Introduction

Welcome to the world of sake. If you are reading this pamphlet,

you have likely already tasted sake or are keen to try it at least once.
Japan boasts a proud 2,000-year history of sake brewing.
Sake has long been the drink of choice among Japanese, and now, as Japanese
food enjoys extraordinary popularity abroad, sake is increasingly exported.
Sake is made primarily from rice to which komekoji (moulded rice)＊ and yeast
is added to produce a brewed beverage with an alcohol content of 13-20%.
Only the purest water sought throughout Japan is used in the production of sake.
The numerous varietals of sake can be served either warm or cold.
Japanese diners also enjoy sake as a complement to meals.
＊Rice that has koji-kin mould (Aspergillus oryzae) growing on

it will act like malt and convert further rice (starch) to sugar.

To help people around the world familiarise themselves with the world of sake,
we present Sake A to Z. This information is provided not only to guide
readers in the pleasures of sake, but also as an invitation to Japan,
the birthplace of this wonderful elixir.

This pamphlet is a compilation of WSET○ Sake Seminar and Tasting that has held every year
R

since 2003, with the cooperation of Wine & Spirit Education Trust. JAL has led and developed
the WSET○R Sake Seminar and Tasting with sake breweries who participated. JAL as well as
the sake breweries wish sincerely to express gratitude to WSET○R .
INDEX

03 - 05 Sake in Context
Defining Sake／Sake on the Japanese Market ／Sake Overseas

06 - 08 Sake Varietals

09 - 11 Assessing Quality
Sake -Tasting／Tasting Process
Key Points in Sake-Tasting／Constituents and Related Indices

12 - 15 Serving and Enjoying the Pleasures of Sake

Characteristics of Sake／How to Enjoy Sake
Pairing Taste Characteristics and Cuisine／Storing Sake

16 - 17 Brewing Sake
Breweries／Toji

18 - 21 Sake Ingredients
Rice／Water／Komekoji（Moulded rice）
／Brewing Alcohol

22 - 28 Sake Production
Fermentation／Brewing／Main Production Methods

29 History
Reference Materials
Other Resources

Editor : Kimiko MASUDA

Published by : Japan Airlines International Co.,Ltd.

Copyright : ○
C 2007 Japan Airlines International Co.,Ltd. All rights reserved

Thanks to
National Research Institute of Brewing
Japan Sake Brewers Association
SAKE WORLD, INC. John GAUNTNER
Sake Service Institute
KOKKI SHUZO Co.,Ltd.
MASUDA SAKE COMPANY LTD.
MIYASAKA BREWING COMPANY, LTD.
Okunomatsu Sake Brewery Co.,Ltd.
SHATA SHUZO Co.,Ltd.
JAL Academy Co.,Ltd.

Special thanks to
David WRIGLEY MW AIWS of Wine & Spirit Education Trust
Sake in Context

Defining Sake
The Liquor Tax Law in Japan defines and regulates sake as follows.
Sake varieties are defined as alcoholic beverages with an alcohol content
of less than 22% made according to the following processes.
a. Fermented and filtered alcoholic beverages made from rice, komekoji
(moulded rice),＊ and water.
＊Rice that has koji-kin mould (Aspergillus oryzae) growing on it will act like malt and
convert further rice (starch) to sugar.
b. Fermented and filtered alcoholic beverages made from rice, komekoji
(moulded rice), water, and sake lees or other substance authorized by
Ministerial ordinance. (This ordinance stipulates that the total amount
of other substance for use as primary ingredient be limited to no more
than half the amount of rice [including komekoji] used in the product).
c. Alcoholic beverages made by adding sake lees to sake and then filtering.
Japan’s Liquor Tax Law strictly regulates the ingredients that may be
used to produce sake, which must include rice, and stipulates that the
final product must be filtered.

Sake on the Japanese Market

In a global comparison, the Japanese do not rank particularly high as alcohol consumers. In a 2003 compari-
son of per capita consumption of alcoholic beverages (100% alcohol content conversion), Japan came in 29th
at 6.5 litres consumed, a figure roughly half that of Luxemburg, the country with the highest alcohol con-
sumption per capita.
The picture is similar with regard to liquor taxes. Some 1.53 trillion yen in liquor taxes were collected
(excluding imports) in 2005, down 70 billion yen from the previous year. Liquor taxes break down by type of
alcohol as indicated in Graph 1 below.

Graph １ Liquor Taxes by Category─FY2004 and FY2005

Whiskeys 28.7 billion yen（1.8％） Other 38.8 billion yen（2.4％）

Liqueurs 60.8 billion yen（3.8％）

Sake 95.0 billion yen（5.9％）

Shochu 226.9 billion yen（14.2％）

Beer 844.0 billion yen（52.8％）
2005
2004

Sparkling liquor
305.3 billion yen（19.1％）

Whiskeys 27.7 billion yen（1.8％） Other 93.4 billion yen（6.1％）

Liqueurs 63.5 billion yen（4.2％）

Sake 91.8 billion yen（6.0％）

Shochu 227.0 billion yen

（14.8％） Beer 800.4 billion yen（52.3％）
2005

Sparkling liquor 225.9 billion yen

（14.8％）

Sake accounts for 6.0% of the liquor taxes collected overall. The 91.8 billion yen in tax for 2005
represents a drop of 3.2 billion yen (-3.4%) from the 95 billion yen collected the previous year.

Sake in Context 4
 In terms of volume sold (consumption), the 9.02 million kilolitres (9.04 million kl the previous year) of alco-
holic beverages moved in 2005 represents a drop of 20,000 kilolitres from 2004. The breakdown of sales vol-
ume (consumption) by category is presented below.

Graph 2 Sake Sales (Consumption) Volume by Category─ FY2004 and FY2005

Powdered liquor and other miscellaneous liquors 0.23 million kl（2.6％）

Other 0.46 million kl（5.1％）
Whiskeys 0.1 million kl（1.1％）

Liqueurs 0.69 million kl（7.7％）

Sake 0.75 million kl（8.2％）

2004 Beer 3.62 million kl（40.0％）

Shochu 0.98 million kl（10.9％）

Sparkling liquor 2.21 million kl

（24.5％）

Powdered liquor and other miscellaneous liquors 0.9 million kl（10.0％）

Other 0.48 million kl（5.3％）

Whiskeys 0.09 million kl（1.0％）

Liqueurs 0.74 million kl（8.2％）

Beer 3.41 million kl（37.8％）
2005
Sake 0.72 million kl（8.0％）

Shochu 1.0 million kl（11.1％） Sparkling liquor 1.68 million kl

（18.6％）

Sales (consumption) of sake totalled 0.72 million kilolitres in 2005, down 30,000kl (or - 4.0%)
from the 0.75 million kilolitres in sales the previous year. Despite this drop, sake accounts for
8.0% of overall sales (consumption) for all alcoholic beverages in 2005.

Sake Overseas
As yet, only about 1% of the sake produced in Japan is exported abroad, though this figure has continuously
increased over the past several years. Export volumes have exhibited 6-8% growth since 2002, reaching
10,000kl in 2006. Total export values enjoyed greater than 10% year-on-year growth over this same time peri-
od, coming in at 6.1 billion yen in 2006.

As Graph 3 illustrates, half of all exports from Japan are destined for the US and Taiwan.

Graph 3 Sake Export Volume Country Share in 2006

Others（24％）
the US（32％）

Germany（3％）
2006
the UK（3％）
China（4％）

Canada（5％） Taiwan（20％）

Hong Kong（9％）

5 Sake in Context
 Sake Varietals

Sake Varietals
Sake falls into several different categories, and the following are special denominations specified by the
Japanese government.
Products that satisfy the various requirements for special denominations are labelled as such.

Table 1 Special Denominations for Sake

Denomination Ingredients Milling rate % of komekoji Other features
Rice, komekoji (moulded Ginjo-tsukuri method, characteristic
Ginjo-shu Up to 60%
rice), and brewing alcohol flavor, and color clarity
Rice, komekoji (moulded Ginjo-tsukuri method, characteristic
Daiginjo-shu Up to 50%
rice), and brewing alcohol flavor, and high color clarity
Rice and
Junmai-shu ─ Good flavor and color clarity
komekoji (moulded rice)
Rice and Ginjo-tsukuri method, characteristic
Junmai-Ginjo-shu Up to 60%
komekoji (moulded rice) 15% and over flavor, and color clarity
Rice and Ginjo-tsukuri method, characteristic
Junmai-Daiginjo-shu Up to 50%
komekoji (moulded rice) flavor, and high color clarity
Rice and Up to 60% or special
Tokubetsu-Junmai-shu Good flavor and high color clarity
komekoji (moulded rice) process
Rice, komekoji (moulded
Honjozo-shu rice), and brewing alcohol
Up to 70% Good flavor and color clarity

Rice, komekoji (moulded Up to 60% or special

Tokubetsu-Honjozo-shu rice), and brewing alcohol
Good flavor and high color clarity
process

Ginjo-tsukuri generally refers to the process of using highly polished rice and fermenting the sake at cold tem-
peratures to create a characteristic fragrance.

Special denominations account for approximately a quarter of all domestic taxed shipments and break down
specifically as illustrated in Chart 1 below.

Chart 1

11.8% 7.2%

This chart has been created by sake educator John Gauntner, www.sake-world.com .
（C）
Copyright 2006, all rights reserved.

7 Sake Varietals
Ginjo-shu 吟醸酒
Sake made using white rice that has been milled to retain 60% or less of the grain. It also contains komekoji
(moulded rice) and water, and may contain all of these ingredients plus brewing alcohol. Characterized by a
fruity, somewhat floral bouquet, this sake has a clear, crisp flavour. When the rice has been polished down to
50% or less, the sake is called
Junmai-shu 純米酒
Sake made only from white rice, komekoji (moulded rice), and water. It tends to have a mellow bouquet and a rich,
smooth flavour.
Honjozo-shu 本醸造酒
Sake made using white rice that has been milled to retain 70% or less of the grain, along with komekoji
(moulded rice), brewing alcohol, and water. It is known for its mild, unobtrusive bouquet, and a crisp taste.

Sake varieties are also distinguished by brewing method.

Namazake 生酒
Sake that is not heated for pasteurization after the moromi＊ has been pressed. It is characterized by a light,
fresh flavour.
＊ Moromi refers to the soft mash mixture of fermented brewage ingredients contained in the liquid brewed to create sake.

Sake is generally heated for pasteurization (the process called hi-ire) twice before being sold. Namazake is
never pasteurized. Nama-chozo shu is bottled sake pasteurized only once after reaching the maturation stage.
Nama-zume shu is bottled sake pasteurized once before reaching maturation stage. All three sake varieties
have a fresh flavour and are best served cooled.

Hi-ire pasteurization process Bottling

○
C Okunomatsu Sake Brewery Co.,Ltd. ○
C Okunomatsu Sake Brewery Co.,Ltd.

Figure 1 Varietal Differences According to Hi-Ire Process (Heating for Pasteurization)

Nama-chozo shu Nama-zume shu

General Sake Namazake （Live storage Sake） （Live bottled Sake）

Fermentation Fermentation Fermentation Fermentation

Pressing Pressing Pressing Pressing

Filtration Filtration Filtration Filtration

Hi-Ire Hi-Ire
（Heating for Pasteurization） （Heating for Pasteurization）

Storage Nama storage Nama storage Storage

Filtration （Filtration） Filtration

Hi-Ire Hi-Ire
（Heating for Pasteurization） （Heating for Pasteurization）

Bottling Bottling Bottling Bottling

Genshu 原酒
Sake with a higher alcohol content that comes from pressing but not diluting with added water. It has a deep,
rich flavour and an alcohol content ranging from 17% to 20%.
Koshu（Aged sake）古酒
Sake that has been aged for two or three years, or for five years or more. It has a sherry-like bouquet, with a
bouquet that includes spices and nuts.
Taruzake（Cask sake）樽酒
Sake that is aged in casks and thus takes on the fragrance of the wood from which the cask is made.
Nigorizake にごり酒
A milky white sake whose colour derives from only lightly filtering the mash through a coarse cloth.
Sparkling sake 発泡酒
Carbonated sake, with a feel in the mouth reminiscent of champagne.
Sake Varietals 8
Assessing Quality

Sake-Tasting
Made primarily from rice, sake in fact contains some 700 constituents created in the sophisticated, advanced
processes by which it is produced. There are easily more than 5,000 brands of sake, offering countless differ-
ent tastes. Learning to identify these differences greatly enhances the pleasure of the sake experience.
Judging sake by taste is a technique for objectively analysing and evaluating the flavours and characteristics of
a particular sake, then conveying the result in easy descriptions. Determining whether the sake is good or bad
is a multi-sensory personal experience requiring the senses of sight, smell and taste.
The four main elements that make up the taste of sake are sweetness, acidity, bitterness, and umami. Tasting
also involves an additional nine major components, among these, temperature, aroma, mouth feel, balance
and finish. Sake tasting begins with committing to memory the colour, taste, and aroma of favourite sakes. The
ability to identify each taste element and describe these to a third party requires all five senses, as well as the
proper vocabulary and phrases at one’s disposal. For example, comparing the aroma of sake to plants, fruits
and grains allows for extremely nuanced turns of phrase.
Sake tasting necessarily begins with the eye before moving on to the nose and finally the mouth. It is impor-
tant that one proceeds in this order to avoid compromising one’s sensitivity to the fragrance, which occurs
when the sake is swallowed immediately. Reaching the sipping stage, the sake is rolled over the tongue to
slowly savour the subtle flavours. Allowing the sake to linger on the tongue, rather than swallowing it down at
once, greatly enhances one’s ability to identify various taste elements. Beginners may initially find it difficult
to identify and assess sake characteristics by taste. Rest assured that a more refined sake palate develops with
practice. One must first identify the characteristics and elements of favourite sakes, which will gradually take
shape and provide sake lovers with a personal system.

Tasting Process
1.Look Pour the sake into the kikichoko (special sake tasting cup). Look at the
colour and check for foreign substances to assess the cloudiness. Kikichoko are
designed specifically to make it easier to observe the different shades and colour
clarity of a particular sake.
Kikichoko
2.Smell Keeping the kikichoko as still as possible, bring the sake to your nose and ○
C National Research

inhale the aroma in small sniffs. Identify the aromatic characteristics with close atten- Institute of Brewing

tion to the strength, breadth, and continuity/endurance of the aroma. The aroma experienced at this time is called
uwadachi-ka, the initial fragrance when the sake aroma is inhaled.
3.Taste Take a small amount of the sake into the mouth, paying close attention to the initial impression the sake
leaves on the tip of the tongue. Next, concentrate on the fragrance while exhaling through the nose. The aroma
experienced at this time is called fukumi-ka, the fragrance and flavour when drinking a few drops of sake.
Slowly roll the sake over the tongue to experience its sweetness, acidity, bitterness, and umami. As the sake
moves over the tongue, concentrate on the sensations throughout the entire mouth, as well as on the tongue.
This step allows for the discovery of a great many more taste characteristics than initially imagined.
Finally, swallow the sake, allowing it to slide down the throat to check the finish. Devout sake tasters spit the sake
out without swallowing to assess the sake’s aftertaste, its harmony of tastes, and pleasant or unpleasant finish.

Key Points in Sake-Tasting

Sake is meant to be pure pleasure, so the best way to assess sake is to drink and taste it. Experts/sommeliers
take these sake-tasting steps to evaluate individual sakes from various perspectives. The key elements used to
assess the quality of sake are listed below.
Colour Colour is assessed for its depth and clarity. The interior of the kikichoko cup is lined with concentric
blue circles to help tasters gauge the colour and clarity of the sake.
Aroma Sake has certain identifiable fragrances. Namazake imparts a fresh aroma; ginjo-shu a fruity or a mature,
well-mellowed aroma. In either case, the aroma of the sake is assessed for its intensity and degree of harmony.
Taste : Body Taste is described as either full-bodied or clean. Sakes with higher alcohol content, sugar con-
tent, acidity, and amino acids will fall toward the full-bodied end of the scale, while those with less of these ele-
ments will taste cleaner.
Taste : Sweet/Dry Taste is also described as sweet or dry. Sake contains 4-7% sugar content. Sakes on the
higher end of this scale will have a sweeter taste and those on the lower end a drier taste. Sake, however, also
contains acidity in the 0.05-0.15% range, which offsets the sweetness imparted by the sugar. Sakes with identi-
cal sugar content will therefore vary in taste depending on their acidity.
Taste : Purity The final aspect of taste is purity versus zatsumi (off-flavour). Large amounts of amino acids
tend to introduce zatsumi as the sake matures.
Assessing Quality 10
 Figure 2 Sake Constituents and Taste Characteristics

Sugar Organic Alcohol Amino

content acids content acids
Sugar Organic Alcohol Amino
content acids content acids

 Zatsumi
Pure Sweet （off-flavour）
Dry
Faint Intense Full-bodied
Clean sake taste
sake taste

Constituents and Related Indices

Alcohol Content
This index, expressed in degrees, indicates how many millilitres of alcohol are contained in 100 millilitres of
sake.
Nihonshu-do (Sake Meter Value)
Nihonshu-do provides an easy numerical indication of the degree of sweetness or dryness of sake (positive［+］
values for increasingly dry and negative［–］values for increasingly sweet).
The Nihonshu-do provides numerical values that indicate the specific gravity of sakes and, when combined
with alcohol content, it allows for calculations of the extract content (mostly sugar content) in the sake. Sakes
with low Nihonshu-do are generally sweet sakes with a high extract content. On the contrary, sakes with high
Nihonshu-do are generally dry sakes with low extract content.
Sakes with a negative（–）Nihonshu-do have a higher sugar content, making them sweeter. Conversely, sakes
with a positive（+）Nihonshu-do are drier. However, alcohol content changes specific gravity, which makes this
element another important factor in judging the quality of sake. Moreover, the acid content in sake tends to
mask its sweetness, which is what indicates the acidity or dryness of the sake. It is therefore difficult to classi-
fy a sake as sweet or dry based on Nihonshu-do alone.
Acidity
Acidity indicates the amount of lactic, succinate, malic, and other organic acids contained in the sake. Acidity
affects how sweet or dry the sake tastes, as well as the fullness of the body. Higher degrees of acidity produce
drier, more full-bodied sakes.
Amino acid degree
Amino acid degree indicates the amount of glutamic and other amino acids contained in the sake. Amino acid
degree affects the breadth, richness and other aspects of taste. Higher amino acid degree delivers a more full-
bodied, rich-tasting (greater umami) sake, with lower amino acid degree imparting a cleaner, mellower taste.

Table 2 Constituents in Sake -FY2005 (Nationwide totals)

Sake varietal Ginjo-shu Junmai-shu Honjozo-shu Other

Number of samples 315 262 236 399

Alcohol content Average value 15.8 15.4 15.4 15.3

Nihonshu-do Average value 4.0 3.4 3.7 2.7

Acidity Average value 1.4 1.5 1.3 1.2

Amino acid degree Average value 1.4 1.8 1.5 1.3

Source: Ingredients in Marketed Alcoholic Beverages: Fiscal Year 2005, National Tax Agency JAPAN

11 Assessing Quality
 Serving and Enjoying the Pleasures of Sake

Characteristics of Sake
Sake is a sophisticated drink with a vast array of noteworthy characteris-
tics.
Characteristics Determining Quality,
and Origin of Distinguishing Properties
● Much of the variety in fragrance and taste found in the sake brewed
today originates in the differences between methods of production
(the differences between ginjo-shu and honjozo-shu, for example).
● Flavour, fragrance and other elements of quality change easily.
● By skilfully manipulating micro-organisms, sake brewers produce
desired by-products that create a variety of aromatic constituents.
The Proper Setting
● Sake has the greatest range of ideal drinking temperatures of any alco-
holic beverage. (It should be noted that sake is most commonly drunk
warm.)
● Sake is also a great complement to almost any meal. In very few
instances does sake accentuate the negative aspects of the food.
(These negatives may include the fishy smell of seafood, the harsh-
ness contained in vegetables, and the distinctive smell and taste of fer-
mented foods, for example).
Aroma and Taste Characteristics
● Sake may not offer as much variety of aroma and taste as other types
of alcoholic beverages, but it is characterised by a deep, nuanced taste
and complex aroma with many subtle undertones.
● Sweetness and umami are the most basic of the elements that make
up the taste of sake.
Aged Sake
● Certain sakes are better when aged, while others should be enjoyed
just after bottling.
● The aroma and taste of sake that has been aged over a long period of
time is entirely different than that of freshly bottled sake. Most sake
reaches peak quality when aged from six to twelve months. This peri-
od of maturation also releases the unique properties of each sake.

How to Enjoy Sake

Sake is exceptional among alcoholic beverages in that it can be enjoyed
either hot or cold. It may be served warm, chilled, or at room tempera-
ture. This unique versatility gives sake a wider drinking range than
other liquors, from 5 oC (41oF) to 55oC (131oF).
The custom of drinking kan-zake, or warmed sake, became commonplace at the end of the 17th century and
continues to be popular in Japan today. Sake’s unique versatility with regard to serving temperature makes
this a matter of personal preference, though most Japanese find that sake tastes best close to body tempera-
ture (35- 40oC or 95 -104oF) or slightly higher (45-50oC or 113 -122oF). Before serving, the sake is poured into a
ceramic tokkuri flask or a chirori pot (designed specifically for heating sake) and warmed to the precise tem-
perature desired.
Sake may be served in glassware, as well as traditional cups made of ceramic, porcelain or lacquer. The diver-
sity of shapes and materials serves to enrich the experience of the various sake varietals. Selecting the perfect
cup for the specific temperature at which the sake will be served is an additional pleasure that enhances the
experience of the sake itself.
The pleasures of drinking sake are derived from the wide range of tastes and ways in which it can be served.
Choices are made from among the many possibilities to suit the season and the cuisine with which it is
paired. Sake’s many flavours make it an ideal base for cocktails, as well.
Sake complements cuisines from all over the world and all manner of ingredients and cooking styles. In Japan,
it is served at French, Italian and other restaurants offering Western cuisine.
Sake brings out the flavour of the food, while at the same time also tempering the strong aromas of beef and
seafood. It can be used as a preparation or seasoning in both Japanese and Western cooking, as well.

13 Serving and Enjoying the Pleasures of Sake

Pairing Taste Characteristics and Cuisine
Sake exhibits four taste elements-sweetness/dryness, saltiness, acidity, and bitterness-as well as umami. The
recent scientific discovery that the entire human tongue is capable of sensing these five elements is further proof
that sake should be allowed to sit on top of the tongue to fully experience all aspects of its flavour. Pairing it with
food further enhances this experience. Sake is best enjoyed by sipping it slowly during a good meal.

Table ３ Effect of Sake Constituents on Food

In addition to prolonging the taste experience, the water in sake dilutes the aroma and taste of salt, umami
1 Water content and spices in food.

In addition to blending in most animal and vegetable fats and oils, the alcohol in sake also helps soften
2 Alcohol protein compounds.

Acetic acid works on fat and proteins, breaking down and bringing out the umami content of these
3 Acetic acid ingredients. In addition to buffering salt content and mellowing its sharpness, the acetic acid in sake also
works to kill off unwanted bacteria in foods.

In addition to cleansing the palate to allow for purer food tastes, the sugar in sake also softens the acidity
4 Sugars
of foods and tones down astringency and bitterness.

5 Amino acids The amino acids in sake enhance the taste of food, blend aftertastes, and exhilarate the palate.
Astringency, Sake also helps tone down smells and boost food flavours. It offsets the harshness and astringency in food,
6 leaving the palate exhilarated. Sake consolidates flavours, making it the perfect complement to a meal.
bitterness

Next, let us turn to the effects sake constituents have on specific dishes.
Notes on Pairing Sake with Different Cuisines
● The aroma and taste of sake will leave a stable impression in the mouth
regardless of the amount of salt in any particular food.
● The aroma-taste balance of sake remains unchanged even when drunk in
combination with sweet foods.
● Sake almost entirely masks the fishy smell given off by seafood. Drinking
sake with fish roe masks any strange tastes or smells the roe may give off.
● The flavours of sake do not compete with those of fermented foods, pickles,
and other favourite sake snacks. These flavours provide a subtle, delicate bal-
ance to soy sauce and miso, as well.
● Neither do sake flavours interfere with the taste of fresh fruit.
● Sake taste elements are not overpowered by wasabi, mustard or other strong
spices.
● The amino acids in sake enhance the savouriness of most seafood and meats.
● Sake does not overwhelm the taste or texture of foods with little or no flavour
(such as water shields or tofu).
● Sake brings out the unique undertones that hide behind the harshness in cer-
tain vegetables.
These are just a few examples of the unique properties sake brings to food that
no other type of alcoholic beverage can.

This amazing versatility as a complement to nearly every type of cuisine can actu-
ally make selecting the appropriate sake for a meal quite confusing for many peo-
ple. Fortunately, there are no hard and fast rules, and personal favourites are gen-
erally fine to serve with any dish. We suggest experimenting with the countless
sake varietals and numerous modes of serving them to find what works for you.
Select different sake varietals for different courses
Pair different types of sakes with individual dishes over a multi-course meal. Begin
with a highly aromatic ginjo-shu or lightly sparkling nigorizake (coarsely filtered
cloudy sake). As the meal proceeds, move on to varietals that cleanse the palate
and those that are not overwhelmed by intensely flavourful foods, as well as
warmed sake to expand the tastes that remain in the mouth after a satisfying meal.
Sake is the perfect complement to sushi - an alcoholic beverage that does not
draw one’s attention to the fishy smell of seafood and whose taste is not over-
powered by the spiciness of wasabi.

Serving and Enjoying the Pleasures of Sake 14

 Taste sakes from the same brewery
Some breweries produce a number of different brands, each under a separate process. Different varietals of
the same brands may be produced from different types of rice using different methods to create a subtle vari-
ety of tastes. Sampling the sakes of a single brewery with their guidance is an excellent way to learn to identi-
fy the unique properties and subtle characteristics of individual sakes.
Enjoy sakes available only at certain times of the year
Sake is a largely seasonal pleasure. The winter to spring months, the most pro-
lific sake-brewing period, are the ideal time to enjoy non-pasteurised (not heat-
ed under the hi-ire process), slightly sparkling sakes, as well as freshly bottled
namazake. With a little luck, you just may be able to taste sake pressed earlier
the same day and poured directly from the barrel on a brewery tour.
Summer is the season for the exhilarating and refreshing flavours of clean
sakes served chilled. The cooler temperatures in early autumn make this sea-
son ideal for hiyaoroshi, sake aged in storage through the spring and summer
and shipped cold with no need to heat for sterilization. Sake aged in spring
and summer mellows, bringing its distinctive umami to the fore.
During the winter, kan-zake (warmed sake) not only warms the body, but
highlights the pure delicious taste of sake.
The vast array of sake varietals and modes of serving are a source of infinite
pleasure throughout the year.

Sake bags hung to drip C KOKKI SHUZO Co.,Ltd.

○
C KOKKI SHUZO Co.,Ltd.
○

Storing Sake
A delicate alcoholic beverage, sake is extremely sensitive to light and heat and should be stored in a cool, dark
place.
Sake breweries handle all aspects from brewing and bottling sake through shipping it to market, taking
extreme care to see that the sake is stored at the proper temperature at every stage of the process. During dis-
tribution, at the wholesaler, retailer, and even after consumer purchase, however, the quality of the sake may
be compromised.
Temperature and light are the two most important aspects of handling and storing sake. High temperatures or
sudden changes in temperature tend to compromise quality. Sake is also extremely sensitive to direct sunlight
and should not be placed in direct sunlight for even short periods of time.
Occasionally, a retailer or liquor shop may place sake in displays vulnerable to direct sunlight. The high tem-
peratures in combination with the sunlight in these displays make for the worst conditions for maintaining
sake quality. Retailers have recently begun to introduce remedies, such as lining the glass doors of refrigerat-
ed showcases with specialty film to protect sake from UV rays.
In general, sake reaches store shelves just at peak drinking time. Bottles of sake stored at home under ordi-
nary conditions will lose quality over time and should be enjoyed soon after they are purchased.
At home, non-pasteurised namazake should be kept in the refrigerator and consumed as soon as possible.
Sake that has undergone hi-ire pasteurisation by heat should be kept in a cool place, preferably under 15oC
(59oF). Sake will oxidize once opened. Oxidation will compromise the quality, but rarely the lactic acid bacte-
ria (hiochi-kin) alter the aroma of the sake. Refrigeration is also recommended.
The bottled date for sake is not absolute. Under ordinary conditions, the quality of pasteurised sake remains
unaffected for two to three months. When drinking non-pasteurised namazake, however, the more recent the
bottled date, the better.

15 Serving and Enjoying the Pleasures of Sake

 Brewing Sake

Breweries
There are 2,087 sake breweries spread across Japan,＊ with breweries producing
sake in every prefecture from Hokkaido to Okinawa, with the exception of
Kagoshima. Breweries have long been identified by their characteristic white
walls and tile roofs, though recent trends have seen an increasing number of
modern structures replacing the traditional sake brewery architecture.
＊Source: Sake Notes (“Number of Certified Breweries FY2004,” National Tax Agency JAPAN)

Brewery’
s characteristic white walls and tile roofs Sakabayashi Sakabayashi hanging from the eaves in
○
C National Research Institute of Brewing ○
C National Research Institute of Brewing front of brewery door
○C MASUDA SAKE COMPANY LTD.

Although certain breweries do operate year-round producing sake, brewing sake is generally a seasonal affair.
Beginning in autumn, brewing peaks during the coldest months of winter and ends when the longer days
usher in spring. Long ago, breweries hung sakabayashi, large round balls of tightly bound Japanese cedar
leaves, from the eaves in front of the door to announce to neighbourhood sake-lovers that a new batch of sake
was ready. The sakabayashi no longer serves this purpose for customers, but has been adopted as the symbol
of the Japanese sake brewery.
As part of the 2,000-year history of sake-brewing, Japanese breweries boast a long, proud history in their own
right. A number have been operating for 200 or 300 years, or even longer, and some have been handed down
from generation to generation, remaining in the same family to this day. Sake breweries are spread through-
out Japan. Some open their doors to the public for tours. Others have been converted to restaurants that
serve the local cuisine, while still others are designated historical landmarks or feature museums exhibiting
traditional sake-brewing tools and accessories. Visit the breweries that make your favourite sakes. Who
knows? You may even glimpse the secrets behind their great taste.

Toji
The innumerable methods for brewing and handling sake are all complex, delicate processes. The toji, the
head brewer at a sake brewery, directs these processes as they are carried out by the kurabito (technicians
involved in the sake-brewing process) working under him. Today, toji and kurabito are both referred to with
the same appellation, shuzo ginosha (skilled sake brewers). The majority of toji are certified, under a national
certification system, in the sake-brewing processes at the highest level. The toji ’s responsibilities, however,
extend well beyond the actual brewing. They also oversee the kurabito and manage the brewery floor. It is
therefore essential that, in addition to having mastered every technical aspect of brewing, that toji be decisive
men or women of character with strong leadership qualities and generalists who are good administrators. It
is not every brewer who meets these stringent standards required of the toji.
Brewing sake, the art of rigorously controlling koji-kin (Aspergillus oryzae), yeast and other microorganisms
with a delicate, skillful touch, is not easily mastered. Ancient sake-brewing techniques and skills have been
passed down over many generations and inherited by those in toji guilds across Japan.
Ultimate responsibility for the final sake products lies with the toji. This essential position is, however, becom-
ing more difficult to fill. Traditionally, most of toji and kurabito were farmers who worked on the farm during
the summer and in the brewery during the winter. As the number of farmers in Japan declines, we find fewer
young people who dream of mastering the skills to be toji. The sake industry is striving to secure future gen-
erations of toji and exploring ways to restructure the industry to provide year-round employment.
Currently, 983 toji are registered with the Japanese Federation of Toji Guilds, an umbrella group for all toji
guilds across the country, along with 820 sanyaku＊＊ and 1,960 general kurabito. The average age of toji mem-
bers is 56.2 years.
＊＊Sanyaku includes toji or assistant to toji, chief in komekoji(moulded rice) making, and chief in shubo (sake yeast starter) making.

17 Brewing Sake
 Sake Ingredients

Rice
Japan currently cultivates 276 varieties of rice. It is these domestically
grown varieties that are one of the main ingredients of sake.＊ Certain
rice varieties called shuzo kotekimai (rice for sake brewing regulated by
agricultural produce standards), are more conducive than others to
sake-brewing and result in superior sakes. ＊Source: Crop Status by Rice
Variety Produced FY2005, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan
Over the 2005 brewing year (July 2005 – June 2006), 273,000 tons of Stalks of rice
C National Research Institute of Brewing
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brown rice were polished to 187,000 tons and used to brew sake. Most
varieties of shuzo kotekimai are large grained rice (1,000 grains weigh-
ing more than 26 grams) that contain a cloudy white centre called the
shimpaku. This type of rice is used in sake-brewing because it lends
itself to the making komekoji (moulded rice) process. Komekoji is then
blended into the moromi (main sake mash) to help catalyse the alcohol
fermentation process.
In addition to yamadanishiki, long the most popular brand of sake rice
in Japan, new varieties of sake rice have recently been developed, and
Rice plants drying in the sun after harvest
older types are being revived throughout the country. ○
C KOKKI SHUZO Co.,Ltd.

Yamadanishiki rice: Especially well-suited to produce the highly aro-

matic fragrance of daiginjo-shu.
Gohyakumangoku rice: This famous sake rice comes from Niigata
Prefecture and the Hokuriku region.
Miyamanishiki rice: A hardy, enduring variety, this rice is grown in the
harsher climates in northern Japan.
Omachi rice: One of the oldest varieties of sake rice. The distinctive
expansive taste it imparts to sake makes Omachi rice a perennial
favourite.

Sake rice (shuzo kotekimai ) Yamadanishiki rice

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C National Research Institute of Brewing ○
C National Research Institute of Brewing

Table 4 Top Five Rice Varieties by Area Planted for Crops

Sake rice Table rice

Percentage of total area Percentage of total area
Rice variety name Area planted (ha) planted for crops (%) Rice variety name Area planted (ha) planted for crops (%)

1 Yamadanishiki 4,781 32.6 Koshihikari 556,345 38.0

2 Gohyakumangoku 4,324 29.5 Hitomebore 154,929 10.6

3 Miyamanishiki 1,394 9.5 Hinohikari 150,779 10.3

4 Hyogo-yumenishiki 390 2.7 Akitakomachi 131,751 9.0

5 Omachi 358 2.4 Kinuhikari 49,304 3.4

Source:Crop Status by Rice Variety Produced FY2005, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan

19 Sake Ingredients
The outer husk of unrefined brown rice contains fats, minerals, and proteins that compromise the taste of
sake. The rice is therefore milled, and the husk discarded. It is the inner shimpaku that is used in sake-brew-
ing. In most cases, the outer third of the husk is discarded, leaving a grain two-thirds its original size, though
for varietals such as ginjo-shu, twice this amount is removed. This process may generate waste, but it is essen-
tial to producing good-tasting sake.

Polished rice weight (kg)

Milling Rate（Seimaibuai ）
（%）＝ ×100
Brown rice weight (kg)

(From left) Brown rice; polished rice with 1/3

of husk removed; polished rice with 2/3 of
husk removed.
○C National Research Institute of Brewing

Automatic rice mill

○
C National Research Institute of Brewing

Water
Pure water is the other essential ingredient in creating sake and is used at a ten-to-one ratio to polished rice.
This water has a significant effect on the production method and the quality of the resulting sake. It is there-
fore held to much more stringent standards than tap water. Sake breweries are frequently established in
areas known for their pure spring water. The two most prominent sake-producing regions are Nada (Hyogo
Prefecture) and Fushimi (Kyoto Prefecture), two of the country’s 100 best water sources as designated by
Japan’s Ministry of the Environment.
Water can contain elements that are unsuitable for producing good sake. Iron, though a necessary metallic
element for humans that is essential to the red haemoglobin in blood, tends to change the colour of sake a
reddish brown and compromise the fragrance and taste. The quality standard for iron is 0.3ppm or less for
tap water. In brewing sake, however, only water with less than one-tenth that amount is used. Fortunately,
natural springs throughout the country provide the high-quality water needed to brew superior sake.

Table 5 Water Requirements for Sake-Brewing

Complexion Colourless and transparent

Smell/Taste No discernable odour or taste

pH Neutral or slightly alkaline

Iron/Manganese 0.02 ppm or less

Organic substances 5.0 ppm or less

Nitrite-nitrogen Undetected

Ammoniac nitrogen Undetected C SHATA SHUZO Co., Ltd.

○
Bacterial acidity 0.5 ml or less

Lactic acid bacteria and coliform bacteria ND

Sake Ingredients 20
 Komekoji（Moulded rice）
Koji-kin (Aspergillus oryzae) bred in white rice converts the starch in white rice
to sugar.
A beneficial mould used in the manufacture of miso and soy sauce, as well, it is
koji-kin that breaks the starch in sake rice.
To make komekoji, koji-kin spores (seeds) are sprinkled over steamed rice. Left
alone, these spores soon germinate and form fungal threads. In a few days’
time, the koji-kin will have covered the steamed rice entirely.
Once it reaches this stage, the rice is called komekoji (moulded rice). As the
koji-kin grows in its rice host, enzyme proteins are created and are cultivated Koji-kin spores
C National Research Institute
○
inside the komekoji. Invisible to the naked eye, enzymes in komekoji function of Brewing
as microscopic scissors capable of shredding the starch in the steamed rice
fermented with komekoji.
Koji-kin is a mould, and as such, it thrives in warm temperatures. A corner of
each sake brewery contains a koji-muro, a heated room dedicated to the cultiva-
tion of komekoji. It is here that the steamed rice and koji-kin is placed for a few
days to develop into komekoji.

（From left）
Yellow koji-kin（for brewing sake）
White koji-kin（for making shochu ）
Black koji-kin（for making awamori ）
Yellow koji-kin（for making soy sauce）

Koji-kin varietals (spores of mould) ○

C National Research Institute of Brewing

First day Second day

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C National Research Institute of Brewing ○
C National Research Institute of Brewing

Making komekoji
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C KOKKI SHUZO Co.,Ltd.

Brewing Alcohol
Brewing alcohol is the term for alcohol brewed from starches and sugars. Adding alcohol to the moromi sake
mash not only enhances the aroma, but also produces a refreshing, clean sake. The addition of alcohol also
inhibits the cultivation of lactic acid bacteria (putrefactive hiochi-kin bacteria), which tends to compromise the
flavours of sake.
The amount of brewing alcohol added to ginjo-shu and honjozo-shu is limited to 10% or less of the amount of
polished rice used in brewing.
The brewing alcohol pulls ginjo-shu and honjozo-shu flavours into balance and enhances the fragrance of some
sakes. The latter is especially true of ginjo-shu.

21 Sake Ingredients
 Sake Production

Fermentation
Though sake is a brewed alcohol like wine and beer, the brewing process for sake is complex.
Yeast, a tiny living organism measuring 5-8 microns (1 micron is 1/1000 of 1 mm), carries out alcohol fermen-
tation. Yeast propagates quickly, doubling its numbers in two to three hours under the proper conditions. The
fermentation tank is filled with pure water and shubo (sake yeast starter), and steamed rice that has cooled to
room temperature is added to this mixture.
Unlike wine, which naturally ferments when yeast is added to pressed grapes, simply adding shubo is not suffi-
cient to start the alcohol fermentation that produces sake. To brew sake, the starch in steamed rice must be
converted to alcohol. Made up of hundreds of glucose strands, this starch is too large for the microscopic yeast
particles, which are unable to break the starch down and spark the alcohol fermentation process unaided.
It is this that makes it necessary to add the komekoji (moulded rice) that converts rice starch to sugar. The
rice then begins to ferment when yeast is added to this sugar. Because the saccharification and fermentation
processes occur simultaneously in the same container, the process is called “multiple parallel fermentation.”

Image of yeast under the electronmicrograph

○C National Research Institute of Brewing

Sake Fermentation Process

Saccharification Alcohol fermentation

Sake rice Sugar Sake

Sake
（Starch） （Glucose） （Alcohol, Carbon dioxide）

Komekoji
Yeast
（Diastatic enzyme）

Alcohol fermentation
Grapes Wine
Wine
（Sugar =Glucose） （Alcohol, Carbon dioxide）

Yeast

23 Sake Production
Brewing
1 ─Rice Milling
While sake quality depends first and foremost on the quality of its two basic ingredients, water and rice,
the degree that the rice is milled also affects the sake’s quality. Milling removes the unwanted outer layers of
vitamins, proteins, and fats from the grains, so the more the rice is milled, the better the sake’s flavour and fra-
grance.
The milling rate indicates the percentage of the original kernel remaining after milling.

Milling too fast breaks kernels and

over-heats the rice, so this work must
be done slowly and gently.

2─Washing & Soaking

After milling – to less than half the original grain size for the best quality sake – the pearl-like rice is washed
and soaked. Although the purpose of soaking the rice is simply to allow it to absorb the desired amount of
water, getting just the right amount of water is quite a tricky business. Brewers time the soaking down to the
minute because over-soaking can make the rice unusable for brewing.

3─Steaming
Early the next morning, rice with just the right water content is put into the continuous rice steamer and
steamed for 50 minutes. In order to make ideal koji (= komekoji ) and to ensure proper fermentation of the
mash, the rice kernels must be steamed in a way that results in a firm outer surface and a soft inner core.

Temperature and pressure are precisely con-

trolled to make steamed rice with a firm outer
surface and a soft center.

Sake Production 24
 4─Koji（= komekoji）Making
A 20% portion of the rice steamed each day is used for koji making, the heart of the brewing process, which
lasts for two full days and nights. Great care is taken in this step, which ultimately determines the flavour pro-
file of the resulting sake.
The rice is first sprinkled with finely powdered koji mould(=koji-kin) and taken to the koji-muro (cultivation
room) where it is put in a long, shallow tube called a toko. The seeded rice is then tightly wrapped in fine cloth
and is left to cultivate in the high temperature and high humidity of the koji-muro.
In the evening, everyone gathers round the toko tub in the koji-muro to work the stiffness out of the batch of
koji and to give each kernel equal exposure to the room temperature.
On the morning of the second day, the koji is moved from the toko tub into a special box called a tana. The
koji is now said to be at its peak. In the afternoon the koji is spread thinly on a heated table to aid evaporation
and avoid sudden rises in temperature.
On the morning of the third day, the steaming koji is taken out of the koji-muro. The brewers then spread the koji
in long swirling lines on trays. If you take a closer look, you can see that koji has wrapped the kernels with fila-
ments, and that the tip of each filament has its own crown of fine fuzz. These filaments, which contain enzymes
needed for saccharification, have also grown into the heart of the kernels: koji is born. The brewers then spread
the koji into swirls to halt its growth. The perfectly cultivated koji is now ready for the next day’s brewing.

The koji(=komekoji ) is spread into swirls to help

Koji mould creates the enzymes
dry it, and to lower the temperature so that the
needed for saccharification.
koji mould(=koji-kin) does not continue to grow.
These enzymes have the magical
power to break rice starch down
into glucose.
If you take an even closer look,
you can see that the tip of each
filament has its own crown of
fine fuzz, like the head of a
thistle …

Koji(=komekoji ) is spread thinly using

wooden slats during the final stage.

When the time is right, everyone gathers round the

toko tub in the koji-muro to work the stiffness out the
batch of koji. This is done with loving care and genial
conversation about the state of the day’ s koji. This
work must be done with sensitive hands!

The koji-muro (cultivation room) is the heart of the

sakagura. The walls are paneled with cedar. Humidity
and temperature are strictly regulated.

Steamed rice is blown through this hose with an air

compressor.

25 Sake Production
5─Yeast Starter
The next step is to create the shubo, a kind of seed mash, for growing the sake yeast that is central to the fer-
mentation process. Koji(=komekoji ), steamed rice, and water is added to a small tank, then lactic acid and a
pure yeast concentration is mixed in. (A traditional method for creating lactic acid naturally, called Yamahai,
is also still used today.) The mixture then slowly turns into what is called amazake, or sweet sake.
During the shubo cultivation, enzymes in the koji slowly convert the starch from the steamed rice into glucose,
which in turn fuels the rapid propagation of the yeast cells. A pristine environment must be maintained and
the shubo temperature must be strictly regulated over the fourteen days required to develop the yeast culture.
If this process is carried out properly, the result is a shubo mixture with two or three million thriving yeast
cells in every drop.

The first day of the shubo

Water, koji(=komekoji ), lactic acid and steamed rice is

mixed. A steel cylinder is placed in the center so that
water filled with dissolved koji enzymes can seep into it.
The brewer workers repeatedly ladle this solution back
into the surrounding mixture to increase the concen-
tration.

Every morning the brewery workers measure the temperature, check the yeast con-
centration and adjust the temperature by heating the bottom of the tank or by adding
cool water. For two weeks the shubo mixture is pampered like a baby.

Sake Production 26
 6─Fermentation
At this stage, the yeast has consumed nearly all the glucose in the mixture, and the culture is beginning to get
hungry. The same basic ingredients for creating more amazake (koji［=komekoji］, steamed rice and water) are
added to a medium-size tank. However, adding the full amount of amazake at once would weaken the yeast
culture, so it is instead added in three stages over four days.
After the first batch, the mixture rests for one day. Then, the same steps are taken on the third and fourth
days, gradually increasing the volume of the moromi in larger fermentation tanks.
This fermentation process, unique to the brewing of Japanese sake, is known as multiple parallel fermentation.

Adding the shubo mixture directly to the

large fermentation tank would cause a
rapid fall in temperature that would weak-
en the yeast. To avoid this, the first batch
is made in a medium-sized tank.

Forcing the yeast to live in a harsher environment 10-15oC or 50-59oF cooler

than normal achieves on optimum balance of alcohol, fragrance, and flavour.
The second batch and the third batch are added in large fermentation tanks.

7─Pressing
After about 21 to 25 days, the moromi has reached 18 to 20% alcohol content, the fragrance and flavour have
fully developed, and the sake is ready to be pressed. This involves straining the white kasu (lees) through fine
cloth to separate the clear sake. Traditional methods like Kubitsuri or Sakabune, or newer methods such as air
pressing, are used to extract the sake.

Pressing machine

The premium daiginjo is extracted

by a simple process called kubitsuri
or“hanging by the neck”
The pressed sake slowly accumulates
in this glass bottle.

27 Sake Production
8─Aging
With the exception of Arabashiri (17 to 20% alcohol) and some Namazake, which are bottled and shipped soon
after pressing, most sake is kept in tanks for six months to a year, and is regularly sampled to determine the
best time for bottling and shipping.

Main Production Methods

Kimoto method
A traditional method for making shubo (sake yeast starter). Time and attention is required to derive lactic acid
from natural lactobacilli, which assists in increasing sake yeast content while inhibiting propagation of harmful
bacteria. This starter contains a high concentration of amino acids and is helpful in producing a dry, rich-tast-
ing sake.
Yamahai-moto method
The yamahai-moto method was developed in the Meiji era as a laboursaving modification of the kimoto
method. This method omits the labour-intensive process called yamaoroshi (grinding the mixture of steamed
rice, komekoji, and water with wooden paddles in a shallow tub). The yamahai-moto method produces the sake
and the sake yeast starter of the same characteristics as the kimoto method.
Sokujo-moto method
Another method developed in the Meiji era, the sokujo-moto further shortens production time by adding lactic
acid, which eliminates the step of making lactic acid taken in the kimoto and yamahai-moto methods. Today,
the sokujo-moto method is one of the most commonly used at breweries. The sokujo-moto method produces all-
round shubo from which any type of sake can be brewed.

Sake Production 28
 History

○
C Okunomatsu Sake Brewery
Co.,Ltd.

Written during the Nara era (700s) around the time of the Kojiki (Records of Ancient Matters),＊the
Harima Fudoki (Records of the Culture and Geography of Harima Province) contains the clearest
reference to the use of rice as an ingredient in sake. Specific passages state “the rice bestowed
upon us by the Gods has withered and moulded” therefore “fermentation for sake will begin forth-
with.”
＊The Kojiki is the oldest surviving historical book in the Japanese language.
Some historians believe that sake brewing started long ago among the ordinary people of Japan
before “Imperial Sake” was brought to the Yamato Imperial Court in the 4th century when the
court was newly founded and Chinese culture and technologies were making their way to the
country. Written in the 900s, the Engishiki (Rule of the Engi Era for the Implementation of the
Penal Code and Administrative Law) notes a variety of different sakes already being produced with
the same basic methods used today more than 1,000 years ago during the Heian Period.
Sake was finally commercialised in the Edo Period (1603-1867). These brews were the result of
blending the sake-brewing techniques handed down among clans in areas across Japan and the
process used to produce the Imperial Sake. It was during this historical period that the many vari-
etals of sake and various brands of sake emerged, a situation much like that of the modern day.
The unique sake-brewing methods developed long ago are still in use in Japan today. One exam-
ple, “multiple parallel fermentation,” is the advanced production method described above under
which the saccharification and fermentation processes occur simultaneously. Another unique
aspect of Japanese brewing is that it produces sake with an alcohol content as high as 20%.
The hi-ire pasteurisation process is also a Japanese tradition.
Records dating as far back as the Muromachi Period (1400s)
detail Japanese sake brewers using the hi-ire process to heat
fresh sake to 65oC (140oF) in order to sterilize it and inhibit
enzyme action prior to storing the sake as means of promoting
the maturation of flavours. This was long before the discovery of
pasteurisation by bacteriologist Louis Pasteur in the mid-1800s.
○
C Okunomatsu Sake Brewery Co.,Ltd.

Reference Materials Other Resources

Conversations on Sake No. 1 and 9 (National Research Institute of Brewing) Sake: The Liquid Essence of Japan
http://www.nrib.go.jp/sake/sakeinfo.htm#jyouhou http://www.jal.com/en/sake/index.html
Glossary of Terms on Sake Bottle Labels (National Research Institute of Brewing) Japan Sake Brewers Association Website
http://www.nrib.go.jp/sake/nlziten.htm http://www.japansake.or.jp/sake/english/index.html
Welcome to the World of Japanese Sake (Japan Sake Brewers Association) Sake World Homepage (by John Gauntner)
http://www.japansake.or.jp/sake/english/index.html http://www.sake-world.com/
Tax Statistics (National Tax Agency JAPAN) John Gauntner, The Sake Handbook (Charles E. Tuttle,
Creating and Tasting Wondrous Sakes – 35 Years as a Sake Technical Officer, Tetsuo Co., Inc.)
HASUO ISBN4-89063-176-3 Griffith Frost and John Gauntner, Sake Pure+Simple
Ingredients in Marketed Alcoholic Beverages: Fiscal Year 2005 (National Tax Agency JAPAN) (Stone Bridge Press)
http://www.nta.go.jp/category/sake/10/seibun/02.htm John Gauntner, The Sake Companion (Running Press)
Reading Material - Sake (Japan Sake Brewers Association) Beau Timken and Sara Deseran, Sake: A Modern
http://www.japansake.or.jp/sake/enjoy/howto/index.html Guide (Chronicle Books)
Sake Service Institute Philip Harper, The Insider’s Guide to Sake (Kodansha
http://www.sakejapan.com/ International)
Sake Notes (National Tax Agency JAPAN) Philip Harper, The Book of Sake:A Connoisseur’s
http://www.nta.go.jp/category/sake/10/siori/h18/siori.htm Guide” (Kodansha International)

29 History / Reference Materials / Other Resources

 www.sake.jal.com
JAL is working together with more than 200 sake brewers in Japan with
overseas promotion and export of their products. As a supporter of the
Visit Japan Campaign, JAL would like to invite you to enjoy the beauty,
history and culture of Japan by experiencing the delights of sake.
JALUX, JAL Group’
s trading company, is promoting the Japanese national drink by the introduc-
tion of Japanese food, culture and style through sales of sake and sake-related traditional ceramic
tableware.
JAL offers a comprehensive selection of sake, especially chosen by sake sommeliers（Kikizake-
shi ）to compliment on board cuisine including premium rice wines Dai Ginjo or Ginjo and Junmai
Daiginjo or Junmai Ginjo.
When visiting Japan whether for business or pleasure, step into the world of sake and increase
s sake website contains
your enjoyment and understanding of Japan and its unique culture. JAL’
detailed information on the sake-making process, suggested breweries you can visit during your
stay in Japan, and reports on individual sake by JAL cabin attendants with qualifications as sake
sommeliers.

Using JAL Cargo’ s high quality freighter services,
JALUX, JAL affiliated trading company,
together with London sake
experts are introducing sake breweries to the UK
and other overseas markets.
No journey to Japan is complete until you experience
the delicate, elegant taste of the national
drink of Japan, sake.
Welcome to Japan（Yokoso Japan）
and welcome to the world of sake.
For an unforgettable journey,
relax and enjoy the comprehensive selection of sake
served on board JAL flights.
Sake can be enjoyed equally as well on its own as with
one of our delicious Japanese or western style meals.
 Sake A to Z
Editor：Kimiko MASUDA

When sake is evaluated its quality, a small cup called "Kikichoko (special sake tasting cup)" is used;
this is a white porcelain cup with a blue snake's-eye painted in the bottom.

Published by：Japan Airlines International Co.,Ltd.