MIMO

use of multiple antennas at both the transmitter and receiver to improve communication performance the terms input and output refer to the radio channel carrying the signal, not to the devices having antennas.

 offers significant increases in data throughput and link range without additional bandwidth or increased transmit power. It achieves this goal by spreading

improves the spectral efficiency (more bits per second per hertz of bandwidth) and/or to achieve a diversity gain that improves the link reliability (reduced fading)

the same total transmit power over the antennas to achieve an array gain that

Spatial multiplexing
(seen abbreviated SM or SMX) is a

transmission technique in MIMO

wireless communication to transmit independent and separately encoded data signals, so-called streams, from each of the multiple transmit antennas.

Functions of MIMO
Precoding spatial multiplexing or SM, and diversity coding.

Forms of MIMO
Single-user MIMO Multi-user MIMO Enhanced multiuser MIMO

Principal single-user MIMO techniques

Bell Laboratories Layered Space-Time (BLAST), Gerard. J. Foschini (1996) Per Antenna Rate Control (PARC), Varanasi, Guess (1998), Chung, Huang, Lozano (2001) Selective Per Antenna Rate Control (SPARC), Ericsson (2004)

MIMO testing
MIMO signal testing focuses first on the transmitter/receiver system. The random phases of the sub-carrier signals can produce instantaneous power levels that cause the amplifier to compress, momentarily causing distortion and ultimately symbol errors. Signals with a high PAR (peak-toaverage ratio) can cause amplifiers to compress unpredictably during transmission. OFDM signals are very dynamic and compression problems can be hard to detect because of their noise-like nature.[17] Knowing the quality of the signal channel is also critical. A channel emulator can simulate how a device performs at the cell edge, can add noise or can simulate what the channel looks like at speed. To fully qualify the performance of a receiver, a calibrated transmitter, such as a vector signal generator (VSG), and channel emulator can be used to test the receiver under a variety of different conditions. Conversely, the transmitter's performance under a number of different conditions can be verified using a channel emulator and a calibrated receiver, such as a vector signal analyzer (VSA). Understanding the channel allows for manipulation of the phase and amplitude of each transmitter in order to form a beam. To correctly form a beam, the transmitter needs to understand the characteristics of the channel. This process is called channel sounding or channel estimation. A known signal is sent to the mobile device that enables it to build a picture of the channel environment. The mobile device sends back the channel characteristics to the transmitter. The transmitter can then apply the correct phase and amplitude adjustments to form a beam directed at the mobile device. This is called a closed-loop MIMO system. For beamforming, it is required to adjust the phases and amplitude of each transmitter. In a beamformer optimized for spatial diversity or spatial multiplexing, each antenna element simultaneously transmits a weighted combination of two data symbols

channel state information (CSI) refers to known channel properties of a communication link

Instantaneous CSI (or short-term CSI) means that the current channel conditions are known, which can be viewed as knowing the impulse response of a digital filter. This gives an opportunity to adapt the transmitted signal to the impulse response and thereby optimize the received signal for spatial multiplexing or to achieve low bit error rates. Statistical CSI (or long-term CSI) means that a statistical characterization of the channel is known. This description can include, for example, the type of fading distribution, the average channel gain, the line-of-sight component, and the spatial correlation. As with instantaneous CSI, this information can be used for transmission optimization. The CSI acquisition is practically limited by how fast the channel conditions are changing. In fast fading systems where channel conditions vary rapidly under the transmission of a single information symbol, only statistical CSI is reasonable. On the other hand, in slow fading systems instantaneous CSI can be estimated with reasonable accuracy and used for transmission adaptation for some time before being outdated. In practical systems, the available CSI often lies in between these two levels; instantaneous CSI with some estimation/quantization error is combined with statistical information.

Estimation of CSI
Since the channel conditions vary, instantaneous CSI needs to be estimated on a short-term basis. A popular approach is socalled training sequence (or pilot sequence), where a known signal is transmitted and the channel matrix is estimated using the combined knowledge of the transmitted and received signal.
Least-square estimation MMSE estimation

Least-square estimation
If the channel and noise distributions are unknown, then the least-square estimator (also known as the minimum-variance unbiased estimator) is[4]

where tr denotes the trace. The error is minimized when is a scaled identity matrix. This can only be achieved when is equal to (or larger than) the number of transmit antennas. The simplest example of an optimal training matrix is to select as a (scaled) identity matrix of the same size that the number of transmit antennas.

MMSE estimation
If the channel and noise distributions are known, then this a priori information can be exploited to decrease the estimation error. This approach is known as Bayesian estimation and for Rayleigh fading channels it exploits that

and is minimized by a training matrix that in general can only be derived through numerical optimization. But there exist heuristic solutions with good performance based on waterfilling. As opposed to least-square estimation, the estimation error for spatially correlated channels can be minimized even if is smaller than the number of transmit antennas. [2] Thus, MMSE estimation can both decrease the estimation error and shorten the required training sequence. It needs however additionally the knowledge of the channel correlation matrix and noise correlation matrix . In absence of an accurate knowledge of these correlation matrices, robust choices need to be made to avoid MSE degradation.

Data transmission

Protocol layers and sub-topics

Courses and textbooks in the field of data transmission typically deal with the following OSI model protocol layers and topics: Layer 1, the physical layer: Channel coding including Digital modulation schemes Line coding schemes Forward error correction (FEC) codes Bit synchronization Multiplexing Equalization Channel models

 Layer 2, the data link layer: Channel access schemes, media access control (MAC) Packet mode communication and Frame synchronization Error detection and automatic repeat request (ARQ) Flow control Layer 6, the presentation layer: Source coding (digitization and data compression), and information theory. Cryptography (may occur at any layer)

Error-correcting codes
are usually distinguished between convolutional codes and block codes: Convolutional codes are processed on a bit-by-bit basis. They are particularly suitable for implementation in hardware, and the Viterbi decoder allows optimal decoding. Block codes are processed on a block-by-block basis. Early examples of block codes are repetition codes, Hamming codes and multidimensional parity-check codes. They were followed by a number of efficient codes, ReedSolomon codes being the most notable due to their current widespread use. Turbo codes and low-density parity-check codes (LDPC) are relatively new constructions that can provide almost optimal efficiency.

Code rate
In telecommunication and information theory, the code rate (or information rate[1]) of a forward error correction code is the proportion of the data-stream that is useful (non-redundant). That is, if the code rate is k/n, for every k bits of useful information, the coder generates totally n bits of data, of which n-k are redundant. If R is the gross bitrate or data signalling rate (inclusive of redundant error coding), the net bitrate (the useful bit rate exclusive of error-correction codes) is Rk/n. For example: The code rate of a convolutional code may typically be 1/2, 2/3, 3/4, 5/6, 7/8, etc., corresponding to that one redundant bit is inserted after every single, second, third, etc., bit. The code rate of the Reed Solomon block code denoted RS(204,188) is 188/204, corresponding to that 204 - 188 = 16 redundant bytes are added to each block of 188 byte of useful information. A few error correction codes do not have a fixed code rate -- rateless erasure codes.

http://4g-lte-world.blogspot.in/2012/12/transport-block-size-code-rateprotocol.html In simple words, code rate can be defined as how effectively data can be transmitted in 1ms transport block or in other words, it is the ratio of actual amount of bits transmitted to the maximum amount of bits that could be transmitted in one transport block code rate = (TBS + CRC) / (RE x Bits per RE) where TBS = Transport block size as we calculated from Table 7.1.7.2.1-1 CRC = Cyclic redundancy check i.e. Number of bits appended for error detection RE = Resource elements assigned to PDSCH or PUSCH Bits per RE = Modulation scheme used

Type of Errors
There are two main types of errors in transmissions: 1. Single bit error 2. Burst error

Equalization
Equalization (British: equalisation) is the process of adjusting the balance between frequency components within an electronic signal

spacetime code
A spacetime code (STC) is a method employed to improve the reliability of data transmission in wireless communication systems using multiple transmit antennas. STCs rely on transmitting multiple, redundant copies of a data stream to the receiver in the hope that at least some of them may survive the physical path between transmission and reception in a good enough state to allow reliable decoding. Space time codes may be split into two main types: Spacetime trellis codes (STTCs)[1] distribute a trellis code over multiple antennas and multiple time-slots and provide both coding gain and diversity gain. Spacetime block codes (STBCs)[2][3] act on a block of data at once (similarly to block codes) and also provide coding gain and diversity gain.

Low-density parity-check (LDPC)

Low-density parity-check (LDPC) codes are a class of recently re-discovered highly efficient linear block codes. They can provide performance very close to the channel capacity (the theoretical maximum) using an iterated soft-decision decoding approach, at linear time complexity in terms of their block length. Practical implementations can draw heavily from the use of parallelism. LDPC codes were first introduced by Robert G. Gallager in his PhD thesis in 1960, but due to the computational effort in implementing encoder and decoder and the introduction of ReedSolomon codes, they were mostly ignored until recently. LDPC codes are now used in many recent high-speed communication standards, such as DVB-S2 (Digital video broadcasting), WiMAX (IEEE 802.16e standard for microwave communications), High-Speed Wireless LAN (IEEE 802.11n)[citation needed], 10GBase-T Ethernet (802.3an) and G.hn/G.9960 (ITU-T Standard for networking over power lines, phone lines and coaxial cable). Other LDPC codes are standardized for wireless communication standards within 3GPP MBMS (see fountain codes).

4x4 MIMO with multiplexing of two spatial streams

In this 4 x 4 MIMO example, example, the 4 spatial streams are not equally modulated. Streams 1 and 3 are QPSK modulated (per subcarrier -OFDM) and streams 2 and 4 are 64QAM modulated (per subcarrier -OFDM).