Earthquake From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about the natural

seismic phenomenon. For other uses, see Earthquake disambiguation!. "n earthquake is the result of a sudden release of energy in the Earth#s crust that creates seismic $aves. Earthquakes are recorded $ith a seismometer, also kno$n as a seismograph. The moment magnitude of an earthquake is conventionally reported, or the related and mostly obsolete %ichter magnitude, $ith magnitude & or lo$er earthquakes being mostly imperceptible and magnitude ' causing serious damage over large areas. (ntensity of shaking is measured on the modified )ercalli scale. "t the Earth#s surface, earthquakes manifest themselves by a shaking and sometimes displacement of the ground. When a large earthquake epicenter is located offshore, the seabed sometimes suffers sufficient displacement to cause a tsunami. The shaking in earthquakes can also trigger landslides and occasionally volcanic activity. (n its most generic sense, the $ord earthquake is used to describe any seismic event*$hether a natural phenomenon or an event caused by humans*that generates seismic $aves. Earthquakes are caused mostly by rupture of geological faults, huge amounts of gas migration, mainly methane deep $ithin the earth, but also by volcanic activity, landslides, mine blasts, and nuclear e+periments. "n earthquake#s point of initial rupture is called its focus or hypocenter. The term epicenter means the point at ground level directly above this. ,lobal earthquake epicenters, -./&0-..1 ,lobal plate tectonic movement2ontents 3hide4 - 5aturally occurring earthquakes -.- Earthquakes a$ay from plate boundaries -.6 7hallo$8focus and deep8focus earthquakes -.& Earthquakes and volcanic activity -.9 Earthquake clusters -.9.- "ftershocks -.9.6 Earthquake s$arms -.9.& Earthquake storms 6 7i:e and frequency of occurrence & Effects;impacts of earthquakes &.- 7haking and ground rupture &.6 <andslides and avalanches &.& Fires &.9 7oil liquefaction &.= Tsunami &./ Floods &.' >uman impacts 9 ?reparation for earthquakes = Earthquakes in mythology and religion / 7ee also ' %eferences 1 E+ternal links 1.- Educational 1.6 7eismological data centers 1.6.- Europe 1.6.6 Japan 1.6.& @nited 7tates 1.& 7eismic scales 1.9 7cientific information 1.= )iscellaneous

5aturally occurring earthquakes

Fault typesTectonic earthquakes $ill occur any$here $ithin the earth $here there is sufficient stored elastic strain energy to drive fracture propagation along a fault plane. (n the case of transform or convergent type plate boundaries, $hich form the largest fault surfaces on earth, they $ill move past each other smoothly and aseismically only if there are no irregularities or asperities along the boundary that increase the frictional resistance. )ost boundaries do have such asperities and this leads to a form of stick8slip behaviour. Ance the boundary has locked, continued relative motion bet$een the plates leads to increasing stress and therefore, stored strain energy in the volume around the fault surface. This continues until the stress has risen sufficiently to break through the asperity, suddenly allo$ing sliding over the locked portion of the fault, releasing the stored energy. This energy is released as a combination of radiated elastic strain seismic $aves, frictional heating of the fault surface, and cracking of the rock, thus causing an earthquake. This process of gradual build8up of strain and stress punctuated by occasional sudden earthquake failure is referred to as the Elastic8rebound theory. (t is estimated that only -B percent or less of an earthquake#s total energy is radiated as seismic energy. )ost of the earthquake#s energy is used to po$er the earthquake fracture gro$th or is converted into heat generated by friction. Therefore, earthquakes lo$er the Earth#s available elastic potential energy and raise its temperature, though these changes are negligible compared to the conductive and convective flo$ of heat out from the Earth#s deep interior.3-4 Earthquakes a$ay from plate boundaries Where plate boundaries occur $ithin continental lithosphere, deformation is spread out a over a much larger area than the plate boundary itself. (n the case of the 7an "ndreas fault continental transform, many earthquakes occur a$ay from the plate boundary and are related to strains developed $ithin the broader :one of deformation caused by maCor irregularities in the fault trace e.g. the DEig bendF region!. The 5orthridge earthquake $as associated $ith movement on a blind thrust $ithin such a :one. "nother e+ample is the strongly oblique convergent plate boundary bet$een the "rabian and Eurasian plates $here it runs through the north$estern part of the Gagros mountains. The deformation associated $ith this plate boundary is partitioned into nearly pure thrust sense movements perpendicular to the boundary over a $ide :one to the south$est and nearly pure strike8slip motion along the )ain %ecent Fault close to the actual plate boundary itself. This is demonstrated by earthquake focal mechanisms. 364 "ll tectonic plates have internal stress fields caused by their interactions $ith neighbouring plates and sedimentary loading or unloading e.g. deglaciation!. These stresses may be sufficient to cause failure along e+isting fault planes, giving rise to intraplate earthquakes. 7hallo$8focus and deep8focus earthquakes The maCority of tectonic earthquakes originate at depths not e+ceeding tens of kilometers. Earthquakes occurring at a depth of less than 'B km are classified as #shallo$8focus# earthquakes, $hile those $ith a focal8depth bet$een 'B and &BB km are commonly termed #mid8focus# or #intermediate8depth# earthquakes. (n subduction :ones, $here older and colder oceanic crust descends beneath another tectonic plate, deep8focus earthquakes may occur at much greater depths ranging from &BB up to 'BB kilometers!.3&4 These seismically active areas of subduction are kno$n as Wadati8Eenioff :ones. Heep8focus earthquakes occur at a depth at $hich the subducted lithosphere should no longer be brittle, due to the high temperature and pressure. " possible mechanism for the generation of deep8focus earthquakes is faulting caused by olivine undergoing a phase transition into a spinel structure.394 Earthquakes and volcanic activity Earthquakes also often occur in volcanic regions and are caused there, both by tectonic faults and by the movement of magma in volcanoes. 7uch earthquakes can serve as an early $arning of volcanic eruptions. Earthquake clusters )ost earthquakes form part of a sequence, related to each other in terms of location and time.

"ftershocks )ain article: "ftershock "n aftershock is an earthquake that occurs after a previous earthquake the main shock!. "n aftershock is in the same region of the main shock but is al$ays of smaller magnitude strength. (f an aftershock is larger than the main shock, the aftershock is redesignated as the main shock and the original main shock is redesignated as a foreshock. "ftershocks are smaller earthquakes formed as the crust around the displaced fault plane adCusts to the effects of the main shock. Earthquake s$arms )ain article: Earthquake s$arm (f there is no earthquake that is clearly the main shock, a sequence of related shocks is referred to as an earthquake s$arm. Earthquake storms )ain article: Earthquake storm 7ometimes a series of earthquakes occur in a sort of earthquake storm, $here the earthquakes strike a fault in clusters, each triggered by the shaking or stress redistribution of the previous earthquakes. 7imilar to aftershocks but on adCacent segments of fault, these storms occur over the course of years, and $ith some of the later earthquakes as damaging as the early ones. 7uch a pattern $as observed in the sequence of about a do:en earthquakes that struck the 5orth "natolian Fault in Turkey in the 6Bth century and has been inferred for older anomalous clusters of large earthquakes in the )iddle East3=4. 7i:e and frequency of occurrence This article may not provide balanced geographical coverage on a region. "n editor has e+pressed concern that this article is biased. ?lease improve this article or discuss the issue on the talk page. )inor earthquakes occur nearly constantly around the $orld in places like 2alifornia and "laska in the @.7., as $ell as in ,uatemala. 2hile, ?eru, (ndonesia, (ran, ?akistan, the ":ores in ?ortugal, Turkey, 5e$ Gealand, ,reece, (taly, and Japan, but earthquakes can occur almost any$here, including 5e$ Iork 2ity, <ondon, and "ustralia.3/4 <arger earthquakes occur less frequently, the relationship being e+ponentialJ for e+ample, roughly ten times as many earthquakes larger than magnitude 9 occur in a particular time period than earthquakes larger than magnitude =. (n the lo$ seismicity! @nited Kingdom, for e+ample, it has been calculated that the average recurrences are: an earthquake of &.' 8 9./ every year an earthquake of 9.' 8 =.= every -B years an earthquake of =./ or larger every -BB years. The number of seismic stations has increased from about &=B in -.&- to many thousands today. "s a result, many more earthquakes are reported than in the past, but this is because of the vast improvement in instrumentation, rather than an increase in the number of earthquakes. The @7,7 estimates that, since -.BB, there have been an average of -1 maCor earthquakes magnitude '.B8'..! and one great earthquake magnitude 1.B or greater! per year, and that this average has been relatively stable.3'4 (n recent years, the number of maCor earthquakes per year has decreased, although this is thought likely to be a statistical fluctuation rather than a systematic trend. )ore detailed statistics on the si:e and frequency of earthquakes is available from the @7,7.314 )ost of the $orld#s earthquakes .BL, and 1-L of the largest! take place in the 9B,BBB8km8long, horseshoe8shaped :one called the circum8?acific seismic belt, also kno$n as the ?acific %ing of Fire, $hich for the most part bounds the ?acific ?late.3.43-B4 )assive earthquakes tend to occur along other plate boundaries, too, such as along the >imalayan )ountains. >umans can cause earthquakes for e+ample by constructing large dams and buildings, drilling and inCecting liquid into $ells, and by coal mining and oil drilling.3--4 With the rapid gro$th of mega8cities such as )e+ico 2ity, Tokyo or Tehran, in areas of high seismic risk, some seismologists are $arning that a single quake may claim the lives of up to & million people. 3-643-&43-94

Effects;impacts of earthquakes -'== copper engraving depicting <isbon in ruins and in flames after the -'== <isbon earthquake. " tsunami over$helms the ships in the harbor. 7moldering after the -.B/ 7an Francisco earthquake. Earthquake damage in "nchorage, "laska -./9!. Earthquake damage in )e+ico 2ity -.1=!. Earthquake damage in "rmenia -.11!. " section of the 2ypress viaduct collapsed during the <oma ?rieta Earthquake -.1.!. Kaiser ?ermanente Euilding destroyed in the 5orthridge Earthquake -..9!. Hamage in ,reat >anshin earthquake -..=! in Kobe, Japan. 2hMetsu earthquake 6BB9!. ?lease help improve this section by e+panding it. Further information might be found on the talk page or at requests for e+pansion. Hecember 6BB'! There are many effects of earthquakes including, but not limited to the follo$ing: 7haking and ground rupture 7haking and ground rupture are the main effects created by earthquakes, principally resulting in more or less severe damage to buildings or other rigid structures. The severity of the local effects depends on the comple+ combination of the earthquake magnitude, the distance from epicenter, and the local geological and geomorphological conditions, $hich may amplify or reduce $ave propagation3-=4. The ground8shaking is measured by ground acceleration. 7pecific local geological, geomorphological, and geostructural features can induce high levels of shaking on the ground surface even from lo$8intensity earthquakes. This effect is called site or local amplification. (t is principally due to the transfer of the seismic motion from hard deep soils to soft superficial soils and to effects of seismic energy focali:ation o$ing to typical geometrical setting of the deposits. ,round rupture is a visible breaking and displacement of the earth#s surface along the trace of the fault, $hich may be of the order of fe$ metres in the case of maCor earthquakes. ,round rupture is a maCor risk for large engineering structures such as dams, bridges and nuclear po$er stations and requires careful mapping of e+isting faults to identify any likely to break the ground surface $ithin the life of the structure3-/4. <andslides and avalanches Earthquakes can cause landslides and avalanches, $hich may cause damage in hilly and mountainous areas. Fires Follo$ing an earthquake, fires can be generated by break of the electrical po$er or gas lines. (n the event of $ater mains rupturing and a loss of pressure, it may also become difficult to stop the spread of a fire once it has started.

7oil liquefaction 7oil liquefaction occurs $hen, because of the shaking, $ater8saturated granular material temporarily loses its strength and transforms from a solid to a liquid. 7oil liquefaction may cause rigid structures, as buildings or bridges, to tilt or sink into the liquefied deposits. Tsunami @ndersea earthquakes and earthquake8triggered landslides into the sea, can cause Tsunami. 7ee, for e+ample, the 6BB9 (ndian Acean earthquake. Floods Floods may be a secondary effects of earthquakes, if dams are damaged. Earthquakes may cause landslips to dam rivers, $hich then collapse and cause floods. >uman impacts Earthquakes may result in disease, lack of basic necessities, loss of life, higher insurance premiums, general property damage, road and bridge damage, and collapse of buildings or destabili:ation of the base of buildings $hich may lead to collapse in future earthquakes. The most significant human impact is loss of life ?reparation for earthquakes Earthquake preparedness >ousehold seismic safety >urriNuake nail for resisting hurricanes and earthquakes! 7eismic retrofit 7eismic ha:ard )itigation of seismic motion Earthquake prediction Earthquakes in mythology and religion (n 5orse mythology, earthquakes $ere e+plained as the violent struggling of the god <oki. When <oki, god of mischief and strife, murdered Ealdr, god of beauty and light, he $as punished by being bound in a cave $ith a poisonous serpent placed above his head dripping venom. <oki#s $ife 7igyn stood by him $ith a bo$l to catch the poison, but $henever she had to empty the bo$l the poison $ould drip on <oki#s face, forcing him to Cerk his head a$ay and thrash against his bonds, causing the earth to tremble.3-'4 (n ,reek mythology, ?oseidon $as the god of earthquakes.3-14 7ee also <ook up earthquake in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.2atastrophe modeling 2ryoseism Earthquake insurance Earthquake lights Earthquake engineering Earthquake $eather Earthquake -.'9 disaster film! ,eophysics >ypothetical future disasters (nterplate earthquake Japan )eteorological "gency seismic intensity scale <ist of earthquakes <ist of all deadly earthquakes since -.BB <ist of earthquakes by death toll

<ist of tectonic plates )egathrust earthquake )ei:oseismal area )oonquake ?late tectonics 7eismic loading 7eismic scale 7eismogenic layer 7eismology 7lo$ earthquake 7hock mechanics! 7ubmarine earthquake 7upershear earthquake The O"5 method %eferences P 7pence, WilliamJ 7. ". 7ipkin, ,. <. 2hoy -.1.!. Q)easuring the 7i:e of an EarthquakeQ. @nited 7tates ,eological 7urvey. %etrieved on 6BB/8--8B&. P Talebian, ). Jackson, J. 6BB9. " reappraisal of earthquake focal mechanisms and active shortening in the Gagros mountains of (ran. ,eophysical Journal (nternational, -=/, pages =B/8=6/ P @7,7. Q)'.= 5orthern ?eru Earthquake of 6/ 7eptember 6BB=Q pdf!. %etrieved on - "ugust, 6BB1. P ,reene, >. W.J Eurnley, ?. 2. 6/ Actober -.1.!. Q" ne$ self8organi:ing mechanism for deep8focus earthquakesQ. 5ature &9-: '&&0'&'. doi:-B.-B&1;&9-'&&aB. P "mos 5ur 6BBB!. Q?oseidonRs >orses: ?late Tectonics and Earthquake 7torms in the <ate Eron:e "ge "egean and Eastern )editerraneanQ. Journal of "rchaeological 7cience 6': 9&0/&. doi:-B.-BB/;Casc.-....B9&-. (775 B&B=899B&. P QEarthquake >a:ards ?rogramQ. @7,7. %etrieved on 6BB/8B18-9. P Q2ommon )yths about EarthquakesQ. @7,7. %etrieved on 6BB/8B18-9. P QEarthquake Facts and 7tatistics: "re earthquakes increasingSQ. @7,7. %etrieved on 6BB/8B18-9. P Q>istoric Earthquakes and Earthquake 7tatistics: Where do earthquakes occurSQ. @7,7. %etrieved on 6BB/8B18-9. P QOisual ,lossary 8 %ing of FireQ. %etrieved on 6BB/8B18-9. P )adrigal, "le+is June 9, 6BB1!. QTop = Ways to 2ause a )an8)ade EarthquakeQ, Wired 5e$s, 2ondT5et. %etrieved on 6BB18B/8B=. P 2atastrophic earthquake P ,lobal urban seismic risk P Earthquake safety in (ran and other developing countries P An 7haky ,round, "ssociation of Eay "rea ,overnments, 7an Francisco, reports -..=,-..1 updated 6BB&! P ,uidelines for evaluating the ha:ard of surface fault rupture, 2alifornia ,eological 7urvey P ?rose Edda by 7norri 7turluson P ?A7E(HA5 : ,reek god of the sea U earthquakes J mythology J pictures : 5E?T@5E E+ternal links Wikimedia 2ommons has media related to: Earthquake Educational -6 of the )ost Hestructive Earthquakes at >o$7tuffWorks >o$ to survive an earthquake 8 ,uide for children and youth ,uide to earthquakes and plate tectonics Earthquakes * an educational booklet by Kaye ). 7hedlock U <ouis 2. ?akiser The 7everity of an Earthquake @7,7 Earthquake F"Ns (%(7 7eismic )onitor 8 maps all earthquakes in the past five years. <atest Earthquakes in the World 8 maps all earthquakes in the past $eek. Earthquake (nformation from the Heep Acean E+ploration (nstitute, Woods >ole Aceanographic (nstitution ,eo.)tu.Edu * >o$ to locate an earthquake#s epicenter ?hotos;images of historic earthquakes earthquakecountry.info "ns$ers to F"Ns about Earthquakes and Earthquake ?reparedness

(nteractive guide: Earthquakes 8 an educational presentation by ,uardian @nlimited ,eo$all * an educational &H presentation system for looking at and understanding earthquake data Oirtual Earthquake 8 educational site e+plaining ho$ epicenters are located and magnitude is determined >o$7tuffWorks * >o$ Earthquakes Work 2E2 Higital "rchives * 2anada#s Earthquakes and Tsunamis Earthquakes Educational %esources 8 dmo: 7eismological data centers Europe (nternational 7eismological 2entre (72! European8)editerranean 7eismological 2entre E)72! ,lobal 7eismic )onitor at ,FG ?otsdam ,lobal Earthquake %eport 0 chart Earthquakes in (celand during the last 91 hours (stituto 5a:ionale di ,eofisica e Oulcanologia (5,O!, (taly Hatabase of (ndividual 7eismogenic 7ources H(77!, 2entral )editerranean ?ortuguese )eteorological (nstitute 7eismic activity during the last month! Japan Earthquake (nformation of Japan, Japan )eteorological "gency (nternational (nstitute of 7eismology and Earthquake Engineering ((7EE! Euilding %esearch (nstitute Hatabase for the damage of $orld earthquake, ancient period &BBB E2! to year of 6BB/8 Euilding %esearch (nstitute Japan! ! in Japanese Weatherne$s (nc. 7eismic activity during the last ' days!, in Japanese language. Weatherne$s (nc ,lobal $eb site @nited 7tates The @.7. 5ational Earthquake (nformation 2enter 7outhern 2alifornia Earthquake Hata 2enter The 7outhern 2alifornia Earthquake 2enter 72E2! ?utting Ho$n %oots in Earthquake 2ountry "n Earthquake 7cience and ?reparedness >andbook produced by 72E2 %ecent earthquakes in 2alifornia and 5evada 7eismograms for recent earthquakes via %EO, the %apid Earthquake Oie$er (ncorporated %esearch (nstitutions for 7eismology (%(7!, earthquake database and soft$are (%(7 7eismic )onitor 8 $orld map of recent earthquakes 7eismo"rchives 8 seismogram archives of significant earthquakes of the $orld 7eismic scales The European )acroseismic 7cale 7cientific information QEarthquake )agnitudes and the ,utenberg8%ichter <a$Q. 7im7cience. %etrieved on 6BB/8B18-9. >iroo Kanamori, Emily E. Erodsky June 6BB-!. QThe ?hysics of EarthquakesQ. ?hysics Today =9 /!: &9. doi:-B.-B/&;-.-&1'=.B. )iscellaneous %eports on 2hina 7ichuan earthquake -6;B=;6BB1 Kashmir %elief U Hevelopment Foundation K%HF! ?E7 5e$s>our 8 ?redicting Earthquakes @7,7 0 <argest earthquakes in the $orld since -.BB The Hestruction of Earthquakes 8 a list of the $orst earthquakes ever recorded <os "ngeles Earthquakes plotted on a ,oogle map the E)8H"T (nternational Hisaster Hatabase Earthquake 5e$spaper "rticles "rchive Earth8quake.org

?etNuake.org8 official ?ET7""F system $hich relies on strange or atypical animal behavior to predict earthquakes. <ink broken B&:&&, 6 June 6BB1 @T2!! " series of earthquakes in southern (taly 8 5ovember 6& -.1B, ,esualdo %ecent Nuakes WorldWide %eal8time earthquakes on ,oogle )ap, "ustralia and rest of the $orld Earthquake (nformation 8 detailed statistics and integrated $ith ,oogle )aps and ,oogle Earth Kharita 8 (5,O portal for Higital 2artography 8 <ast earthquakes recorded by (5,O (talian 5et$ork $ith ,oogle )aps! Kharita 8 (5,O portal for Higital 2artography 8 (talian 7eismicity by region -.1-86BB/ $ith ,oogle )aps! 3sho$4v V d V eTopics in geotechnical engineering