How Hydroelectric Energy Works

Contents 1. The Hydropower Resource 2. Converting Moving Water to Electricity 3. Environmental Concerns By taking advantage of the water cycle, we have tapped into one of nature's engines to create a useful form of energy. In fact, humans have been using the energy in moving water for thousands of years. Today, exploiting the movement of water to generate electricity, known as hydroelectric power, is the largest source of renewable power in the United States and worldwide. Unfortunately, hydroelectricity has its drawbacks. By blocking rivers with massive dams, we have created a number of serious environmental and social problems, including habitat destruction, prevention of fish passage, and displacement of local communities. Still, if it's done right, hydropower can be a sustainable and nonpolluting power source that can help decrease our dependence on fossil fuels and reduce the threat of global warming. The Hydropower Resource On Earth, water is constantly moved around in various states, a process known as the hydrologic cycle. Water evaporates from the oceans, forming into clouds, falling out as rain and snow, gathering into streams and rivers, and flowing back to the sea. All this movement provides an enormous opportunity to harness useful energy. The United Nations estimates that the total "technically exploitable" potential for hydropower is 15,090 terawatt-hours per year, or 15 trillion kilowatt-hours, equal to half of projected global electricity use in 2030.[1] Only about 15 percent has been developed so far.[2] While much of the remaining potential may not be economically or environmentally suitable to develop, there are still significant opportunities for new development in regions like the former Soviet Union, South Asia, and South America. Hydropower provides one-fifth of the world's electricity, second only to fossil fuels. Worldwide capacity is 776 gigawatts (GW), with 12 percent in the United States, nine percent in Canada, and eight percent in Brazil.[3] When completed, China's Three Gorges Dam, poised to become the largest hydroelectric project in the world with 18.2 GW of capacity, will move China ahead of Brazil. Globally, hydroelectric capacity has more than doubled since 1970, and another 100 GW is currently under construction. In the United States, hydropower has grown steadily, from 56 GW in 1970 to more than 95 GW today.[4] As a percentage of the U.S. electricity supply mix, however, it has fallen to 10 percent, down from 14 percent 20 years ago, largely as a result of the rapid growth in natural gas power plants. In terms of electricity production, hydropower plants account for about seven percent of America's current power needs.[5]

In some parts of the country, hydropower is even more important. For example, the Pacific Northwest generates more than two-thirds of its electricity from 55 hydroelectric dams.[6] The Grand Coulee dam on the Columbia River is one of the largest dams in the world, with a capacity of nearly 6,500 megawatts (MW). In addition to very large plants in the West, the United States has many smaller hydro plants. In 1940 there were 3,100 hydropower plants across the country, but by 1980 that number had fallen to 1,425. Since then, a number of these small plants have been restored; there are currently 2,378 hydro plants (not including pumped storage) in operation.[7] These plants account for only a tiny fraction of the 80,000 dams that block and divert our rivers. As a result, there is a significant opportunity for growth according to the National Hydropower Association, which estimates that more than 4,300 MW of additional hydropower capacity can be brought online by upgrading existing facilities.[8] Worldwide there is a great deal of growth in small hydro projects. The World Energy Council estimates that under current policies, installed capacity of small hydro will increase from about 48 GW today to 55 GW by 2010, with the largest increase coming from China.[9] More than half of the current global small hydropower installed capacity is in China, with plans to develop a further 10,000 MW in the next decade.[10] An important issue now in the United States is the re-licensing of hydropower plants. Hydro plants have very long lives; the Grand Coulee dam, for example, has been in operation since 1942. The federal government issues licenses for all dams for a 30- to 50-year period. In 1993, for instance, over 200 licenses were due for renewal, amounting to 2,000 MW of capacity. Relicensing some of these dams should require dam owners to find ways to reduce environmental impacts. Unfortunately, in the 2005 Energy Policy Act, the hydropower licensing law was amended as part of the Energy Policy Act of 2005, making it more difficult for the public to participate in the re-licensing process.[11] Converting Moving Water to Electricity In order to generate electricity from the kinetic energy in moving water, the water has to be moving with sufficient speed and volume to turn a generator. Roughly speaking, one gallon of water per second falling one hundred feet can generate one kilowatt of electrical power. To increase the force of moving water, impoundments or dams are used to raise the water level, creating a "hydraulic head," or height differential. When water behind a dam is released, it runs through a pipe called a penstock, and is delivered to the turbine.

An impoundment. Source: DOE Office of EERE

Hydroelectric generation can also work without dams, in a process known as diversion, or runof-the-river. Portions of water from fast-flowing rivers, often at or near waterfalls, can be diverted through a penstock to a turbine set in the river or off to the side. The generating stations at Niagara Falls are an example of diversion hydropower. Another run-of-the-river design uses a traditional water wheel on a floating platform to capture the kinetic force of the moving river. While this approach is inexpensive and easy to implement, it doesn't produce much power. The entire Amazon River, if harnessed this way, would produce only 650 MW of power. Another type of hydropower, though not a true energy source, is pumped storage. In a pumped storage plant, water is pumped from a lower reservoir to a higher reservoir during off-peak times, using electricity generated from other types of energy sources. When the power is needed, it is released back into the lower reservoir through turbines. Inevitably, some power is lost, but pumped storage systems can be up to 80 percent efficient. There is currently more than 90 GW of pumped storage capacity worldwide, with about one-quarter of that in the United States. Future increases in pumped storage capacity could result from the integration of hydropower and wind power technologies. Researchers believe that hydropower may be able to act as a battery for wind power by storing water during high wind periods.[12],[13] There are a variety of turbines employed at hydropower facilities, and their use depends on the amount of hydraulic head at the plant. The most common are Kaplan, Francis, and Pelton wheel designs. Some of these designs, called reaction and impulse wheels, use not just the kinetic force of the moving water but also the water pressure. The Kaplan turbine is similar to a boat propeller, with a runner (the turning part of a turbine) that has three to six blades, and can provide up to 400 MW of power.[14] The Kaplan turbine is differentiated from other kinds of hydropower turbines because its performance can be improved by changing the pitch of the blades. The Francis turbine has a runner with nine or more fixed vanes. In this turbine design, which can be up to 800 MW in size, the runner blades direct the water so that it moves in an axial flow.[15] The Pelton turbine consists of a set of specially shaped buckets that are mounted on the outside of a circular disc, making it look similar to a

water wheel. Pelton turbines are typically used in high hydraulic head sites and can be as large as 200 MW. The ability to meet power demand fluctuations is an advantage of hydro plants with reservoirs. Unlike run-of-the-river plants, which produce power around the clock, hydro plants with dams are typically used only when the power is most needed. Utilities save up the water, letting it loose only during peak times. Hydro plants, especially the large older plants built from the 1930s to the 1950s, are commonly the least-expensive source of electricity. Environmental Concerns Although an inexpensive and nonpolluting energy resource, the environmental damage caused hydropower can be serious. The most obvious effect is that fish are blocked from moving up and down the river, but there are many more problems.

When a dam is constructed, a river habitat is replaced by a lake habitat. While this may not sound so bad -- fish and birds like lakes, too -- it can cause a number of environmental problems. In the Pacific Northwest, large federally owned dams have blocked the migration of coho, chinook, and sockeye salmon from the ocean to their upstream spawning grounds. The number of salmon making the journey upstream has fallen 90 percent since the construction of four dams on the lower Snake River. Some steps are being taken to help the fish around the dams, such as putting them in barges or building fish ladders, but this only helps so much. Also, when young fish head downriver to the ocean, they can be chewed up in the turbines of the dam. As of 2002, 71 percent of the area of Washington and 50 percent of Oregon contain watersheds with salmon and other related species that have been listed as threatened or endangered. Dams can create large reservoirs submerging what used to be dry land, producing many problems. The Balbina dam in Brazil, for example, flooded 2,750 square kilometers (965 square miles), an area the size of Rhode Island. This land is often composed of wetlands, which are important wildlife habitats, and low-lying flood plains, usually the most fertile crop land in the area. Population density is typically higher along rivers, leading to mass dislocation of urban centers. The Three Gorges Dam in China is expected to dislocate up to 1.9 million people.[16] Wildlife habitats destroyed by reservoirs can be especially valuable. In South America, 80 percent of the hydroelectric potential is located in rain forests, one of the most rich and diverse ecosystems on Earth. The Rosana dam in Brazil destroyed one of the few remaining habitats of the black-lion tamarin, a rare and beautiful species of long-haired monkey. Another problem can occur when the land area behind the dam is flooded without proper preparation. In Brazil, the Tucurui dam was built creating a reservoir in a rain forest region, without the forest first being cleared. Later, as the plants and trees that were submerged began to

rot, they reduced the oxygen content of the water, killing off the plants and fish in the water. Moreover, the rotting plants gave off large quantities of methane, a powerful global warming gas. A similar problem has occurred in Canada, in hydro projects built by Hydro Quebec. The stones and soil in the flooded area contain naturally occurring mercury and other metals. When the land was flooded, the mercury dissolved into the water, and then into the local fish populations. The creatures that eat the fishfrom bears and eagles, to the native Cree peopleare suffering from mercury poisoning. Mercury poisoning can cause brain damage, birth defects, liver disorders, and other ailments. Impoundments used for hydropower can cause many other effects on water quality and aquatic life. Rivers and lakes can be filled with sediment from erosion. Water falling over spillways can force air bubbles into the water, which can be absorbed into fish tissue, ultimately killing the fish. By slowing down rivers, the water can become stratified, with warm water on top and cold water on the bottom. Since the cold water is not exposed to the surface, it loses its oxygen and becomes uninhabitable for fish. And as illustrated by the Colorado River in the Grand Canyon, fast-moving rivers can be filled up with sediment when they are slowed down. In an effort to mitigate this problem, the Department of Interior has flushed huge amounts of water out of dams in an attempt to clear away the sediment. Another important habitat disruption comes from the operation of the dam to meet electric demand. Water is stored up behind the dam and released through the turbines when power demand is greatest. This causes water levels to fluctuate widely on both sides of the dam, stranding fish in shallow waters and drying out the habitat. There are many competing pressures on dam operators -- to produce power, to provide water for recreational use both on the reservoir and downstream, to provide drinking and irrigation water, to allow Native Americans to carry out traditional religious practices, and to preserve habitat for fish and plant species. In many cases, nature loses out to boaters, farmers, and electric customers. The risk of a dam breaking should also not be ignored. The great Johnstown flood in Pennsylvania was the result of a dam break (although not a hydroelectric dam); 2,000 people were killed. In northern India and Nepal, in the Himalayas, huge hydroelectric projects are planned that would create large reservoirs in a geographically unstable region. Frequent earthquakes make the dam a risky venture for heavily populated areas downstream. This is compounded by the fear that large, heavy reservoirs would put additional pressure on the plates in the region, causing even more earthquakes. Finally, breakage could also result from war or terrorism, as dams have been considered potential military targets in the past. The environmental and social effects of hydropower can be immense. But while hydropower has its problems, it can still be a safe and sustainable source of electricity if proper measures are taken. By upgrading and improving the equipment at plants, by increasing fish-friendly efforts at dams, and by improving run-of-the-river turbine technology, it may be possible to reduce the environmental effects of hydropower. Nonetheless, remediation may be impossible at some sites, and wild rivers should be unshackled.

It is also important to compare the environmental effects of hydropower with alternatives. The damage to aquatic habitat from dams may be significant, but acid rain, nitrogen deposition, and thermal pollution from coal plants also lead to aquatic damage, as well as to air pollution and global warming. Provided we dismantle the worst hydropower facilities, and improve the sustainability of the others, we will be better off. LOW IMPACT HYDROPOWER Hydroelectric facilities that meet certain standards to minimize their effect on rivers, fish, and wildlife can now seek recognition as low impact under a voluntary certification program developed by the Low Impact Hydropower Institute (LIHI). Criteria standards are based on the most recent and stringent mitigation measures recommended for the dam by state and federal agencies.

Worumbo hydroelectric facility, certified low-impact Source: Low Impact Hydro Institute

To be certified, a facility must adequately protect or mitigate its impacts in the following areas: river flows, water quality, fish passage and protection, watershed protection, threatened and endangered species protection, cultural resource protection, and recreation. The incentive for certification is the ability to market a more sustainable energy source to consumers, especially those participating in voluntary green power programs. In addition, Pennsylvania requires hydroelectric projects to be LIHI certified in order to be eligible to count towards the state's renewable electricity standard. Currently, more than twenty hydropower facilities have been LIHI certified.

http://www.ucsusa.org/clean_energy/our-energy-choices/renewable-energy/how-hydroelectricenergy.html

Introduction to Hydroelectric Technology

Hydroelectric power is the generation of electric power from the movement of water flowing from a higher to a lower elevation. In contrast, hydrokinetic technology is a pre-commercial technology that uses river current to generate electric power. A hydroelectric facility requires a

dependable flow of water and a reasonable height of fall of water, called the head. In a typical installation, water is fed from a reservoir through a conduit called a penstock into a hydraulic turbine. The pressure of the flowing water on the turbine blades causes the shaft to rotate. The rotating shaft is connected to an electrical generator, which converts the shaft motion into electrical energy. After exiting the turbine, water is discharged to the river in a tailrace. Before a hydroelectric power site is developed, engineers must assess how much power will be produced when the facility is complete. They also review the natural conditions that exist at each site: surface topography, geology, river flow, water quality, and annual rainfall and snowfall cycles. Extensive studies are conducted to evaluate the sites environmental conditions, land status and other factors that may influence the configuration of the hydro plant and the equipment selection. A given amount of water falling a given distance will produce a certain amount of energy. The head and the discharge at the power site and the desired rotational speed of the generator determine the type of turbine to be used. The greater the head, the greater the potential energy to drive turbines. More head or faster flowing water means more power.1 The steep mountains, abundant rain and snow, and relatively mild winter temperatures in Southeast and Southcentral Alaska provide the ideal hydrologic conditions for hydroelectric power.

Cross section of hydraulic turbine generator. Source: Army Corp of Engineers

Fold Table of Contents Introduction to Hydroelectric Technology Theoretical Horsepower Low-Head Hydropower Run-of-the-River Small, Mini, and Micro Hydropower Conventional Hydroelectric Storage Projects

Theoretical Horsepower
To find the theoretical horsepower (the measure of mechanical energy) from a specific site, this formula is used: THP = (Q x H)/11.81 where: THP = theoretical horsepower Q = flow rate in cubic feet per second (cfs) H = head in feet

11.81 = a constant A more complicated formula is used to refine the calculations of this available power. It takes into account losses in the amount of head due to friction in the penstock and variations due to efficiency levels of mechanical devices used to harness the power. To determine how much electrical power can be produced, the mechanical measure (horsepower) must be converted into electrical terms (Watts). One horsepower is equal to 746 watts (U.S. measure).

South Fork Drainage, Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. Source: Alaska Energy Authority, 2008.

Impulse and reaction turbines are the two most commonly used types. Other types of turbines include fixed pitch propeller and crossflow (also called the Ossberger or Banki turbines). Each has a specific operating range in terms of hydraulic head and power output. In order to optimize the power output and reduce capital costs, the specific turbine to be used in a power plant is not selected until all operational studies and cost estimates are complete. The turbine selected depends largely on site conditions. A reaction turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that operates with the wheel completely submerged, a feature that reduces turbulence. In theory, the reaction turbine works like a rotating lawn sprinkler, where water at a central point is under pressure and escapes from the ends of the blades causing rotation. Francis or Kaplan turbines are reaction machines that utilize both hydraulic pressure and kinetic energy to create rotating shaft work. Reaction turbines are the type most widely used in Alaska. An impulse or Pelton-type turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that converts the fluids change in potential energy (hydraulic head) into kinetic energy by water striking its buckets or blades to make the extractable rotating shaft work. Pelton or Turgo impulse turbines may have single or multiple nozzles that accelerate flow to produce high velocity jets that impinge on a set of rotating turbine buckets to transfer their kinetic energy. The wheel is covered by a housing, and the buckets or blades are shaped so they turn the flow of water about 170 degrees inside the housing. In contrast to a reaction turbine, the fluid contained in the impulse turbine does not completely fill all available void space, and the turbine operates at ambient pressure. After turning the blades or buckets, the water falls to the bottom of the wheel housing and flows out.

Source: Bureau of Reclamation, 2005.

Low-Head Hydropower
A low-head dam is one with a water drop of less than 65 feet and a generating capacity less than 15,000 kW. Large, high-head dams can produce more power at lower cost than low-head dams, but construction of large dams may be limited by lack of suitable sites, by environmental considerations, or by economic conditions. The key to the usefulness of low-head units is their lower capital costs and the ability to satisfy local power needs with the available resource.

Run-of-the-River
Run-of-the-river hydro facilities use the natural flow and elevation drop of a river to generate electricity. Facilities of this type are optimally built on rivers with a consistent and steady flow. Power stations on rivers with great seasonal fluctuations require a large reservoir in order to operate during the dry season. In contrast, run-of-the-river projects do not require a large impoundment of water. Instead, some of the water is diverted from a river and sent into a pipe called a penstock. The penstock feeds the water downhill to the power stations turbines. Because of the difference in elevation, potential energy from the water upriver is transformed into kinetic energy and then to electrical energy. The water leaves the generating station and is returned to the river with minimal alteration of the existing flow or water levels. With proper design, natural habitats are preserved, reducing the environmental impact. Run-of-the-river power plants typically have a weir or diversion structure across the width of the river. This weir contains an intake structure, often consisting of a trash rack, an intake screen, and de-sanding elements to conduct the water into the penstock. These installations have a small reservoir behind the diversion to keep the intake flooded and reduce icing problems. The output of the power plant is highly dependent on the drainage basin hydrology. Spring breakup will create a lot of energy, while flow diminishment during winter and dry seasons will create relatively little energy. A run-of-the-river power plant has little or no capacity for energy storage, and so cannot coordinate the output of electricity generation to match consumer demand. Most run-of-the-river applications are small hydro.

Small, Mini, and Micro Hydropower

Small hydro is the development of hydroelectric power on a scale that serves a community or an industrial plant. The definition of a small hydro project varies, but a generating capacity of up to 10 MW is generally accepted as the upper limit of what is termed small hydro. Small hydro can

be further subdivided into mini hydro, usually defined as less than 1,000 kW, and micro hydro, which is less than 100 kW. Micro hydro applications might serve for single families or small enterprises, while mini hydros might be appropriate for small communities. A small hydro plant might be connected to a conventional electrical distribution network as a supplemental source of renewable energy. Alternatively, a small hydro project might be built in an isolated area that would be uneconomic to serve from a network, or in areas where there is no electrical distribution network. Small hydro projects usually have minimal reservoirs and civil construction work, consequently a relatively low environmental impact. A large and growing number of companies offer standardized turbine generator packages in the approximate size range of 200 kW to 10 MW. These water-to-wire packages simplify the planning and development of the site, since one vendor looks after most of the equipment supply. Non-recurring engineering costs are minimized, and development cost is spread over multiple units, so the cost of such systems is improved. While synchronous generators capable of isolated plant operation are often used, small hydro plants connected to an electrical grid system can use economical induction generators to further reduce installation cost and to simplify control and operation. Micro hydro plants may use purpose-designed turbines or industrial centrifugal pumps connected in reverse to act as turbines. While these machines rarely have optimum hydraulic characteristics when operated as turbines, their low purchase cost makes them attractive for micro hydro class installations. Regulation of small hydro generating units may require water to be spilled at the diversion to maintain the downstream stream habitat. Spilling will also happen when the natural flow exceeds the hydroelectric system capacity, since the project will generally have no reservoir to store unused water. For micro hydro schemes feeding only a few loads, a resistor bank may be used to dissipate excess electrical energy as heat during periods of low demand. In a sense this energy is wasted, but the incremental fuel cost is negligible so economic loss is minor. Since small hydro projects may have minimal environmental and licensing procedures, the equipment is usually in serial production. Civil works construction is also limited. The small size of equipment also makes it easier to transport to remote areas. Fore these reasons, small hydro projects may reduce development time. Small hydro and mini hydro can be used as alternative energy sources in off-grid communities with small loads. Small hydro tends to depend on small water turbines fed directly by rivers and streams. When compared with other renewable energy alternatives like wind and solar, run-ofthe river hydroelectric generators are able to deliver a relatively consistent electric supply throughout the day. Run-of-the-river hydroelectric generators in Alaska do not provide the same seasonally consistent electric supply that larger hydroelectric projects do. This is a result of the seasonal changes in the flows of Alaska rivers, with diminished flow rates during the winter months. The

dams and reservoirs of larger hydroelectric projects provide for energy storage, holding water to be used to generate electricity when flows are lower. Unfortunately, most Alaska electric loads are highest during the winter, the same time that river flow (and the electric power generation capability of small and run-of the-river hydro) is at its lowest. This lowers the amount of run-ofthe-river hydro capacity that can be installed without significant amounts of excess capacity in the summer.

Conventional Hydroelectric Storage Projects

When suitable hydraulic heads are not present or when power needs are substantial, dams are constructed across rivers to store water and create hydraulic head to drive the turbo machinery. Dams typically last for 50 to 100 years and so, are constructed of durable materials like reinforced concrete, roller-compacted concrete, earth, and crushed rock. Smaller dams may be constructed of steel or timber crib design. They vary substantially in terms of height and storage volume, depending upon local topography. There are several design approaches used for concrete dams, including solid and hollow, gravity and arch geometries. In addition to the actual dam structure, there are a number of other major design considerations. For example, the penstock inlet manifold (usually with screens to keep debris and fish from entering the turbine) and the discharge or tailrace system must be designed to maintain the hydraulic head and minimize the effects of sedimentation, silt, and ice build-up. Substantial effort goes into the design of the dam spillway to safely direct extreme flows downstream of the dam when the available reservoir storage is inadequate to contain it.

Power Creek Hydro project Where the topography allows, several successful design concepts are available to help mitigate the environmental impacts of conventional storage hydropower projects. In regions with highelevation natural lakes, lake taps may be utilized to feed a power tunnel bored in rock to carry water to the downstream powerhouse. This approach reduces the need to construct a dam; the tunnel serves in place of the penstock; and the lake is utilized as a natural storage reservoir. At other sites, natural barrier waterfalls can facilitate licensing of upstream hydro development through their function as fish migration barriers. Fish protection and passage facilities and ecofriendly turbines can also be designed to mitigate fisheries impacts of hydroelectric facility construction. In order to be constructible, all hydro projects must pass rigorous assessment. Environmental effects must be determined. Mitigation measures, compliance monitoring, and environmental follow-up programs must be established. A strong attribute of conventional hydropower is the dispatchability that results from the ability to control the rate of power production through storage and release of water contained behind the

dam. Given the general increase in electrification that is occurring worldwide, the demand for using hydropower reservoirs for both base-load and peaking applications is rising. Other factors may also lead to increased interest in conventional hydropower. The variable nature of other renewable energy sources like wind and solar makes pairing with hydro energy storage an attractive option for integrated supply systems. Additionally, the scale of energy production attainable with hydroelectric storage lends it to connection with large electrical grids to displace conventional fossil fuel-based power sources with clean, non-carbon-based power. Fuel switching to inexpensive hydropower may be possible in some situations for home heating and (someday) for plugin hybrid cars.

http://energy-alaska.wikidot.com/hydro-power-technology-overview

HYDROKINETIC ENERGY (In-River, Tidal, and Ocean Current)

Introduction to Hydrokinetic Energy

Unfold Table of Contents

Hydrokinetic devices are powered by moving water and are different from traditional hydropower turbines in that they are placed directly in a river, ocean or tidal current. They generate power only from the kinetic energy of moving water (current). This power is a function of the density of the water and the speed of the current cubed. The available hydrokinetic power depends on the speed of the river, ocean, or tidal current. In contrast, traditional hydropower uses a dam or diversion structure to supply a combination of hydraulic head and water volume to a turbine to generate power. In order to operate, hydrokinetic devices require a minimum current and water depth.

How Does Hydrokinetic Energy Work?

As water flows through a turbine or other device, the kinetic energy of the flowing river, tidal fluctuations, or waves is converted into electricity by the device. As mentioned in the above introduction, hydrokinetic devices require a minimum current and water depth. The minimum current required to operate a hydrokinetic device is typically 2-4 knots. Optimum currents are in the 5-7 knot range. Water depth is an important factor in the total energy that can be extracted from a site, since rotor diameter is dependent on adequate water

level above the installed device. Hydrokinetic devices are ideally installed in locations with relatively steady flow throughout the year, locations not prone to serious flood events, turbulence, or extended periods of low water level.

Challenges in Hydrokinetic Energy

Among the challenges in hydrokinetic energy is the presence of glacial silt in Alaska waters, especially Cook Inlet. Over time, silt and other sediments in the water flowing through hydrokinetic turbines can erode the machinery. In addition to this, the migration of fish and marine mammals, ice and other debris, as well as river and ocean bed stability, must be taken into careful consideration

Hydrokinetic Energy in Alaska

Alaskas first in-stream hydrokinetic turbine, located in Ruby

Alaska has significant potential for hydrokinetic development in both rivers and tidal basins. Most inland communities in Alaska are situated along navigable waterways that could host hydrokinetic installations, and Alaska, with 90% of the total U.S. tidal energy resource, is home to some of the best tidal energy resources in the world. While there are obvious opportunities, there are also significant environmental and technical challenges (see below) related to the deployment of hydrokinetic devices in Alaskas rivers and tidal passages. Some of these are common to installations in any location. Other concerns are more specific to Alaskan waters. As of 2008, hydrokinetic devices are considered pre-commercial. The Yukon River Inter-Tribal Watershed Council installed a 5 kW New Energy Encurrent turbine in the Yukon River at the community of Ruby for one month in 2008. A 100 kW UEK turbine is planned for installation in the Yukon River at Eagle in 2009. The New Energy EnCurrent machine, in 5 and 10 kW size, is available for purchase from ABS Alaska in Fairbanks, and New Energy Corporation is developing 25kW, 125kW, and 250kW devices as well. This technology is still being refined for Alaskan applications. Its performance is unproven. EETG: Yukon Hydrokinetic Project

EETG: Nenana Hydrokinetic Turbine

Technology
Introduction
Hydrokinetic devices typically use vertical or horizontal axis turbines similar to those developed for wind generation; however, because water is approximately 850 times denser than air, the amount of energy generated by a hydrokinetic device is much greater than that produced by a wind turbine of equal diameter. In addition, river and tidal flow do not fluctuate as dramatically from moment to moment as wind does. This predictability benefit is particularly true for tidal energy. It can be predicted years in advance and is not affected by precipitation or evapotranspiration.

ORPC's Beta TidGen Power System. Photo: ORPC

Hydrokinetic Technology in Alaska

In Alaskas riverine environments, water flow fluctuates, often dramatically, on a seasonal basis. Snowmelt from glaciers and seasonal snow accumulation contributes significantly to the total water volume in Alaskas waterways. Generally, flow rates are the highest during spring snowmelt, but this higher flow is associated with significant debris flowing within the water

channel. Debris is often directed to the fastest area of flow (the thalwag) and is not necessarily confined to the surface. In the winter, river flow often drops off dramatically and is largely supplied by local groundwater. This fact coupled with challenges associated with ice/turbine interactions leaves open to question whether hydrokinetic devices would be cost effective during winter months in most Alaskan rivers. If hydrokinetic devices are only deployed seasonally in riverine environments, an imbalance between resource availability and electricity demand (which is often highest in the winter months) will result. It is possible that in dealing with resource and load fluctuations on short time periods, energy storage could be utilized or excess energy could be dissipated for heating purposes (see the Energy Storage section for more information). The hydrokinetic working group agreed that commercial projects will likely be operating in the state in the next three to five years. The group was not ready to make specific recommendations (see below) for hydrokinetic projects for specific villages in Alaska. Recommendations from the working group are less project specific. They are tipped toward finding appropriate ways to move forward with this technology. The members of the working group stressed that its success is tied to not overestimating the maturity level of the technology by skipping over beta testing and demonstration phases. Hydrokinetic energy represents a real opportunity for power generation using local resources at select locations in Alaska; however, there are still numerous environmental and technical challenges associated with this technology. For example, there are concerns related to interactions between turbines and both adult and juvenile fish, since most communities with hydrokinetic resources are heavily dependent on local subsistence and commercial fisheries. Additional concerns include ice interaction with infrastructure, silt abrasion, submerged debris which could damage turbines, navigation hazards, and impacts on marine life. The actual construction and operation of a pilot device or devices will result in a more complete understanding of technical, environmental, and cost factors associated with hydrokinetic energy. This would provide a solid starting point for additional cost and economic analysis for specific sites around the state.

Snapshot
TECHNOLOGY SNAPSHOT: HYDROKINETIC Installed Capacity (Worldwide) Installed Capacity (Alaska) Number of

1500 kW worldwide, all demonstration projects

0 kW installed Potentially available to communities in all regions of Alaska located near a major

communities impacted

waterway or tidal basin, excluding the North Slope

Technology Readiness Pre-commercial to early commercial Impacts on local hydrology and aquatic species must be assessed on a case by Environmental Impact case basis. AEA anticipates that these impacts can be minimized by appropriate siting, design and operation. A 2008 EPRI study calculates paybacks in the 3-9 year range for three proposed hydrokinetic sites in Alaska, however this has not been verified by a commercial installation. Igiugig In-River Hydrokinetic Site, Cairn Point at Knik Arm Tidal Energy Site, Nenana, Eagle

Economic Status

Case Studies

Systems

Alaska Specific Technology Challenges

Environmental concerns, especially with regard to impacts on fish must be addressed. Fishery resources in Alaska have unparalleled value for subsistence, sport, and commercial use. It is critical that hydrokinetic energy development be fully evaluated for impacts on these resources. Survivability and performance issues must be examined. Alaskan waters have many hazards for hydrokinetic devices, including high rates of sediment transfer in river beds, debris, and ice. These issues also complicate the design of anchoring and cabling systems. Effects on navigation are important. Many of the fast flowing rivers in Alaska with potential for hydrokinetic development are also major waterways for barge delivery of bulk materials to isolated communities. A major consideration is that these devices not impede river traffic

Resource assessment is necessary. There is a shortage of river velocity and depth data, particularly for winter months.

HYDROELECTRIC POWER GENERATION

Introduction to Hydroelectric Power

Alaska has enjoyed a long and rich history with hydroelectric power. By 1908, southeast Alaska alone had over 30 developed water power sites with a capacity of 11,500 kW. The vast majority, built by private developers, provided power for industrial operations, mainly for the gold mining works in Juneau and on Douglas Island. Today hydropower in Alaska provides 24%1 of the statewide electrical power. Major developers include the State of Alaska and public and privately owned utilities. These power plants have proven to be long-term, reliable, and relatively inexpensive sources of power. Hydropower installations have the reputation for being robust and durable, operating successfully at some sites for more than a century. Hydropowers low operation and maintenance costs coupled with long lifetimes result in stable power rates. In Alaska, hydropower is currently the largest and most important producer of electricity from a renewable energy source. With increased interest in replacing fossil-fuel-powered generation with renewable energy resources, the statewide inventory of installed hydropower capacity will continue to expand.

How Does Hydroelectric Power Work?

Hydroelectric power uses the gravitational force of water falling falling or flowing water to generate electricity. Most hydroelectric power comes through the use of dams: the potential energy of dammed water drives a water turbine and generator. The power that is generated at a hydroelectric facility depends upon the volume of water moving through the dam and the height difference between the water's source and outflow.

Challenges of Hydroelectric Power

Impoundment hydroelectric projects are some of the cheapest and largest producing forms of renewable energy; however, they can have serious damaging impacts on the surround environment, oftentimes making smaller "run-of-the-river" projects more attractive. Although these smaller devices produce less electricity, they can be less detrimental to salmon runs and decrease likelihood of inundating riparian valleys.2

Typical High-Wall Reservoir Hydroelectric Dam Structure. Source: Army Corp of Engineers

Among the effects that hydro projects can have on the ecosystem are the following:

Stratification: occurs in reservoirs; colder, oxygen-depleted water discharged downstream Supersaturation: air becomes trapped in water spilled over a dam; levels of nitrogen increases, fish get something similar to the bends Changing Water Levels and Flows: inundation of the resources and habitats; daily, weekly, or seasonal fluctuations due to power peaking Sedimentation: no longer providing important organic nutrients, inorganic material [silts, sands, and gravels], and habitat media to the downstream ecosystem; organic nutrients build up behind the dam, called nutrient loading results in oxygen levels decreasing in the reservoir; inorganic material [silts, sand, and gravel] not able to migrate downstream decrease the volume of the reservoir Erosion: increase in the amount of sedimentation; changing water levels and lack of shoreline vegetation of a reservoir increases the amount of sedimentation; increase flows due to discharge from dam or smaller channel sizes for bypass reach and downstream channel can also lead to removal of streamside vegetation. (Changes to the riparian zone directly impacts the species which it can support.)) Flow Alterations: bypass reach (general reduction in flow, variations from natural flow cycles, dependent on power generation and demand); downstream reach (variation from natural flow cycles, increase in rates of flow changes due to power generation and demand along with shutdowns) Habitat Conditions: varies greatly from project to project; fish movement (resident fish: spawning, seasonal migration and spawning - Cutthroat trout in Juneau to Bull trout in Eastern Washington; Anadromous fish: in-migration, spawning, and out-migration - Pacific Salmon, Steelhead, and others); lack of streamside vegetation, cover for fish and other aquatic organisms3

Hydroelectric Power in Alaska

A list of the larger facilities serving utilities opens by clicking below.

>> Facilities in AK <<

In Southcentral Alaska, the Eklutna hydroelectric facility was brought on line in 1955 by the federal government. In 1994 it was taken over by Anchorage Municipal Light & Power. As the cheapest energy source connected to the Railbelt energy grid, it currently produces power at a rate of a few cents per kWh. The Cooper Lake hydroelectric facility is owned and operated by Chugach Electric Association. It began operation in 1960 and was recently relicensed by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. A number of smaller hydroelectric projects owned by individual utilities are located across the state, mostly in Southeast Alaska. There are also some very small private facilities, most of which are owned by fish processors.

Technology
Introduction
Hydroelectric power is the generation of electric power from the movement of water flowing from a higher to a lower elevation. In contrast, hydrokinetic technology is a pre-commercial technology that uses river current to generate electric power. A hydroelectric facility requires a dependable flow of water and a reasonable height of fall of water, called the head. In a typical installation, water is fed from a reservoir through a conduit called a penstock into a hydraulic turbine. The pressure of the flowing water on the turbine blades causes the shaft to rotate. The rotating shaft is connected to an electrical generator, which converts the shaft motion into electrical energy. After exiting the turbine, water is discharged to the river in a tailrace. Before a hydroelectric power site is developed, engineers must assess how much power will be produced when the facility is complete. They also review the natural conditions that exist at each site: surface topography, geology, river flow, water quality, and annual rainfall and snowfall cycles. Extensive studies are conducted to evaluate the sites environmental conditions, land status and other factors that may influence the configuration of the hydro plant and the equipment selection. A given amount of water falling a given distance will produce a certain amount of energy. The head and the discharge at the power site and the desired rotational speed of the generator determine the type of turbine to be used. The greater the head, the greater the potential energy to drive turbines. More head or faster flowing water means more power.4 The steep mountains, abundant rain and snow, and relatively mild winter temperatures in Southeast and Southcentral Alaska provide the ideal hydrologic conditions for hydroelectric power.

Cross section of hydraulic turbine generator. Source: Army Corp of Engineers

Theoretical Horsepower
To find the theoretical horsepower (the measure of mechanical energy) from a specific site, this formula is used: THP = (Q x H)/11.81 where: THP = theoretical horsepower Q = flow rate in cubic feet per second (cfs) H = head in feet 11.81 = a constant A more complicated formula is used to refine the calculations of this available power. It takes into account losses in the amount of head due to friction in the penstock and variations due to efficiency levels of mechanical devices used to harness the power. To determine how much electrical power can be produced, the mechanical measure (horsepower) must be converted into electrical terms (Watts). One horsepower is equal to 746 watts (U.S. measure).

Snapshot
TECHNOLOGY SNAPSHOT: HYDROELECTRIC Installed Capacity (Worldwide) Installed Capacity (Alaska)

654,000 MW

Approximately 423 MW

Resource potential exists throughout many areas of the state, with most developed projects in the southeast and southcentral portions of the state; Resource Distribution Alaska has 40% of U.S. untapped hydropower (192 billion Kwh energy potential) Number of communities / 100+ (potentially +80% of Alaskas population) population impacted Technology Readiness Commercial (mature) Environmental Impact Requires proper design to mitigate impacts to downstream aquatic life, downstream water quality, and recreational uses Unit costs are variable and site specific. Where found to be economic, hydroelectric installations provide reliable, inexpensive renewable energy Bradley Lake, Four Dam Pool, Southeast Alaska, South Fork Prince of Wales Island, New Hydro Projects

Economic Status

Case Studies

Wind Working Group Recommendations, References News DOE Hydro News

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Systems
Impulse and reaction turbines are the two most commonly used types. Other types of turbines include fixed pitch propeller and crossflow (also called the Ossberger or Banki turbines). Each has a specific operating range in terms of hydraulic head and power output. In order to optimize the power output and reduce capital costs, the specific turbine to be used in a power plant is not selected until all operational studies and cost estimates are complete. The turbine selected depends largely on site conditions. A reaction turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that operates with the wheel completely submerged, a feature that reduces turbulence. In theory, the reaction turbine works like a rotating lawn sprinkler, where water at a central point is under pressure and escapes from the ends of the blades causing rotation. Francis or Kaplan turbines are reaction machines that utilize both hydraulic pressure and kinetic energy to create rotating shaft work. Reaction turbines are the type most widely used in Alaska.

An impulse or Pelton-type turbine is a horizontal or vertical wheel that converts the fluids change in potential energy (hydraulic head) into kinetic energy by water striking its buckets or blades to make the extractable rotating shaft work. Pelton or Turgo impulse turbines may have single or multiple nozzles that accelerate flow to produce high velocity jets that impinge on a set of rotating turbine buckets to transfer their kinetic energy. The wheel is covered by a housing, and the buckets or blades are shaped so they turn the flow of water about 170 degrees inside the housing. In contrast to a reaction turbine, the fluid contained in the impulse turbine does not completely fill all available void space, and the turbine operates at ambient pressure. After turning the blades or buckets, the water falls to the bottom of the wheel housing and flows out.

Source: Bureau of Reclamation, 2005.

Low-Head Hydropower
A low-head dam is one with a water drop of less than 65 feet and a generating capacity less than 15,000 kW. Large, high-head dams can produce more power at lower cost than low-head dams, but construction of large dams may be limited by lack of suitable sites, by environmental considerations, or by economic conditions. The key to the usefulness of low-head units is their lower capital costs and the ability to satisfy local power needs with the available resource.

Run-of-the-River

South Fork Drainage, Prince of Wales Island, Southeast Alaska. Source: Alaska Energy Authority, 2008.

Run-of-the-river hydro facilities use the natural flow and elevation drop of a river to generate electricity. Facilities of this type are optimally built on rivers with a consistent and steady flow. Power stations on rivers with great seasonal fluctuations require a large reservoir in order to operate during the dry season. In contrast, run-of-the-river projects do not require a large impoundment of water. Instead, some of the water is diverted from a river and sent into a pipe called a penstock. The penstock feeds the water downhill to the power stations turbines. Because of the difference in elevation, potential energy from the water upriver is transformed into kinetic energy and then to electrical energy. The water leaves the generating station and is returned to the river with minimal alteration of the existing flow or water levels. With proper design, natural habitats are preserved, reducing the environmental impact. Run-of-the-river power plants typically have a weir or diversion structure across the width of the river. This weir contains an intake structure, often consisting of a trash rack, an intake screen, and de-sanding elements to conduct the water into the penstock. These installations have a small reservoir behind the diversion to keep the intake flooded and reduce icing problems. The output of the power plant is highly dependent on the drainage basin hydrology. Spring breakup will create a lot of energy, while flow diminishment during winter and dry seasons will create relatively little energy. A run-of-the-river power plant has little or no capacity for energy storage, and so cannot coordinate the output of electricity generation to match consumer demand. Most run-of-the-river applications are small hydro.

Small, Mini, and Micro Hydropower

Small hydro is the development of hydroelectric power on a scale that serves a community or an industrial plant. The definition of a small hydro project varies, but a generating capacity of up to 10 MW is generally accepted as the upper limit of what is termed small hydro. Small hydro can be further subdivided into mini hydro, usually defined as less than 1,000 kW, and micro hydro, which is less than 100 kW. Micro hydro applications might serve for single families or small enterprises, while mini hydros might be appropriate for small communities. A small hydro plant might be connected to a conventional electrical distribution network as a supplemental source of renewable energy. Alternatively, a small hydro project might be built in an isolated area that would be uneconomic to serve from a network, or in areas where there is no electrical distribution network. Small hydro projects usually have minimal reservoirs and civil construction work, consequently a relatively low environmental impact. A large and growing number of companies offer standardized turbine generator packages in the approximate size range of 200 kW to 10 MW. These water-to-wire packages simplify the planning and development of the site, since one vendor looks after most of the equipment supply. Non-recurring engineering costs are minimized, and development cost is spread over multiple units, so the cost of such systems is improved. While synchronous generators capable of isolated plant operation are often used, small hydro plants connected to an electrical grid system can use economical induction generators to further reduce installation cost and to simplify control and operation. Micro hydro plants may use purpose-designed turbines or industrial centrifugal pumps connected in reverse to act as turbines. While these machines rarely have optimum hydraulic characteristics when operated as turbines, their low purchase cost makes them attractive for micro hydro class installations. Regulation of small hydro generating units may require water to be spilled at the diversion to maintain the downstream stream habitat. Spilling will also happen when the natural flow exceeds the hydroelectric system capacity, since the project will generally have no reservoir to store unused water. For micro hydro schemes feeding only a few loads, a resistor bank may be used to dissipate excess electrical energy as heat during periods of low demand. In a sense this energy is wasted, but the incremental fuel cost is negligible so economic loss is minor. Since small hydro projects may have minimal environmental and licensing procedures, the equipment is usually in serial production. Civil works construction is also limited. The small size of equipment also makes it easier to transport to remote areas. Fore these reasons, small hydro projects may reduce development time. Small hydro and mini hydro can be used as alternative energy sources in off-grid communities with small loads. Small hydro tends to depend on small water turbines fed directly by rivers and streams. When compared with other renewable energy alternatives like wind and solar, run-of-

the river hydroelectric generators are able to deliver a relatively consistent electric supply throughout the day. Run-of-the-river hydroelectric generators in Alaska do not provide the same seasonally consistent electric supply that larger hydroelectric projects do. This is a result of the seasonal changes in the flows of Alaska rivers, with diminished flow rates during the winter months. The dams and reservoirs of larger hydroelectric projects provide for energy storage, holding water to be used to generate electricity when flows are lower. Unfortunately, most Alaska electric loads are highest during the winter, the same time that river flow (and the electric power generation capability of small and run-of the-river hydro) is at its lowest. This lowers the amount of run-ofthe-river hydro capacity that can be installed without significant amounts of excess capacity in the summer.

Manufacturers

Projects
Introduction Conventional Hydroelectric Storage Projects
When suitable hydraulic heads are not present or when power needs are substantial, dams are constructed across rivers to store water and create hydraulic head to drive the turbo machinery. Dams typically last for 50 to 100 years and so, are constructed of durable materials like reinforced concrete, roller-compacted concrete, earth, and crushed rock. Smaller dams may be constructed of steel or timber crib design. They vary substantially in terms of height and storage volume, depending upon local topography. There are several design approaches used for concrete dams, including solid and hollow, gravity and arch geometries. In addition to the actual dam structure, there are a number of other major design considerations. For example, the penstock inlet manifold (usually with screens to keep debris and fish from entering the turbine) and the discharge or tailrace system must be designed to maintain the hydraulic head and minimize the effects of sedimentation, silt, and ice build-up. Substantial effort goes into the design of the dam spillway to safely direct extreme flows downstream of the dam when the available reservoir storage is inadequate to contain it.

Power Creek Hydro project Where the topography allows, several successful design concepts are available to help mitigate the environmental impacts of conventional storage hydropower projects. In regions with highelevation natural lakes, lake taps may be utilized to feed a power tunnel bored in rock to carry water to the downstream powerhouse. This approach reduces the need to construct a dam; the tunnel serves in place of the penstock; and the lake is utilized as a natural storage reservoir. At other sites, natural barrier waterfalls can facilitate licensing of upstream hydro development through their function as fish migration barriers. Fish protection and passage facilities and ecofriendly turbines can also be designed to mitigate fisheries impacts of hydroelectric facility construction. In order to be constructible, all hydro projects must pass rigorous assessment. Environmental effects must be determined. Mitigation measures, compliance monitoring, and environmental follow-up programs must be established. A strong attribute of conventional hydropower is the dispatchability that results from the ability to control the rate of power production through storage and release of water contained behind the dam. Given the general increase in electrification that is occurring worldwide, the demand for using hydropower reservoirs for both base-load and peaking applications is rising. Other factors may also lead to increased interest in conventional hydropower. The variable nature of other renewable energy sources like wind and solar makes pairing with hydro energy storage an attractive option for integrated supply systems. Additionally, the scale of energy production attainable with hydroelectric storage lends it to connection with large electrical grids to displace conventional fossil fuel-based power sources with clean, non-carbon-based power. Fuel switching to inexpensive hydropower may be possible in some situations for home heating and (someday) for plugin hybrid cars.

Hydropower Technology Development

Hydroelectric power is the largest source of renewable electricity in the United States, producing about 7% of the nation's total electricity throughout the last decade. Even after a century of proven experience with this reliable renewable resource, significant opportunities still exist to expand the nation's hydropower resources through non-powered dams, water conveyance

systems, pumped storage hydropower, and new site development. The Water Power Program supports the hydropower industry and complements existing investments through the development and deployment of new technologies and key components, and by identifying key opportunity areas through which hydropower generation can be enhanced. The Water Power Program aims to provide 15% of the nation's electricity needs by 2030 with water power (hydropower plus marine and hydrokinetic technologies), with hydropower making the largest contribution to this goal. With more than 2,500 U.S. companies supporting the hydropower industry, adding additional hydropower generation will create a large and enduring economic benefit here at home by revitalizing the domestic manufacturing and hydropower industry. Learn more about the Water Power Program's work in the following areas of hydropower technology development:

Advanced Turbines Materials and Manufacturing Hydropower Systems Hydropower Technology Accomplishments

Advanced Turbines

The Alden Turbine, model seen above, allows fish passage without sacrificing performance. Credit: Alden The Water Power Program supports the development of more efficient and environmentally friendly hydropower turbines that can compete with traditional designs. One such project is the Alden Turbine, which is designed to reduce fish mortality while generating at efficiencies equal to or better than conventional Francis turbines. This turbine will allow downstream fish passage and optimal hydropower generation. After extensive testing and demonstration, the Alden

Turbine can be deployed in areas that are otherwise unused for hydropower because of fish populations.

Materials and Manufacturing

The Water Power Program funds R&D to identify and test new materials and manufacturing techniques that improve the performance and lower the costs of hydropower. Areas of programfunded research focus include materials or coatings that reduce the life-cycle cost of turbine runners, draft tubes, and penstocks, and identification and testing of ways to improve generator efficiency and reliability.

Hydropower Systems
The Water Power Program works to develop, demonstrate, and test new technologies and techniques that can improve the energy efficiency and environmental performance of hydropower. The program's activities support industry by reducing capital and operations and maintenance costs, increasing unit availability and plant capacity factors, reducing risk through enhanced system reliability, and improving the qualityenvironmental performance attributes as well as ancillary power benefitsand quantity of the energy produced. Areas of focus include water-use optimization, the application of advanced materials and manufacturing methods, and modeling and prediction of water power grid services.

Technology Development Accomplishments

The program has numerous accomplishments in hydropower technology development. The projects described below highlight just a few of the program's new opportunities and recent successes in water-use optimization, facility upgrades, and environmental mitigation technologies.
New Opportunities for Advanced Hydropower R&D

Having revamped its hydropower technology efforts, in 2011 the Water Power Program released its first major solicitation for hydropower R&D in more than a decade. These projects, which are underway and scheduled for completion in 2014, aim to reduce costs of hydropower technologies and demonstrate the dynamic grid benefits of advanced hydropower and pumped storage technologies.

The Oroville Complex in California serves as one demonstration site for the Water-Use Optimization Toolset. Credit: California Department of Water Resources
Optimizing Hydropower Systems for Power and Environment

The Water Power Program sponsored a team of DOE national laboratories to develop and demonstrate a suite of advanced, integrated analytical tools, known as the Water-Use Optimization Toolset (WUOT). WUOT will assist managers and operators in operating hydropower plants more efficiently, resulting in more energy and grid services from available water resources while enhancing the environmental benefits from improved hydropower operations and planning. WUOT includes tools for hydrologic forecasting, seasonal hydrosystems analysis, day-ahead scheduling and real-time operations, and environmental performance operations, in addition to a graphical user interface and a shared database. WUOT is being deployed for demonstration at the Oroville Complex on the Feather River in California, the upper Colorado River portion of the Colorado River Storage Project, and the Conowingo Dam complex on the Susquehanna River in Maryland.
Revitalizing American Infrastructure

The new turbine/generator unit in Boulder, Colorado, was funded through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 to increase generation and turbine efficiency. Credit: City of Boulder

Three of the Water Power Program's hydropower efficiency projects sponsored through the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 have been completed with overwhelming success, resulting in an increase of more than 3,000 megawatt-hours per year.

The Los Alamos County Department of Public Utilities installed a low-flow turbine to its Abiquiu Hydroelectric Facility in New Mexico. The new turbine boosts overall facility output from 13.8 megawatts to 16.8 megawatts. The City of Boulder, Colorado completed a modernization project to its Boulder Canyon Hydroelectric Project by installing a new turbine/generator unit. The new unit resulted in a 30% increase in generation and an 1848% increase in turbine efficiency. The City of Tacoma installed two Francis turbine/generator units to the Cushman Dam in Washington. The new units add approximately 3.6 megawatts of annual electrical generation.

DOE-funded researchers developed a small "sensor fish" device to understand the physical stresses fish experience as they pass through a dam which is now being updated for wider use by the industry.
Technology Development for Fish Passage

Using funding from the Water Power Program, DOE's Pacific Northwest National Laboratory (PNNL) has initiated a redesign of their Sensor Fish, a device filled with sensors to measure the conditions that real fish experience when passing through a hydropower turbine. The device has already proven very valuable, providing information that is otherwise unobtainable in order to ensure the safe fish passage. Throughout the redesign, PNNL will expand the types of tests the Sensor Fish can assist with, reduce the overall cost of producing the Sensor Fish, improve its data storage capacity, and improve its realistic representation in a set of new conditions. The ultimate goal is to make the Sensor Fish commercially available so that industry personnel can buy and use one right off the shelf. http://www1.eere.energy.gov/water/hydro_technology_development.html