WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Chapter 2. The Flight Environment

Introduction In order to study the principles of flight it is first necessary to understand the medium in which flight takes place. The Atmosphere The atmosphere is a region of air surrounding the earth up to a height of approximately 500 miles (900 Km). Air is a mixture of gases, the principal ones being oxygen 21% and nitrogen 78% by volume. Up to a height of 6 miles (11 Km) water vapour is also found in varying quantities. The actual amount of water vapour in a given mass of air depends on the temperature and whether the air has recently passed over a large area of water. Generally the higher the temperature, the greater the amount of water vapour a given mass of air can hold. Air has weight and is also compressible. Its pressure, density and temperature all decrease with increasing altitude. An aircraft does work on the air to sustain flight, and any change in pressure, density and temperature will effect the amount of energy that the aircraft can extract from the air. The Universal Gas Law The relationship between pressure, density and temperature is:

P T = constant
where P = Pressure (N/m), T = Absolute Temperature (Kelvin), = Density or Mass per unit volume (kg/m3) This equation only applies to a perfect gas when a given mass occupies a given volume, but from this equation it is possible to establish effect of pressure and temperature on density. The Effect of Pressure on Density Air is a gas, and can be easily compressed or expanded. When air is compressed the number or mass of molecules in a given volume increases and the density rises. Conversely as air is expanded the original volume will contain fewer molecules and the density will reduce. Density is therefore directly proportional to pressure, i.e. if the pressure is doubled then the density is also doubled. This statement is only true if the temperature remains constant. Density Pressure Effect of Temperature on Density As air is heated the molecules tend to speed up and increase the spacing between them. A given volume will contain fewer molecules and air density will decrease. Conversely as air is cooled the degree of molecular movement will decrease and the given volume will now contain a greater number of molecules, so the density will increase. Air density is inversely proportional to temperature, i.e., if the temperature is doubled the density will half. This statement is only true if the pressure remains constant.

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WILJAM FLIGHT TRAINING

Density 1/Temperature The Effect of Altitude on Density With increasing altitude pressure and temperature both decrease. As stated previously the drop in temperature will cause an increase in density whilst the drop in pressure will cause a decrease in density. These factors act in opposition to each other, but pressure has a dominating influence over density. Consequently, pressure, temperature and density all decrease with increasing altitude. The Effect of Humidity on Density It has been assumed that air is perfectly dry. In fact there is always a certain amount of water vapour in the atmosphere, which varies from place to place, and day to day. When water vapour is present in the air it affects its density because it is less dense than dry air, and therefore lighter. The density of water vapour under standard sea level conditions is 0.760 kg/m3, whereas the density of dry air is 1.225 kg/m3. Water vapour therefore weighs 5/8 as much as dry air. This means that, for a given volume, air is least dense when it contains a maximum amount of water vapour and most dense when it is perfectly dry. Humidity will therefore affect aircraft performance. The International Standard Atmosphere In order to compare aircraft performance and calibrate aircraft instruments, it is necessary to have an internationally agreed Standard Atmosphere covering temperature, pressure and density for varying altitudes. The International Standard Atmosphere (ISA), part of which is shown below, is laid down by the International Civil Aviation Organisation (ICAO).

HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL FEET METRES 52,496 45,934 39,372 32,810 26,248 19,686 13,124 6,562 0
16,000 14,000 12,000 10,000 8,000 6,000 4,000 2,000 0

DENSITY 3 KG/M 0.166 0.288 0.312 0.414 0.526 0.660 0.819 1.007 1.225

PRESSURE MILLIBARS 104 142 194 265 357 472 612 795 1013.25

TEMPERATURE C -56.6 -56.5 -56.5 -50 -37 -24 -11 2 15

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