and ths may compcate the nose probem.
3.1.0 SAFETY GROUNDS
Safety consderatons requre the chasss or encosure for eectrc
equpment to be grounded. Why ths s so can be seen n Figure 1. In the
eft-hand dagram Z
1
s the stray mpedance between a pont at potenta
V
1
and the chasss, and Z
2
s the stray mpedance between the chasss and
ground. The potenta of the chasss s determned by mpedances Z
1
and
Z
2
actng as a votage dvder.
The chasss coud be a reatvey hgh potenta and be a shock hazard,
snce ts potenta s determned by the reatve vaues of the stray
mpedances over whch there s very tte contro. If the chasss s
grounded, however, ts potenta s zero snce Z
2
becomes zero.
The rght-hand dagram of Figure 1 shows a second and far more
dangerous stuaton: a fused AC ne enterng an encosure. If there shoud
be an nsuaton breakdown such that the AC ne comes n contact wth
the chasss, the chasss woud then be capabe of deverng the fu
current capacty of the fused crcut. Anyone comng n contact wth the
chasss and ground woud be connected drecty across the AC power ne.
If the chasss s grounded, however, such an nsuaton breakdown w
draw a arge current from the AC ne and cause the fuse to bow, thus
removng the votage from the chasss.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 10
In the Unted States, AC power dstrbuton and wrng standards are
contaned n the NEC. One requrement of ths code specfes that 115-V
AC power dstrbuton n homes and budngs must be a three-wre
system, as shown n Figure 2. Load current fows through the hot wre
(back), whch s fused, and returns through the neutra wre (whte). In
addton, a safety ground wre (green) must be connected to a equpment
encosures and hardware. The ony tme the green wre carres current s
durng a faut, and then ony momentary unt the fuse or breaker opens
the crcut. Snce no oad current fows n the safety ground,
Fgure 1. (a) Stray Impedances (b) Insuaton Breakdown
t has no IR drop, and the encosures connected to t are aways at ground
potenta. The NEC specfes that the neutra and safety ground sha be
connected together at ony one pont, and ths pont sha be at the man
servce entrance. To do otherwse woud aow some of the neutra current
to return on the ground conductor. A combnaton 115/230-V system s
smar, except an addtona hot wre (red) s added, as shown n Figure 3.
If the oad requres ony 230 V, the neutra (whte) wre shown n Figure 3
s not requred.
3.2.0 SIGNAL GROUNDS
A ground s normay defned as a pont that serves as a reference
potenta for a crcut or system. Ths defnton, however, s not
representatve of practca ground systems because t does not emphasze
the mportance of the actua path taken by the current n returnng to the
source. It s mportant to know the actua current path to determne the
radated emsson or the susceptbty of a crcut. To understand the
mtatons and probems of "rea word" ground systems, t woud be
better to use a defnton more representatve of the actua stuaton.
Therefore, a better defnton for a sgna ground s a ow-mpedance path
for current to return to the source. Ths "current concept" of a ground
emphaszes the mportance of current fow. It mpes that snce current s
fowng through some fnte mpedance, there w be a dfference n
potenta between two physcay separated ponts. The reference pont
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 11
concept defnes what a ground deay shoud be, whereas the current
concept defnes what a ground actuay s.
The actua path taken by the ground current s mportant n determnng
the magnetc coupng between crcuts. The magnetc or nductve
coupng s proportona to oop area. But what s the oop area of a system
contanng mutpe ground paths? The area s the tota area encosed by
the actua current fow. An mportant consderaton n determnng ths
area s the ground path taken by the current n returnng to the source.
Often ths s not the path ntended.
Fgure 2. Standard 115-V AC Power Dstrbuton Crcut
Fgure 3. Combnaton 115/230-V Power Dstrbuton Crcut
In desgnng a ground t s mportant to ask: How does the current fow?
The path taken by the ground current must be determned. Then, snce
any conductor-carryng current w have a votage drop, the effect of ths
votage drop on the performance of the other crcuts connected to the
ground must be consdered.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 12
The proper sgna ground system s determned by the type of crcutry,
the frequency of operaton, the sze of the system (sef-contaned or
dstrbuted), and other constrants, such as safety. No one ground system
s approprate for a appcatons.
Sgna grounds usuay fa nto one of three categores: (1) snge-pont
grounds, (2) mutpont grounds, and (3) hybrd grounds. Snge-pont and
mutpont grounds are shown n Figures 4 and 5, respectvey. A hybrd
ground s shown n Figure 6. There are two subcasses of snge-pont
grounds: those wth seres connectons and those wth parae
connectons. The seres connecton s aso caed a common ground or
dasy chan, and the parae connecton s caed a separate ground
system.
In genera, t s desrabe to dstrbute power n a manner that paraes the
ground structure. Usuay the ground system s desgned frst, and then
the power s dstrbuted n a smar manner.
In the foowng dscusson of groundng technques, two key ponts shoud
be kept n mnd:
1. A conductors have a fnte mpedance, generay consstng of both
resstance and nductance. At 11 kHz, a straght ength of 22-gauge
wre one nch above a ground pane has more nductve reactance
than resstance.
2. Two physcay separated ground ponts are sedom at the same
potenta.
The AC power ground s of tte practca vaue as a sgna ground. The
votage measured between two ponts on the power ground s typcay
hundreds of mvots, and n some cases, many vots. Ths s excessve for
ow-eve sgna crcuts. A snge-pont connecton to the power ground s
usuay requred for safety, however.
3.3.0 SINGLE-POINT GROUND SYSTEMS
Wth regard to nose, the most undesrabe snge-pont ground system s
the common ground system shown n Figure 6. Ths s a seres connecton
of a the ndvdua crcut grounds. The resstances shown represent the
mpedance of the ground conductors, and I
1
, I
2
, and 1
3
are the ground
currents of crcuts 1, 2, and 3, respectvey. Pont A s not at zero potenta
but s at a potenta of
V
A
= (I
1
+ I
2
+ I
3
) R
1
and pont C s at a potenta of
V
C
= (I
1
+ I
2
+ 1
3
) R
1
+ (1
2
+ I
3
) R
2
+ I
3
R
3
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 13
Fgure 4. Two Types of Snge-Pont Groundng Connectons
Fgure 5. Mutpont Groundng Connectons
Fgure 6. Common Ground System
Athough ths crcut s the east desrabe snge-pont groundng system, t
s probaby the most wdey used because of ts smpcty. For non-crtca
crcuts t may be perfecty satsfactory. Ths system shoud not be used
between crcuts operatng at wdey dfferent power eves, snce the hgh-
eve stages produce arge ground currents whch, n turn, adversey affect
the ow-eve stage. When ths system s used, the most crtca stage
shoud be the one nearest the prmary ground pont. Note that pont A n
Figure 6 s at a ower potenta than pont B or C.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 14
The separate ground system (parae connecton) shown n Figure 7 s the
most desrabe at ow frequences. That s because there s no cross
coupng between ground currents from dfferent crcuts. The potentas at
ponts A and C, for exampe, are as foows:
V
A
= I
1
R
1
Vc = I
3
R
3
The ground potenta of a crcut s now a functon of the ground current
and mpedance of that crcut ony. Ths system s mechancay
cumbersome, however, snce n a arge system an unreasonabe amount
of wre s necessary.
A mtaton of the snge-pont ground system occurs at hgh frequences,
where the nductances of the ground conductors ncrease the ground
mpedance. At st hgher frequences the mpedance of the ground wres
can be very hgh f the ength concdes wth odd mutpes of a quarter-
waveength. Not ony w these grounds have arge mpedance, but they
w aso act as antennas and radate nose. Ground eads shoud aways be
kept shorter than one-twenteth of a waveength to prevent radaton and
to mantan a ow mpedance. At hgh frequences there s no such thng as
a snge-pont ground.
Fgure 7. Separate Ground System
3.4.0 MULTIPOINT GROUND SYSTEMS
The mutpont ground system s used at hgh frequences and n dgta
crcutry to mnmze the ground mpedance. In ths system crcuts are
connected to the nearest avaabe owmpedance ground pane, usuay
the chasss. The ow ground mpedance s due prmary to the ower
nductance of the ground pane. The connectons between each crcut and
the ground pane shoud be kept as short as possbe to mnmze ther
mpedance. In very hgh frequency crcuts, the ength of these ground
eads must be kept to a sma fracton of an nch. Mutpont grounds
shoud be avoded at ow frequences snce ground currents from a
crcuts fow through a common ground mpedance-the ground pane. At
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 15
hgh frequences, the common mpedance of the ground pane can be
reduced by sverr patng the surface. Increasng the thckness of the
ground pane has no effect on ts hgh frequency mpedance, snce current
fows only on the surface due to skn effect.
3.5.0 HYBRID GROUNDS
A hybrd ground s one n whch the system-groundng confguraton
appears dfferenty at dfferent frequences. A practca appcaton of ths
prncpe s the cabe-groundng scheme. At ow frequences, the cabe
shed s snge-pont grounded, and at hgh frequences t s mutpont
grounded.
3.6.0 PRACTICAL LOW-FREOUENCY GROUNDING
Most practca groundng systems at ow frequences are a combnaton of
the seres and parae snge-pont ground. Such a combnaton s a
compromse between the need to meet the eectrca nose crtera and the
goa of avodng more wrng compexty than necessary. The key to
baancng these factors successfuy s to group ground eads seectvey,
so that crcuts of wdey varyng power and nose eves do not share the
same ground return wre. Thus, severa ow-eve crcuts may share a
common ground return, whe other hgh-eve crcuts share a dfferent
ground return conductor.
Most systems requre a mnmum of three separate ground returns, as
shown n Figure . The sgna ground used for ow-eve eectronc crcuts
shoud be separated from the "nosy" ground used for crcuts such as
reays and motors. A thrd "hardware" ground shoud be used for
mechanca encosures, chasss, racks, and so on. If AC power s
dstrbuted throughout the system, the power ground (green wre) shoud
be connected to the hardware ground. The three separate ground return
crcuts shoud be connected together at ony one pont. Use of ths basc
groundng confguraton n a equpment woud greaty mnmze
groundng probems.
An ustraton of how these groundng prncpes mght be apped to a
nne-track dgta tape recorder s shown n Figure !.
There are three sgna grounds, one nosy ground, and one hardware
ground. The most senstve crcuts, the nne read ampfers, are grounded
by usng two separate ground returns. Fve ampfers are connected to
one, and four are connected to the other. The nne wrte ampfers, whch
operate at a much hgher eve than the read ampfers, and the nterface
and contro ogc are connected to a thrd ground return. The three DC
motors and ther contro crcuts, the reays, and the soenods are
connected to the nosy ground. Of these eements, the capstan motor
contro crcut s the most senstve; t s propery connected cosest to the
prmary ground pont. The hardware ground provdes the ground for the
encosure and housng. The sgna grounds, nosy ground, and hardware
ground shoud be connected together ony at the source of prmary power,
that s, the power suppy.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 16
Fgure 8. Casses of groundng connectons
When desgnng the groundng system for a pece of equpment, a bock
dagram smar to Figure 9 can be very usefu n determnng the proper
nterconnecton of the varous crcut grounds.
3.7.0 HARDWARE GROUNDS
Eectronc crcuts for any arge system are usuay mounted n reay racks
or cabnets. These racks and cabnets must be grounded for safety. In
some systems such as eectromechanca teephone offces, the racks
serve as the return conductor for reay swtchng crcuts. The rack ground
s often very nosy, and t may have fary hgh resstance due to |onts and
seams n the rack or n pu-out drawers.
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 17
Fgure 9. Typca Groundng System For Nne-Track Dgta Tape Recorder
Figure 1" shows a typca system consstng of sets of eectroncs mounted
on panes whch are then mounted on two reay racks.
Rack number 1, on the eft, shows correct groundng. The pane s
strapped to the rack to provde a good ground, and the racks are strapped
together and ted to ground at the prmary power source. The eectroncs
crcut ground does not make contact wth the pane or rack. In ths way,
nose currents on the rack cannot return to ground through the eectroncs
ground. At hgh frequences some of the rack nose current can return on
the eectroncs ground due to capactve coupng between the rack and
eectroncs. Ths capactance shoud therefore be kept as sma as
possbe. Rack 2, on the rght, shows an ncorrect nstaaton n whch the
crcut ground s connected to the rack ground. Nose currents on the rack
can now return on the eectroncs ground, and there s a ground oop
between ponts 1, 2, 3, 4, and 1.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 18
Fgure 10. Correct groundng; Rack 2 shows ncorrect groundng.
If the nstaaton does not provde a good ground connecton to the rack or
pane, t s best to emnate the questonabe ground, and then provde a
defnte ground by some other means, or be sure that there s no ground
at a. Do not depend on sdng drawers, hnges, and so on, to provde a
reabe ground connecton. When the ground s of a questonabe nature,
performance may vary from system to system or tme to tme, dependng
on whether or not the ground s made.
One pece of equpment used to check ground connectons s the Kevn
Brdge. The Kevn Brdge s a portabe nstrument desgned to accuratey
measure resstance. The hgh senstvty of the unt permts measurng
resstances of 0.0001 to 11.0 ohms.
The nstrument ncudes a but-n sod state nu detector, brdge and
detector batteres, and the necessary swtches and termnas for operaton
as a sef-contaned unt.
Hardware grounds produced by ntmate contact, such as wedng, brazng,
or soderng, are better than those made by screws and bots. When
|onng ds-smar metas for groundng, care must be taken to prevent
gavanc corroson and to ensure that gavanc votages are not
troubesome. Impropery made ground connectons may perform perfecty
we on new equpment but may be the source of mysterous troube ater.
When eectrca connectons are to be made to a metac surface, such as
a chasss, the meta shoud be protected from corroson wth a conductve
coatng. For exampe, fnsh aumnum wth a conductve aodne or
chromate fnsh nstead of the non-conductve anodzed fnsh. If chasss
are to be used as ground panes, carefu attenton must be pad to the
eectrca propertes of seams, |onts, and openngs.
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 19
3.8.0 SINGLE-GROUND REFERENCE FOR A CIRCUIT
Snce two ground ponts are sedom at the same potenta, the dfference
n ground potenta w coupe nto a crcut f t s grounded at more than
one pont. Ths condton s ustrated n Fgure 11; a sgna source s
grounded at pont A and an ampfer s grounded at pont B.
Fgure 11. Incorrect dua grounds
Note that n ths dscusson an ampfer s generay mentoned as the
oad. The ampfer s smpy a convenent exampe, however, and the
groundng methods appy to any type of oad. Votage V
G
represents the
dfference n ground potenta between ponts A and B. In Figure 11 and
subsequent ustratons, two dfferent ground symbos are used to
emphasze that two physcay separated grounds are not usuay at the
same potenta. Resstors R
C1
and R
C2
represent the resstance of the
conductors connectng the source to the ampfer.
In Figure 11 the nput votage to the ampfer s equa to V
S
+ V
G
. To
emnate the nose, one of the ground connectons must be removed.
Emnaton of the ground connecton at B means the ampfer must
operate from an ungrounded power suppy. It s usuay easer, however,
to emnate ground connecton A at the source.
The effect of soatng the source from ground can be determned by
consderng a ow-eve transducer connected to an ampfer, as shown n
Figure 12. Both the source and one sde of the ampfer nput are
grounded.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 20
Fgure 12. Dua grounds cause nose on oad.
For the case where R
C2
< R
S
+ R
C1
+ R
L
, the nose votage V
N
at the
ampfer termnas s equa to
| | | |
G
G CS
C2
S C1 L
L
N
V
R + R
R

R + R + R
R
= V
Consder the case where the ground potenta n Figure 12 s equa to 100
mV, a vaue equvaent to 10 A of ground current fowng through a ground
resstance of 0.01O. If R
S
= 500O, R
C1
= R
C2
=

1O, and R
L
= 10k O, then the
nose votage at the ampfer termnas s 95 mV. Thus, amost a of the
100-mV ground dfferenta votage s couped nto the ampfer.
The source can be soated from ground by addng the mpedance Z
SG
as
shown n Figure 13. Ideay, the mpedance Z
SG
woud be nfnte, but due
to eakage resstance and capactance, t has some arge fnte vaue. For
the case where R
C2
< R
S
+ R
C1
+ R
L
, and Z
SG
> R
C2
+ R
G,
the nose votage V
N
at the ampfer termnas s
| | | |
G
SG
C2
S C1 L
L
N
V
Z
R

R + R + R
R
= V
Fgure 13. Souce soaton due to hgh mpedance
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 21
Most of the nose reducton obtaned by soatng the source s due to Z
SG
.

If
Z
SG
s nfnte, there s no nose votage couped nto the ampfer. If the
mpedance Z
SG
. from source to ground s 1 MO and a other vaues are the
same as n the prevous exampe, the nose votage at the ampfer
termnas s now ony 0.095 V. Ths s a reducton of 120 dB from the
prevous case where the source was grounded.
3.9.0 AMPLIFIER SHIELDS
Hgh-gan ampfers are often encosed n a metac shed to provde
protecton from eectrc feds. The queston then arses as to where the
shed shoud be grounded. Figure 14 shows the parasitic capactance that
exsts between the ampfer and the shed. From the equvaent crcut, t
can be seen that the stray capactances C
3S
and C
1S
provde a feedback
path from output to nput. If ths feedback s not emnated, the ampfer
may oscate. The ony shed connecton that w emnate the unwanted
feedback path s the one shown at the bottom of Figure 14 where the
shed s connected to the ampfer common termna.
Fgure 14. Ampfer shed connected to common.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 22
By connectng the shed to the ampfer common, capactance C
2S
s
short-crcuted, and the feedback s emnated. Ths shed connecton
shoud be made even f the common s not at earth ground.
3.10.0 GROUNDING OF CABLE SHIELDS
Sheds on cabes used for ow-frequency sgnas shoud be grounded at
ony one pont when the sgna crcut has a snge-pont ground. If the
shed s grounded at more than one pont, nose current w fow. In the
case of a sheded twsted par, the shed currents may nductvey coupe
unequa votages nto the sgna cabe and be a source of nose. In the
case of coaxa cabe, the shed current generates a nose votage by
causng an IR drop n the shed resstance. But f the shed s to be
grounded at ony one pont, where shoud that pont be? The top drawng
n Figure 15 shows an ampfer and the nput sgna eads wth an un-
grounded source. Generator V
G1
represents the potenta of the ampfer
common termna above earth ground, and generator V
G2
represents the
dfference n ground potenta between the two ground ponts.
Snce the shed has ony one ground, t s the capactance between the
nput eads and the shed that provdes the nose coupng. The nput
shed may be grounded at any one of four possbe ponts through the
dotted connectons abeed A, B, C, and D. Connecton A s obvousy not
desrabe, snce t aows shed nose current to fow n one of the sgna
eads. Ths nose current fowng through the mpedance of the sgna ead
produces a nose votage n seres wth the sgna.
The three ower drawngs n Figure 15 are equvaent crcuts for
groundng connectons B, C, and D. Any extraneous votage generated
between the ampfer nput termnas (ponts 1 and 2) s a nose votage.
Wth groundng arrangement B, a votage s generated across the
ampfer nput termnas due to the generators V
G2
and V
G1
and the
capactve votage dvder formed by C
1
and C
2
Ths connecton, too, s
unsatsfactory. For ground connecton C, there s no votage V
12
,
regardess of the vaue of generators V
G1
or V
G2
.

Wth ground connecton
D, a votage s generated across the ampfer nput termnas due to
generator V
G1
and the capactve votage dvder C
1
and C
2
. The ony
connecton that precudes a nose votage V
12
s connecton C. Thus, for a
crcut wth an ungrounded source and a grounded ampfer, the nput
shed shoud aways be connected to the ampfer common termna,
even f ths pont s not at earth ground.
The case of an ungrounded ampfer connected to a grounded source s
shown n Figure 16. Generator V
G
, represents the potenta of the source
common termna above the actua ground at ts ocaton. The four
possbe connectons for the nput cabe shed are agan shown as the
dashed nes abeed A, B, C, and D. Connecton C s obvousy not
desrabe snce t aows shed nose currents to fow n one of the sgna
conductors to reach ground. Equvaent crcuts are shown at the bottom
of Figure 16 for shed connectons A, B, and D. As can be seen, ony
connecton A produces no nose votage between the ampfer nput
termnas. Therefore, for the case of a grounded source and ungrounded
ampfer, the nput shed shoud be connected to the source common
termna, even f ths pont s not at earth ground.
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 23
Fgure 15. C s best shed connecton.
Preferred ow-frequency shed groundng schemes for both sheded
twsted par and coaxa cabe are shown n Figure 1#. Crcuts A through D
are grounded at the ampfer or the source, but not at both ends.
Fgure 16. A s best shed connecton.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 24
Fgure 17. Preferred grounded schemes
When the sgna crcut s grounded at both ends, the amount of nose
reducton possbe s mted by the dfference n ground potenta and the
susceptbty of the ground oop to magnetc feds. The preferred shed
ground confguratons for cases where the sgna crcut s grounded at
both ends are shown n crcuts E and F of Figure 1#. In crcut F, the shed
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 25
of the coaxa cabe s grounded at both ends to force some ground-oop
current to fow through the ower-mpedance shed, rather than the center
conductor. In the case of crcut E, the sheded twsted par s aso
grounded at both ends to shunt some of the ground-oop current from the
sgna conductors. If addtona nose mmunty s requred, the ground oop
must be broken. Ths can be done by usng transformers, optical couplers,
or a dfferenta ampfer.
3.11.0 GROUND LOOPS
Ground oops at tmes can be a source of nose. Ths s especay true
when the mutpe ground ponts are separated by a arge dstance and are
connected to the AC power ground, or when ow-eve anaog crcuts are
used. In these cases, t s necessary to provde some form of
dscrmnaton or soaton aganst the ground-path nose.
Figure 1 shows a system grounded at two dfferent ponts wth a potenta
dfference between the grounds.
As shown n the fgure, ths can cause an unwanted nose votage n the
crcut. The magntude of the nose votage compared to the sgna eve n
the crcut s mportant: f the sgna-to-nose rato s such that crcut
operaton s affected, steps must be taken to remedy the stuaton. Two
thngs can be done, as shown n Figure 1. Frst, the ground oop can be
avoded by removng one of the grounds, thus convertng the system to a
sngepont ground. Second, the effect of the mutpe ground can be
emnated or at east mnmzed by soatng the two crcuts. Isoaton can
be acheved by (1) trans-formers, (2) common-mode chokes, $3% optca
coupers, (4) baanced crcutry, or (5) frequency seectve groundng
(hybrd grounds).
Figure 19 shows two crcuts soated wth a transformer. The ground nose
votage now appears between the transformer wndngs and not at the
nput to the crcut. The nose coupng s prmary a functon of the
parastc capactance between the transformer wndngs and can be
reduced by pacng a shed between the wndngs. Athough transformers
can gve exceent resuts, they do have dsadvantages. They are arge,
have mted frequency response, provde no DC contnuty, and are costy.
In addton, f mutpe sgnas are connected between the crcuts, mutpe
transformers are requred.
In Figure 2" the two crcuts are soated wth a transformer connected as
a common-mode choke that w transmt DC and dfferenta-mode sgnas
whe re|ectng common-mode AC sgnas. The common-mode nose
votage now appears across the wndngs of the choke and not at the nput
to the crcut. Snce the common-mode choke has no effect on the
dfferenta sgnas beng transmtted, mutpe sgna eads can be wound
on the same core wthout crosstak. The operaton of the common-mode
choke s descrbed n the next secton.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 26
Fgure 18. A ground oop between two crcuts.
Fgure 19. A ground oop broken by transformer.
Fgure 20. A ground oop broken by nsertng a common-mode choke.
Optca coupng (optca soators or fber optcs), s a very effectve
method of emnatng common-mode nose snce t competey breaks the
metac path between the two grounds. It s most usefu when there are
very arge dfferences n votage between the two grounds, even
thousands of vots. The undesred common-mode nose votage appears
across the optca couper and not across the nput to the crcut.
4.0.0 NOISE-
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 27
Eectrca nose, n ts varous forms, can adversey affect any product
usng eectronc crcutry. Its potenta to cause damage or mafuncton s
ncreasng today as eectronc crcuts become more and more compex.
Today's computers and mcroprocessor-basedd systems operate at hgher
speeds and provde more features wth reduced sze and weght through
the use of compex sod state components, both anaog and dgta. These
are nherenty frage and susceptbe to damage and/or mafuncton from
eectrca nose.
The current trend toward more performance n smaer sze has
contrbuted to the nose probem. It has ed to the use of dgta crcuts
wth hgh frequences that can be both a source of eectrca nose, as we
as beng very susceptbe to t; swtched-mode power suppes, empoyed
for ther greater effcency and smaer sze, aso utze hgh frequences
and may contrbute addtona nose. There are aso the more conventona
sources of nose such as the openng and cosng of reays, contactors, and
crcut breakers, the operaton of SCR-based power crcuts such as phase
controers, emtted rado frequences, ghtnng, and a host of others.
4.1.0 CAPACITIVE-COUPLED NOISE
Capactve-coupng occurs when AC power nes are run parae to sgna
eads. The power eads and sgna eads are a conductve matera, usuay
copper. The conductve eads are separated by a non-conductve or
nsuatng matera. When the wres are run together, a capactor s
formed. A capactor, f you reca, s nothng more than two parae
conductors or pates separated by an nsuatng matera caed a
deectrc. The sgna ead s at a DC potenta between 0 VDC and 90 VDC,
dependng on the resstance of the oop and the type of sgna beng used.
The power ead s at an AC potenta of 115 VAC 60 Hz. Ths dfference n
potenta forms an electrostatic field. The capactor formed by the two
parae wres attempts to charge to the dfference between the potentas
on each wre. Snce the power ne votage s constanty changng, an AC
sgna s couped nto the sgna ead. The magntude of the undesrabe
sgna s proportona to the dfference n potenta between the nes, the
physca dstance between the nes, and the vaue of the oad resstance
RL. At the same tme, the strength of the undesrabe sgna s nversey
proportona to the capacitive reactance of the parae nes.
Capactve reactance s the opposton to current fow by a capactor. It s
smar to resstance n a DC crcut. Capactve reactance s frequency
dependent; as frequency ncreases, capactve reactance X
c
decreases. So,
at ow frequences, for exampe 60 Hz, the capactve reactance s
reatvey hgh. Ths reactance drops a porton of the AC potenta
dfference between the sgna ead and power ead. Therefore, ony a
porton of the potenta dfference between these nes s actuay couped
nto the sgna ead by nteread capactance.
Ampfer votage nputs are cassfed as ether Normal Mode Voltages or
ommon Mode Voltages:
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 28
The defnton of Norma Mode Votage s "a votage nduced across the
nput termnas."
The defnton of Common Mode Votage s "a votage of the same
poarty on both termnas" wth respect to ground.
Figure 21 ustrates capactve-coupng of common mode nose from an
AC power ead nto a par of measurement sgna eads.
Fgure 21. Capactve-Coupng of Common Mode Nose
C represents the capactor formed by the power ead and the postve
sgna ead, and C2 represents the capactor formed by the power ead and
the negatve sgna ead. The chargng path for C and C2 s competed by
capactor C3; the capactor formed between components wthn the
recorder and case ground. The capactors can charge through the recorder
to case ground, through earth ground to the grounded AC source, and
back through the AC power ne. If capactors C and C2 have equa vaues
of capactance, then the votage from each sgna ead to ground w be
equa.
If ony one of the sgna eads was capactvey-couped to the AC power
ead, as shown inFigure 22, the nose woud be present on ony one of the
sgna eads. As a resut, t coud measure across the nput termnas of the
recorder and shoud, therefore, be Norma Mode Nose.
Fgure 22. Capactve-Coupng of Norma Mode Nose
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 29
Figure 23 shows an equvaent crcut n whch a resstor represents the
capactve reactance, X
C
, of C and C2.
Fgure 23. Capactve-Coupng Equvaent Crcut
As you can see, the capactve reactances and the oad resstance form a
votage dvder. The amount of nduced votage deveoped across the oad
resstance, RL, depends on ts sze wth respect to X
C
and X
C
2. Therefore,
the arger X
C
or X
C
2 become, or the smaer RL becomes, the smaer the
magntude of the nduced votage becomes.
4.2.0 INDUCTIVE-COUPLED NOISE
Inductve-coupng occurs when sgna nes are run parae to AC power
eads or when sgna eads pass n the proxmty of eectrc motors or
generators. To understand the mechansm for nductve-coupng, one
must be famar wth some fundamentas of magnetsm and generators.
Reca that when current passes through a conductor, a magnetc fed s
formed around the conductor. Usng the eft hand, as ustrated n Figure
24& one can determne the drecton of the nes of force. If the wre s hed
n the eft hand, as shown n the fgure, such that the thumb ponts n the
drecton of current fow, the remanng four fngers ndcate the drecton
of the magnetc nes of force. If the current s contnuousy ncreasng,
decreasng, and reversng drecton as wth AC current, then the magnetc
nes w contnuousy bud and coapse n one drecton and then bud
and coapse n the opposte drecton.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 30
Fgure 24. Left-Hand Rue For a Current-Carryng Wre
An expandng and coapsng and magnetc fed can be used to generate
an eectrca potenta. To generate a votage or eectrca potenta, there
must be a conductor, a magnetc fed, and reatve moton between the
conductor and fed. When a conductor moves through a statonary
magnetc fed, an EMF s nduced nto the conductor. The energy of the
magnetc fed causes eectrons to move. If the ends of the conductor are
connected outsde the magnetc fed to form a cosed crcut, current fows
n the crcut. An EMF can aso be produced when a conductor s n the
proxmty of an expandng and coapsng magnetc fed. In ths case, the
magnetc fed s movng reatve to the conductor. Ths s the mechansm
for nductve nose coupng. Current passng through the AC power ne s
contnuousy expandng and coapsng magnetc fed s formed around
the power ne. When a measurement channe sgna ead s run parae to
the power ead, there s reatve moton between a conductor and a
magnetc fed; therefore, an EMF w be nduced nto the sgna
ead. Snce the sgna ead s a part of a compete eectrca crcut, a
current w resut from the nduced votage. Further-more, ths
undesrabe current s aternatng at the same frequency as the power ne
current that nduced t. Large magnetc feds exst around AC motors and
generators, so, f sgna nes are run n the vcnty of these machnes,
nose w be nduced nto the sgna nes by the same means.
4.3.0 DIRECTLY-COUPLED NOISE
The ground oop s probaby the most dffcut crcut nose source to
ocate. Ground oops can exst whenever nterconnected, non-soated
nstruments are grounded at more than one ocaton. Non-soated smpy
means that there s no soaton between the nput crcut of the
nstrument and ts output crcut. The nput crcut of the nstrument s
connected to the output crcut by a measurabe resstance. If an
nterference potenta exsts between the ground ponts of the nput crcut
and output crcut, an undesred current begns to fow.
The nterference potenta that causes current to fow through the ground
oop may be due to fauts n eectrca equpment that cause eakage
currents through ground. The fnte resstance present n the ground
pane or n earth ground causes a potenta to be deveoped. The nterface
potenta coud aso be produced n the same manner as the potenta n a
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 31
battery. Ths potenta, caed a gavanc potenta, s deveoped when two
dssmar metas come nto contact n an eectroytc souton.
Interference potentas can resut from thermoeectrc potentas
deveoped by the |onng of dssmar metas wth a temperature gradent.
Another drecty-couped nose source s eakage currents. Leakage
currents are a resut of poor nsuaton that aows current to pass from
one ead nto another or from a sgna ead to ground. When there s
eakage between source and sgna eads, a nose sgna s ntroduced nto
the sgna crcut smar to those ntroduced through capactve and
nductve-coupng. Another source of eakage currents s through
mpropery spaced components wthn nstruments. Durng mantenance, f
a techncan causes a resstor, capactor, or other crcut component to
touch the nstrument case or ad|acent components, then eakage current
path can be ntroduced nto the measurement sgna crcut.
Nose cannot be totay accounted for by the manufacturer. The nstrument
can be desgned wth fter crcuts to attenuate noses that mght orgnate
from wthn the nstrument, but any attempt by the manufacturer to add
fter crcuts to attenuate noses s based on an "assumed" amount and
type of nose. Ths s because the manufacturer s usuay uncertan of the
type of envronment n whch the nstrument w be paced. As such, the
user of the nstrument must be prepared to ether: (a) evauate the extent
of nose, whch may resut n a determnaton that the exstng nose s not
sgnfcant, or (b) emnate the causes of unacceptabe nose, or (c)
prevent the unacceptabe nose from nterferng wth the nstrument.
Nose can be a ma|or source of naccuracy n measurement channes.
Emnaton of ths undesrabe votage or current, or at east ts reducton
to a toerabe eve s necessary for proper process contro. Obvousy, the
best way to reduce unwanted sgnas wthn an nstrument oop woud be
to emnate the source of the nose. For exampe, sgna eads coud be
reocated away from power eads or eectrca machnery. Often, though, t
s mpractca to emnate the nose or the adverse effects caused by
nose. One s usng crcut desgn that reduce of the effects of nose. Ths
concentrates on methods externa to the nstrument's eectronc crcuts
that are used to reduce the magntude of the nose nduced nto sgna
eads. Severa such methods are empoyed n nstrumentaton systems.
The use of shedng and sheded cabes can be very effectve n reducng
the magntude of nose nduced n sgna eads. The use of twsted par
cabe for sgna transmsson s aso an effectve way to mtng
nterference. In most cases, power eads are aso twsted as a means of
reducng nterference.
Other methods used n the ndustry to reduce nose are:
a. The use of fters (usuay capactors) to prevent nose from
enterng nstrument ampfers.
b. Perodc nsuaton checks of sgna cabes to detect paths for
eakage currents.
c. Detecton and remova of ground oops.
d. Proper groundng of nstrumentaton oops.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 32
Therefore, the probem of nose remova can be attacked at two eves.
One s nose emnaton; keepng any nose on the nput eads from
reachng the ampfer. The other, nose reducton, s mnmzng the
amount of nose present on the nput eads.
5.0.0 INSTRUMENTATION SHIELDING-
The compexty of modern ndustra processes often necesstates the
montorng and contro of the pant from one contro room. To provde ths
centra contro, process nformaton must be transmtted over ong
dstances. Many factors must be consdered when desgnng these
transmsson systems to ensure that reabe and accurate ndcaton and
contro of the process s acheved.
6.0.0 ELECTRICAL SIGNAL NOISE-
Nose s an undesrabe votage or current nduced n measurement sgna
eads by an externa source, usuay ad|acent wrng or equpment. Nose
or nterference may take varous forms. It may be aternatng current or
votage of hgh and ow frequences from utty servce, or t may be drect
from aarm crcuts.
As prevousy dscussed, there are three methods by whch nose s
ntroduced nto a sgna ead. The frst method s the capactve coupng of
eectrca energy from eectrostatc feds nto the sgna ead. The second
method s the nductve coupng of eectrca energy from electromagnetic
feds nto the sgna ead. The thrd method nvoves the drect coupng of
current nto the sgna eads through ground oops or eakage currents.
In the process nstrumentaton ndustry, there s an effort to standardze
sgna ranges so that nstruments made by one manufacturer are
compatbe wth those made by another manufacturer. For eectronc
nstrumentaton, a range of 4-20 maDC was chosen. Athough t s wdey
accepted by both users and manufacturers of process nstruments, other
nonstandard sgna ranges are st wdey used.
Generay, sgna ranges used n the process ndustry have an eevated
zero range. A sgna range wth other than 0 maDC or 0 VDC as the
mnmum sgna eve was seected because when a "ve" zero s used, a
dstnct dfference exsts between a mnmum sgna and a mssng sgna.
Ths provdes an mmedate ndcaton of a faure and makes ocatng the
cause easer. In addton, an eevated zero w bas actve eectronc
components nto ther near range of operaton; ths mproves nstrument
nearty over the entre span of operaton. The output sgna span must be
arge enough to provde satsfactory resouton and accuracy whe
mnmzng the maxmum sgna eve to aow the use of smaer, ghter
components wthn the nstrument and to reduce the power requrements
of the nstrument power suppy.
DC current sgna transmsson has found the greatest acceptance n
eectronc process contro systems wth the ranges of 4-20 maDC and 10-
50 maDC beng most commony used. These sgna ranges are suffcenty
hgh to emnate the need for speca sgna cabe and yet are ow enough
to aow the use of sma gauge wre. Current transmsson systems are
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 33
ess susceptbe to nduced nose than votage transmsson because
current-controed devces have ow nput and output mpedances. For the
nose to deveop a sgnfcant amount of votage drop across the ow
mpedance, t woud have to nduce a szabe amount of current. Contrast
ths to the characterstcay hgh mpedances of votage-controed
devces; a much smaer amount of nduced current w cause a sgnfcant
change n measured votage. However, precautons shoud st be taken to
mnmze nose by shedng sgna cabes and by ocatng sgna cabes
away from power eads and heavy eectrca machnery. Current
transmsson systems are more susceptbe than votage transmsson
systems to nterference ntroduced by eakage currents and ground oop
currents.
For process nstruments that requre votage nputs, a votage sgna can
easy be derved from the current sgna by nsertng a resstor n seres
wth the sgna eads and measurng the votage deveoped across the
resstor.
DC votage transmsson systems requre crcuts of hgher quaty than
current systems, especay f the system uses ow votage sgna eves.
The sgna-to-nose rato must be reatvey arge, two or greater, to obtan
satsfactory resuts. Shedng s a must n votage transmssons that
extend over ong dstance.
7.0.0 SHIELDING-
Shedng s the use of a conductng and/or ferromagnetic (permeabe)
barrer between a potentay dsturbng nose source and senstve
crcutry. Sheds are used to protect cabes (data and power) and
eectronc crcuts. They may be n the form of meta barrers, encosures,
or wrappngs around source crcuts and recevng crcuts.
Shedng attenuates nose sgnas by two methods: absorption and reflection.
In genera, eectrc feds are refected, whe magnetc feds are
attenuated by absorpton.
7.1.0 THE EFFECTIVENESS OF SHIELDING
The effectveness of shedng s dependent on the foowng factors:
The strength, ange of ncdence, and frequency of the tme-varyng
magnetc fed.
The conductvty and permeabty of the shedng matera.
The physca geometry of the shed such as thckness and number of
openngs.
The groundng of the shed: at one end, both ends, or at mutpe
ponts.
7.2.0 FIELD CHARACTERISTICS AND SHIELDING MATERIAL
When a tme-varyng eectromagnetc fed mpnges on a shed, t nduces
currents whch tend to neutraze the magnetc fed that created them.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 34
The magntude of these currents depends on the conductvty and
thckness of the shed matera. In determnng the effectvty of a
partcuar matera n shedng aganst nose at hgh frequences, a
property known as skn depth, or skn effect, must be consdered. Skn
effect s the tendency of hgh frequency AC current to concentrate on the
conductor surface. Ths s due to the fact that nductance s ower on the
surface of the conductor. Ths phenomenon ncreases wth frequency,
ncreasng the AC resstance of the conductor.
7.3.0 SHIELD GEOMETRY
In practce, stray capactances between the shed and ground form
resonant crcuts wth the mpedance of the shed at hgh frequences.
Carefu pannng s needed n determnng the number of groundng
connectons to be made aong the entre shed.
7.4.0 NOISE REDUCTION
There are two types of shedng that can be used: eectrostatc shedng
and eectromagnetc shedng. Eectrostatc shedng s usuay a braded
copper shed that surrounds the nsuated sgna ead, sgna ead, or
sgna ead bunde. A pastc or rubber nsuator surrounds the shed to
protect t. Eectrca condut serves the same purpose as copper brad
shedng, but t s not as effectve.
Figure 25 s an ustraton of a sgna ead surrounded by a shed. Wth the
shed surroundng the sgna, the potenta of the sgna ead cannot
nfuence the sgna on any other conductor because the eectrostatc fed
at the shed s at ground potenta.
Fgure 25. Sgna Lead Shedng
Furthermore, the potenta on conductors outsde the shed, such as the
power eads, has mnmum nfuence on the sgna carred by the sgna
ead. The eectrostatc fed deveoped by the power ead s aso
termnated on the grounded shed. If the shedng were damaged such
that there were sectons where shedng had been removed, the sgna
ead woud then be nfuenced by eectrostatc feds n these areas, and
nose woud be couped nto the sgna ead.
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 35
Eectromagnetc shedng conssts of ron that has hgh permeabty.
Permeabty s the abty of a matera to conduct or carry magnetc nes
of force. Ths property of a matera provdes a short crcut path for
eectromagnetc energy, and thus, prevents ths energy from nfuencng
the sgna carred by a sgna ead. Eectrca condut, athough made of
stee, s not a good eectromagnetc shed because of ts ow permeabty.
Hgh permeabty ron, on the other hand, s usuay very expensve. So,
eectromagnetc shedng s not a commony used method for reducng
sgna nose.
The use of twsted par cabe for sgna transmsson as a method of nose
reducton offers many advantages. Frst, twsted par cabe s nexpensve
and easy to nsta. The contnuous twstng of the eads and ther
coseness together exposes each ndvdua ead n a cabe to the same
eectrostatc and eectromagnetc feds. Therefore, dentca votages are
nduced n each ead. Because these votages are, at any nstant, of the
same poarty n both the postve and negatve ead, they cance each
other at the ne termnaton. These nduced votages are a common mode
sgna. It shoud be ponted out that a twsted par of sgna eads does not
reduce the nduced votage as does a sheded cabe, but t does make the
nduced votage on each ead equa. If ony a snge ead were passed
through an eectrostatc or eectromagnetc fed, the votage nduced n
the ead woud be a norma mode sgna that woud add to or subtract
from the desred process sgna.
The use of twsted pars and shedng provdes the argest reducton of
undesrabe sgnas, partcuary those nduced by eectrostatc feds. The
cabe shed reduces the magntude of the fed present, and the twstng
of the sgna eads causes the remanng fed to nduce common mode
nose whch s easy emnated.
Most AC power eads are twsted because ths s an effectve way to
reduce sgna nterference. When AC power suppy and return eads are
spaced cosey together and twsted, the eectrostatc and eectromagnetc
feds surroundng each of the eads cance one another. Ths acton
greaty reduces the nose avaabe to be nduced nto sgna eads.
7.5.0 SIGNAL CABLE INSTALLATION
The ma|orty of nstruments used n the process ndustry produce ow eve
DC current or votage sgnas. Other nstruments such as magnetc
fowmeters, utra-sonc eve detectors, and radoactve sensng devces
may produce sgnas that are AC currents or votages or hgh votage DC,
but before the process nformaton contaned n these sgnas s
transmtted to other nstruments n the oop, the sgna s usuay
converted to a ow eve DC current or votage. For ths reason, we w
mt our dscusson of sgna transmsson nes to those that carry ow
eve DC sgnas.
Mutconductor cabe s normay used for eectronc sgna transmsson.
The sgna ead wre sze ranges from 16 AWG to 24 AWG dependng on
the sgna range used n the oop. Twsted par cabe can be purchased
wth 2 to 100 conductor pars, ether sheded or unsheded. Normay, one
wre n each par s ether coor-coded or numbered to aow easy
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 36
dentfcaton of each par. Other mutconductor cabes are avaabe,
agan sheded or unsheded, that have 2 to 100 ndvdua conductors.
Each wre n these cabes s ether coor-coded or numbered at
approxmatey one-foot ntervas. Sgna cabe s normay avaabe n
spoos of 100, 500, or 1,000 feet.
In arge process pants wth centra contro rooms, the sgna eads to and
from ndvdua pant nstruments are run to |uncton boxes ocated n the
process area. Large mutconductor cabes carry the sgnas between the
oca |uncton boxes and the centra contro room. At the contro room
panes, the sgna eads are termnated at termna strps where ndvdua
pane mounted nstruments are connected.
Sgna transmsson nes can be run n overhead cabe trays or wreways,
or be run through rgd condut nstaed overhead or bured n trenches.
When runnng sgna cabes, care shoud be taken that nstrument power
nes and sgna nes are separated to mnmze nose
ntroducton. A rue of thumb to foow that w mnmze nose pckup
when nstang nstrument nes, s that a nstrument nes be twsted
sheded pars separated by a mnmum of 6 nches from aarm or other
on-off DC or communcaton nes, and 2 feet from power utty dstrbuton
nes. Sgna cabes can be run together n condut but wthout other type
wres. If nstaed n a tray, a one-foot tray may be used wth the sgna
nes separated from other ow votage nes, such as aarm or
communcaton by a mnmum of sx nches. Never nsta utty AC or DC
power nes n the same tray or condut as sgna or aarm nes. DC motors
startng have caused nductve votages hgh enough to actvate aarm
crcuts when the wres are n the same condut. The sgna wres shoud be
run as far as possbe from eectrca motors, generators, transformers,
and other eectrca nose producng equpment. Precautons shoud aso
be taken to ensure that sgna cabe s protected from damage due to
mechanca vbraton, corrosve atmosphere, and rough handng. Rgd
condut s expensve, but t provdes the best possbe protecton of sgna
eads.
7.6.0 SHIELD TERMINATION
Shed quaty s usuay compromsed at the termnaton pont. If the
current fowng on the outsde surface of a shed s pnched down to a
connectng wre, the fed assocated wth ths current can easy enter the
nsde of the cabe.
At the pont of poor termnatons, common mode votage s generated.
When termnatng sheds, specfcay to was, the best way to mnmze
nose s by the use of backshell connectors. Backshe connectors w
provde a contnuous shed around the entre cabe. Where backshe
connectors are not avaabe, then straght connectons from the brad to
the wa w provde the best avaabe form of nose protecton.
Another termnaton consderaton s surface condton. Termnatons
shoud never be mounted on panted surfaces. The dea mountng surface
woud be a pated meta surface. Ensure that the pated meta surface s
protected aganst oxdaton.
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 37
7.7.0 USE OF MULTIPLE SHIELDS
The use of guard sheds n anaog nstrumentaton does not provde hgh
frequency nose shedng. To protect anaog nstrumentaton aganst hgh
frequency nose, a second externa shed must be used. Whe the ow
frequency shed s grounded where the sgna grounds, the hgh frequency
shed s grounded to the source ground and termnatng bukheads.
Ths hgh frequency shed may be grounded at more than one pont. Mut-
oop hgh frequency shed grounds reduces the oop areas that can coupe
to externa feds.
8.0.0 SIGNAL CABLE TYPES-
Two common types of matera frequenty used as shed matera are fo
sheds and braded cabe. Ths secton w present these two types and
coaxa cabng; the atter beng presented because t s common to fnd
throughout process contro systems.
8.1.0 FOIL SHIELDS
Aumnum fo s frequenty used as shed matera on sheded cabes. Ths
s because the fo tsef s an exceent ow frequency eectrostatc shed.
Fo wrap cabes are not ntended for the transport of hgh frequency
energy. Ths s because aumnum fo has poor hgh frequency attenuaton
characterstcs.
The dffcuty wth usng fo shed s that they tear easy and cannot be
sodered. To ensure proper fo shed termnaton, a conductor known as a
dran wre s used wth the shed. To mnmze the nose couped to the
conductor nsde of the shed, the dran wre shoud be ocated externa to
the fo shed.
8.2.0 BRAIDED CABLE
Braded copper cabe s the most commony used sheath for sheded
cabes. The bradng provdes fexbty and reasonabe cost. Bradng s
most effectve as a very fne weave snge braded cabe. Athough doube
brad s superor to snge brad, snge brad cabe s effectve for most
hgh frequency appcatons.
Braded cabe dsadvantages ncude sheath gaps and deveoped voltage
gradients. Gaps n the sheath promote eectrostatc coupng of externa
feds to the conductors nterna to the shed. When braded cabe s
grounded at both ends, ow frequency sgnas w generate a votage
gradent due to the current fow through the shed. To prevent the votage
gradent from deveopng, one end of the shed must be foated.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 38
8.3.0 COAXIAL CABLE
Coax s used for the transport of hgh-frequency sgnas. The feds used n
transmsson are fuy contaned nsde the cabe. Ths has nothng to do
wth termnaton or groundng at ether end. If the cabe s not termnated
correcty then energy s refected, but t s st nsde the coax. The
groundng of coax reates ony to how the sgna s generated and how t s
termnated.
When the sgna return current uses a conductor outsde of the coaxa
sheath then the cabe s not used as coax. Ths externa return path
mpes that there s a fed outsde of the sheath.
Sheds that termnate on one end and that do not carry sgna current are
used as eectrostatc sheds (aso caed guard sheds). These sheds are
connected to the zero potenta reference pont for the sgna. If the sgna
s grounded then ths snge pont s that ground.
Sheds are often connected together and grounded to a snge pont. Ths
souton assumes no ground potenta dfferences n the system. Snge
pont shed groundng for each sgna s the doman of anaog
nstrumentaton. Coax and mutpe groundng are the doman of hgh-
frequency energy transport. At ow frequences a shed grounded at both
ends assumes a votage gradent that s the same on the outsde and
nsde surfaces of the shed.
9.0.0 PRACTICAL INSTRUMENT SHIELDING-
As prevousy dscussed, nstrument shedng s necessary to prevent
nterference or nose from affectng sgna conductors contaned wthn the
shedng matera. But how do we effectvey accompsh nstrument
shedng? To propery shed nstrument conductors, three basc rues
must be foowed:
Rue 1 An eectrostatc shed encosure, to be effectve, shoud be
connected to the zero sgna reference potenta of any crcutry
contaned
wthn the shed.
Rue 2 The shed conductor shoud be connected to the zero sgna
reference potenta at the sgna-earth connecton.
Rue 3 The number of separate sheds requred n a system s equa to the
number of ndependent sgnas beng processed pus one for each
power entrance.
By foowng these rues, effectve nstrument shedng can be
mpemented.
9.1.0 AMPLIFIER SHIELD
Consder an eectrca devce competey contaned wthn a meta box.
Further assume that the devce s sef-powered and no crcut conductors
enter or ext the box. Ths crcut, shown n Figure 26& s competey
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 39
sheded from externa eectrostatc nfuences. The symboogy ndcates
that a potenta dfference w exst between conductors 1 and 3. Ths
potenta dfference w be ampfed and appear across conductors 2 and
3. Conductor 3 s caed the zero sgna reference conductor as t s
common to both the nput and the outputs.
Notce the sgnfcant mutua capactances for an eement of gan n Figure
26. The mutua capactances form a feedback structure around the gan
eement and cannot be avoded. However, the feedback process can be
emnated by tyng the shed encosure to conductor 3. The resutant
equvaent crcut s shown n Figure 2#. Ths foows the frst rue for
shedng. Restated: an eectrostatc shed encosure, to be effectve,
shoud be connected to the zero sgna reference potenta of any crcutry
contaned wthn the shed.
Fgure 26. Mutua Capactances to the Shed Encosure
Fgure 27. Emnaton of Undesrabe Feedback by Emnatng Capactor 3
9.2.0 SIGNAL ENTRANCES TO A SHIELD ENCLOSURE
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 40
The gan eement n Figure 26 s mpractca wthout nput and output
connectons. Conductors that carry the sgna to and from any ampfer
are caed sgna conductors. For exampe, conductors 1 and 3 are sgna
conductors. Sgna conductors are usuay encosed n a braded metac
sheath or shed, and ths cabe s caed sheded wre. If two conductors
are wthn the shed t s caed two-conductor sheded wre. Ths sheded
wre s used to transport the sgna from ts source to the ampfer and can
be thought of as an extenson of the eectrostatc encosure of Figure 26.
A shed encosure s effectve when Rue 1 s apped. Ths rue paces no
restrcton on the shed potenta reatve to the externa envronment.
Ths s the key to connectng sgna conductors to a gan eement. Snce
the shed must be at zero-sgna reference potenta, and snce the sgna
s often derved from some reference pont n the externa envronment,
the shed s automatcay defned at ths externa reference potenta.
Figure 2 shows a gan eement and ts shed encosure. The nput and
output connectons are two-wre sheded conductors. The nput sgna zero
s ohmcay connected to an earth pont. When the shed s ted to ths
same earth potenta Rue 1 s apped and the system s correct.
Fgure 28. An Extended Shed Encosure Incudng Sgna Lne
In practce, the eectrostatc encosures shown n Figure 28 often parae
severa externa conductors. Ths s shown n Figure 2!. For exampe, ong
runs of sheded wres are contaned n raceways, n condut, n foor wes,
n parae wth other wres, n racks, or aong foors. These neghborng
conductors (grounds) are usuay at dfferng potentas. In partcuar,
these potentas are not the zero-sgna reference potenta of the shed
encosure. These neghborng potentas w cause currents to fow n the
mutua capactances between conductors.
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 41
Fgure 29. Mutua capactances
9.3.0 SHIELD-DRAIN DIRECTION
Rue 1 requres that the shed be connected to zero-sgna reference
potenta. No statement s ncuded as to where ths connecton shoud be
made. The connecton s correcty made n Figure 2.
Ths procedure ensures that parastc currents w fow n the shed ony
and not fow n the sgna conductors. The shed can be thought of as a
dran path to carry unwanted current back to an earth pont.
9.4.0 SHIELD CONNECTIONS - SEGMENTS
By Rue 1, the eectrostatc encosure shoud be at zero-sgna reference
potenta. If the shed s spt n sectons Rue 2 paces a constrant on the
treatment of these segments. The rue requres that the sheds be ted n
tandem as one conductor and then connected to zerosgna reference
potenta at the sgna-earth pont. If the shed segments are ndvduay
treated the dffcutes can be expected.
Shed connectons that permt current to fow n an output or hgh-sgna-
eve conductor are often gnored. The pckup here, as a percentage effect,
s usuay very ow. Shed-dran processes n nput conductors shoud be
cosey watched as the pckup here s sub|ect to ampfcaton. It s usuay
not too dffcut to foow Rue 2 everywhere to avod ths and other
dffcutes that can resut.
Rue 2 can be foowed when a two-conductor (twn-axa) sheded cabe s
used. Snge sheded wre (coaxa cabe) obvousy forces the outer
conductor to be both a shed and a sgna conductor. If nose current fows
n the outer conductor, a nose votage s usuay couped to the sgna.
Fewer probems resut when output cabes are coaxa but crosstak
probems can st exst.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 42
Traxa cabe s aso a sheded cabe type. The nner conductor s a sgna
conductor. The frst shed functons as a sgna conductor and as a coaxa
return, and the outer shed functons as a dran for unwanted nose
current fow. It s assumed that the two sheds are nsuated from each
other.
SUMMARY
Groudng and shedng s an mportant part of any nstrumentaton
nstaaton. Proper groundng and shedng procedures must be foowed
to ensure an effectve and safe eectrca envronment. Ths course
covered the mnmum requrements that must be met when nstang or
workng on nstrumentaton. Some of the ponts that were brought up n
ths course are stated beow
At ow frequences a snge-pont ground system shoud be used.
At hgh frequences and n dgta crcutry, a mutpont ground system
shoud be used.
A ow-frequency system shoud have a mnmum of three separate ground
returns. These shoud be: sgna ground, nosy ground, and hardware
ground.
The basc ob|ectves of a good ground system are to mnmze the nose
votage from two ground currents fowng through a common mpedance.
Groundng schemes are necessary for proper and safe operaton of
nstrumentaton crcuts, and correct procedures must be foowed to
ensure compance wth NEC requrements.
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 43
References
For advanced study of topcs covered n ths Task Modue, the foowng
works are suggested:
'rounding and (hielding in )nstrumentation& Thrd Edton, Wey 1986 by
Raph Morrson
'rounding and (hielding in Facilities& Wey 1990 by Raph Morrson
*ational +lectrical ,ode& NFPA
SELF-CHECK REVIEW / PRACTICE OUESTIONS
1. What does a Kevn Brdge measure?
a. resstance
b. current
c. mpedance
d. votage
2. The eectromagnetc fed that can be nduced nto a conductor s
never at a eve hgh enough to hurt a person?
a. true
b. fase
3. The frequency of a crcut can affect the way you ground a crcut.
a. true
b. fase
4. Whch of these are a type of sgna ground?
a. doube-pont
b. hgh-mpedance
c. ow-mpedance
d. snge-pont
5. At hgh frequences there s no such thng as a snge-pont ground.
a. true
b. fase
PERFORMANCE / LABORATORY EXERCISES
1. Expan and propery termnate an equpment ground per drawng
specfcatons.
2. Expan and propery termnate an equpment shed per drawng
specfcatons.
Instrument Tranee Task Modue 12309 44
ANSWERS TO SELF-CHECK REVIEW / PRACTICE OUESTIONS
1. a
2. b
3. a
4. d
5. a
Appy Proper Groundng and/or Shedng of Instrument Wrng - Modue 12309 45