NASA

Contractor

Report

4587

Review
B. L. Clarkso_l

of Sonic

Fatigue

Technology

(NASA-CR-4587) REVIEW OF SONIC FATIGUE TECHNOLOGY (Old Dominion Univ.) 75 p

N94-29407

Unclas

HI/71

0003801

Grant Prepared for Langley

NAG1-363 Center

Research

April

1994

NASA

Contractor

Report

4587

Review
B. L. Clarkson University College

of Sonic
of Swansea

Fatigue
United

Technology
Kingdom

Swansea,

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Langley Research Center Hampton, Virginia 23681-0001

Prepared

for Langley Research Center under Grant NAG1-363

April

1994

List of Contents Page 3

Introduction Environment 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Jet and Rocket Turbulent Pressure Loads

Boundary

Layers Shocks

Separated Flow and Oscillating Thermal Environment

Response 3.1 3.2 3.3

and Fatigue Early Experimental Development Fatigue 3.3. I 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 Aspects Low Amplitude Effect Effect Crack rms stress response of composite life structure on fatigue of Nonlinear of temperature propagation Work Test-Specimen of a Standard

8 8 9 10 10 I1 11 12

Thermal 4.1 4.2

Effects Early Studies Recent Studies

13 13 15 17 17 19 and Nomographs 22 25 27 27 29 32 32 32 Normal Methods Energy Mode Method Response 32 33 37 41 43

Theory 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 Studies 6.1 6.2

and Design The Single Development Comparison Conclusions of Composite Studies Studies

Procedures Degree

for Metallic of Freedom

Structures

Model Results with Theory work

of the Model of Experimental

and Nomographs

from the early Experimental Structures

in the U.K. in the U.S.A.

Recent 7.1 7.2

Developments Experimental Theoretical 7.2.1 7.2.2

for Nonlinear Analysis

7.3. Conclusion

The Statistical

Method

Recommendations References

for Future

Studies

10.

45

P_I_IE]IN

PA."_E_l_.IU_Ig

HOT

F}L.JME:D

I.

Introduction

In close failures incidents performances aircraft and tests the engines gave added problems happen'. and of

the

late intensity

nineteen cleats and and

Fifties internal the

incidents suffered support research increased.

were minor centres sections curved structure

reported damage. to the occurred

in Skin

which cracking

aircraft was cases.

structures noticed as and These the full scale work of and

to high

jet exhausts

small

in a few made begun. further failures the

alerted also

industry tests were

possibility were were structure.

of problems on some Theoretical

of aircraft

and engines made such next work. there was

Measurements of typical plates

with

large

on simple increased impetus

structures in the to the

as fiat generation Because

and

As the power problems arose majority

of aircraft of the the fear form that

designs of the

of the the life to

were

of a nature However

which

caused

excessive

maintenance

rather

than endangering was just

of the aircraft.

always

a catastrophe

'waiting

Several large engine nearfield structure. In studies extended pressure excitation excitation theoretical normal for the parts of structure around

aircraft aircraft

manufacturers structure acoustic exhaust in

and

the research it was and noise made

centres possible They with

set up comprehensive to reproduce used the of strain generally

tests on jet the

which excitation were

representative an actual on pressures in the

the region realistic of the jet

of maximum

intensity. together

to provide region Observations parallel into the

measurements

measurements

of fatigue the

crack initiation being aimed jet Simple of the

and endurance built up in the an

were recorded. test programmes, noise understanding of the too structure process (1958) paper theoretical were of the and for the the the

with

experience studies region structure.

were

initiated.

Jet ,noise on the

primarily to give theoretical failure time.

at reducing increased models was (1954) far Powell seminal

nuisance

nearfield were made.

fluctuations process of and mode

It soon became to final response tools available

apparent fatigue at the and Miles'

that the complete

from random developed gave

a built-up formulation in one

structure for linear mode

complicated

computational

the result Simple aircraft

response

as well this early loads.

as going work

on to consider to help

the fatigue designers

aspects. construct

models were developed from which could resist the acoustic

in an attempt

The designs their tests studies results lead basis

lack

of

a complete

theoretical of design on simple which

treatment guides models

which sheets

could

be

applied

to

aircraft took as designed

to the development the theoretical empirical A parallel limited work

and data and simple used

for industry.

These

the results An

of specially extensive

to derive use. was

modifications activity

to the

formulae. nomographs was based to good

series range evolved

of

was sponsored but

by the USAF to primary

lead to design A guide

for every_type on a wider practice designers

of structure of test and

in common

sponsored structure.

by AGARD

design

then together satisfactory

with

the nomographs

it was generally

possible

for aircraft

to produce

structures.

4 This was the stateof affairs towardsthe end of the nineteen

seventies. levels reduce structure were Although not the community coupled the power noise. lead of the engines of the leveling reduction use off design This was still increasing bypass increase increasing because of higher of the procedures research sixties and the early to of on

dramatically, configurations in pressure general

the pressure needed awareness activity loading on the

with the use of established to a great

and more and

the likely problems sonic fatigue.

in the

development

New apparent temperatures combination their The high response that

interest the

was

not aroused use

until

the early also

to mid nineteen posed raised new

eighties

when Higher of failures

it became operating from a is high

widespread aerospace

of composites

problems. feature under

for some

configurations

the probability The major displacement and, when

of the thermal structural to thermal acoustic

and the acoustic and loads hence now

environment. relatively high nonlinear

of composites working with

efficiency buckling work

loads.

becomes

coupled

temperatures,

can occur. New theoretical not possible

work is now in progress. agreement than levels. to within In the a factor work and

In the early of two. Predictions

it was

to get better

always

seemed

to overestimate the gap between

the response the

new results

attempts are f'mite element

being made computations.

to bridge

homographs,

analytical

The particular to

purpose assess

of

this

report

is to review work

existing also to meet

sonic suggest the

fatigue a plan anticipated

technology for needs

and

in

recent

developments. and experimental

It will

co-ordinated of future

programme of theoretical aerospace vehicles.

2.

Environment

High structure turbulent shock radiate are wave. high

frequency generally

random caused

pressure by the

fluctuations turbulent pseudo 'acoustic' for use

of

the loads

acoustic occur

type speed jet under

on

aerospace efflux or a which

mixing

in a high

boundary intensity

layer. sound

Additional waves.

an oscillating fluctuation

Shock-turbulence of aerospace

interactions

in jet streams

can also cause

instabilities

A guide was produced

in estimating

the pressure

on the surface 2.1

vehicles

by Ungar, Wilby and Bliss in 1976 (1).

Jet and Rocket

Pressure

Loads

The caused of sound theory around engine are effects dependence. Aeronautical are much formulated

early

work

was concerned jet efflux. (2,3) who

primarily

with

sound

radiation

and

near field pressures noise in a jet was this this of the intensity and extended thoroughly

by high velocity by Lighthill radiated

A mathematical first showed of the jet velocity. prediction (4). The engine method general

framework Many for the

for mixing the dependence workers near Data used

theoretically

on a high power measurements empirical and to those the flow. description the theoretical others was produced

and many

were made at model by the Engineering

and full scale Sciences

to investigate field of case Unit (ESDU) noise however

A semi Society similar greater,

pressure from the shock

fluctuation of the Royal a rocket velocities interaction

a jet engine

characteristics In this there may

of the jet may

efflux. and

diameter

be greater

be marked

in the supersonic The statistical use in peak smooth, of the

of

the

pressure in the power

field The to the

close

to

a jet

or rocket of the The The fuller form part 5. the

efflux

is is is

required relatively frequency proportional of the the spectral spectral shown cross

for

methods. proportional fourth is most

power nozzle

spectrum Hz range. diameter.

pressures value magnitude description

peaking

at a frequency the This lines in

100 to 600 of the jet

of the

is inversely

to approximately actions requires of the structure. two jet forcing function

velocity. relationships

The in the

loading density density for spectral a of is zero cosine

a knowledge over figure distance. 1 which there interested rate

of the spatial conveniently The is shape. varies

of the pressures of the of the In the part

on cross cross is usual

surface

expressed variation but from area part. for

of the pressures along typical the density thus

in the real at different reference integral This of

parallel

to the jet

axis taken

distances product

away

formulation the area decaying positions In reflected surface pressure ground

function

is a double in the real

of the over as a and

and the mode The

The integral different

of the imaginary physical

we are only

can be represented situations

function.

of decay

in the flow field. certain from aircraft a nearby configurations ground surface. and thg jet In exhaust impinges the on the structure loading A review or on is the of an

these is given (7)

situations it can

pressure

is increased

considerably

in the extreme

be doubled.

of the

load enhancement reflections VSTOL is

due to impingement by Scholton

by Lansing also gives

et al. (6) and the effect data measured on

discussed

who

experimental

aircraft.

6 2.2
Turbulent Boundary Layers

The source the extreme in the lowest density frequency boundary levels those (11) limited

pressure jet cases curve

fluctuations damage. and the 2. in figure pressures The

under overall spectrum

turbulent pressure

boundary level flat

layer

are

also

a potential as that for as shown dimensional

of structural

is not usually out to a high produced plotted flow pressure is given against

as high frequency, a non

is relatively

In this composite dimensionatised definitive

curve and

by Coe (8, 9) the spectral by Bull (10) in a subsonic indicated that the overall lower 2.5. than The and Roussos of a decrease are somewhat by Mixson less than the trend Mach

of surface parameter. layer.

is non

The early

measurements under

were made

Subsequent as a percentage flow. that

measurements

supersonic dynamic work

expressed for subsonic who

of the freestream of more considerable of the existing

A discussion most shows

recent data

emphasises at higher

is for speeds but confirm

data

speeds

scatter

in pressures 2.3

with increase

in Mach No. Shocks which vehicle in the made are which regions subjected are study of to widely separated of these Chyu report. the mean (8, 9). pressures spectral square if the distributed high flow, phenomena This These acoustic intensity and a although can be most shapes and the at low there not are are

Separated In addition

Flow and Oscillating to areas are There at model of structure of the occur not been

pressure pressure oscillating very show form good

loads

there

parts These has scale boundary

subjected

to local

fluctuations. shocks. study

cavities

any extensive is taken

has been 2 which layer

by Coe and from

conveniently of the

summarised spectrum increase

in figure changes. by three of an order because influenced approaching cases shown

Coe's flows the

spectral increase density waves levels

that as the normal is increased so dramatically is more heavily

flow is disturbed of separated of magnitude

the mean

In the case orders

frequency is a further increased response correlated

and beneath Altough frequency in the shape

oscillating

shock

of magnitude. of the changes by the low the spacing in figure

of the spectrum

the structural pressures

components supports.

over distances of the

of the structural 2, except

In each the basic

that of the

attached

boundary

layer,

mechanism

causing are now Thus

the random reasonably

pressure

fluctuations

is an instability formulae

in the flow. to arrive at

These cannot

mechanisms be predicted. estimates

well

understood

but the amplitude and empirical

of the disturbance

we must rely on measurements of vehicle.

reasonable 2.4

on new designs

Thermal

Environment

In occur vehicle. the proportional pressures for

the As

'traditional' short soon

acoustic time just steadily velocity than

fatigue before begins and raised 10-20

loading start of roll the the

case

the

maximum velocity 4. The

acoustic of of the jet because period

pressures a rocket stream they in are

a very

of an aircraft relative of about which pressures

or launch reduce

as the vehicle

to move hence

stationary

air reduces to the relative

surface

to a power during

of maximum do not have

is usually

no more

seconds

time the hot gases

7 time to heat time up the structure is much of build take-off significantly. slower up of acoustic is shown flight acoustic and However pressures 3. and which pressures are indicated levels because reusable will be launchers They coupled points have also with is shown 3. structures reach high path. earlier at the significant in figure in vertical and the take-off does associated aircraft the build of a for

up of vehicle probable conventional New which transient acoustic 4. The must loads

velocity history and vertical designs withstand associated

and heating in figure vehicles loads re-entry

of the structure

occur.

A sketch temperature

for

suborbital high the ascent

very during with

at take-off/launch. at these broadly

temperatures

high dynamic variations pressure in this case

in the flight The

An estimate practice would

of the temperature acoustic at maximum

time history thermal acoustic

of such vehicles

made by NASA

combined of testing result

in figure

combined

with maximum

temperature

in a serious

overtest

the two extremes

do not occur

same time. An but interact important, just more design the aerospace any structure and will be designed cooling induced to reproduce levels. In fact maximum will cause stresses. the to minimise thermal In any correct the effect stresses testing of steady structure rise are temperatures which and likely fall will not

the transient with

heating

in the programme and

acoustically to try maximum

it will be vitally to be

therefore, correct

rates

of temperature cooling of structures

the rates levels

of heating

important stage.

than the absolute

for the types

now in the early

surface

This section has only considered the thermal structure. However there will be other areas high temperatures in these regions will be reached

and acoustic loading of internal structure of time.

acting on the such as engine the acoustic

bays where loading

for long periods

Normally

is lower

but in some of the new designs

this may not be the case.

3.

Response

and Fatigue

typical

This section gives structure before results

a brief a more

description detailed

of the discussion The fatigue

forms of of the aspects

response that occur theoretical methods

in a and

experimental 3.1. Early

is treated

in later sections. Work

are also reviewed.

Experimental

The new form aircraft

major

aircraft skins holes

companies mid with and with with wedges

began

to discover fifties. ribs, The frames

incidents structure and holes

of acoustic was and The stiffeners.

fatigue frames

on their of the usually early

designs

in the

nineteen aluminium

predominantly When

of aluminium Lightening were were full and jet

stiffeners.

contained problems structures plates and strain resistance

ribs usually flaps close for Several the honeycomb

had lightening to jet flows structures. edge set types The

experienced replaced depth excitation

the conventional enhanced produced up test rigs of failure analysis

stiffened which

skin wedge had amount high of

stiffeness a design and to reproduce

of honeycomb the structure

trailing of the

to acoustic engine

loads. and

companies

observations Unfortunately rather in turn

a limited available little

measurement random was of lasting

were made. signals gained, were which

the data to

systems time.

for such low practical quantitative

amplitude experience information

rudimentary lead

at the better

Thus practice,

although

design

value was acquired.

These for example, Tests fatigue also failure.

early

ad hoc tests were followed of the Caravelle structures panel which (15). single tests on simple

by more comprehensive (12) from aircraft or a flap the (13) the mechanism disadvantage structures.

investigations were fully

in which, and of

a section began The

fuselage suffered exist on

instrumented.

(14) to investigate

of the response A systematic study

of not reproducing

the flexible panel arrays

boundary conditions was made by Nelson

From jet noise shell structure

these were for this:

tests was

and very

further localised

theoretical in nature.

studies The were field

it became lower usually

clear

that overall

the

response modes There structure.

to were (up At

excitation

frequency lower over (200

of the

not excited one was

by the sound that the pressures the pressures the the pressure typical

to any considerable

extend. at these the whole Hz)

two reasons the higher

frequencies the Small

to 80 Hz or so) and secondly frequencies were stiffener where

were

not correlated peaked distances

spectra separation

--, 500 aircraft range

structural changes caused showed a

wavelengths in these few panels by attachment

approaching spacings etc. and lead

of stiffeners.

other

non-uniformities of vibration

in actual

structures which

points

to modes

in this frequency

predominating.

The fundamental failure (at

single mode

panel

tests

exhibited The lines

a response edge stresses

pattern were

which highest

was

dominated and plate

by

the

of vibration. at rivet frequency

in this mode in the usually density second about

fatigue mode of

usually twice lower

began the

along

the supports. on aspect because

Response ratio) was

about

- depending

an order

magnitude

in amplitude.

This was partly

the spectral

was usually

lower

9 at this higher frequencyand also because the soundpressure field was an inefficient exciter of this asymmetricmode. The response in the third modewasfurtherreducedas bothof these effectscontinued to reducetheexcitation efficiencyof thesoundfield. The effect of
the panel Further panel modes frequencies array sizes was refinements at the are excited which studied rear surrounding would structure have been is to add more calculated theoretically (where will have the modes single Clarkson Because to the response plate. The in between effect of a of order

for the and (20). structure

by Lin of an one

(16,17) aircraft panel

experimentally several

(18,19). low

were made in which

by Mead and Sen Gupta much

of the non-uniformity that its neighbours.

is tapering) response

greater

This effect skins and similar

is reduced as the sizes of the panels become ribs of horizontal and vertical stabilizers This which is also true of the honeycomb axe very close to jet effluxes. Test Specimen work that tests to reproduce Thus the on

more uniform. The response of the and control surfaces also exhibits plates often used for the outer skins

phenomena. surfaces

of control 3.2

Development It is clear

of a Standard from the early impracticable responding structure configurations

on a single structure large of

panel sections the

would of

not be good noise. to structure (test)

enough At the test the

to reproduce other the extreme effect of endurance

the it

realistic is

response

of an aircraft

to high

intensity

of locally

panels.

a study response

was done

by Nelson central

(15) to investigate panel. In this

surrounding

series of tests four panel

were used:

Single plate 3 x 3 bays 5 x 5 bays 7 x 7 bays There were thus an equal The accelerometers loadings. exhibited more tests were were and when panels strain (the number carried of stringers out and frames. wave acoustic facility. Strain gauges and

in a travelling the response

used more

to measure modes

of the structure sweep out, showed of bays in the test a random used.

to sinusoidal specimen sound Under above a single

and random spectra increased. spectra band web of was

As would

be expected the fatigue centred was gauge highest inhibited at the

an initial tests were

sinusoidal carried resonance form panel

that the response pressure this the peak peak showed

as the number

Unfortunately, of the larger the stringer amplitude

only 100 Hz bandwidth excitation section of the was band no

on the major by the edge point The a

was used. and

Thus the wider

band response limited of the Z

of excitation

of the

directly showed

strain peak.

in the results higher

plate)

in the at about that panels

first 70% there wide and is

three configurations. significant

The forty nine-bay of the main difference would have fatigue

configuration

showed

a secondary tests panels. in the then

of the fatigue rms stress

in the lifetime produced life.

of the multi-bay

A representative multi-bay for the size

excitation

consequently

a lower

No conclusion

or recommendation

of array

10 madein this reportbut nearlyall

used a nine-bay We have reproduced to the size by Clarkson the response than frames. or more response configuration. to conclude that the multimodal tests can and therefore response features have of real structures value work many were not subsequent work on which the design nomographs are based

in the fatigue of array had which shown

the results

limited early

in guiding by Lin and

us as also in

be realistically across

representative.The the stringer have been better

that the coupling test structure loading

was the most important to have four more frames or more

effect stringers

of a skin panel A more suitable

and thus it would would spectrum

be one having should

and eight

stringers.

The acoustic i.e. typically

be wide enough

to cover

the coupled

of the panels

100 - 1000 Hz.

3.3 3.3.1

Fatigue

Aspects rms stress

Low amplitude

The high frequency that flight the material life time. scatter out the and will be aircraft significant of realistic separate prediction the structure, different This two separately. Even of 10' in the stress have

response subjected allowing 10' results estimation been at

of structures to cycles and a large for only

to wide number one about

band random of minute strain

acoustic reversals tests the

loading in there excitation

means per

a normal will be number been points to in Stress of the cycles.

of maximum to test policy life

an endurance

is required.

As in all fatigue practicable Thus the the fatigue

so it is not S-N process tests have levels curve. from

required has

specimens procedures aircraft step

to get

a good used

adopted estimation.

to estimate giving

the stress been used lives

at the

fatigue 10'

critical 10 ' (4).

then simple materials

coupon stress

to determine in the range

the endurance

process

allows

independent

improvements

to be made

in the two Data Sheets

procedures

A comprehensive

series of S-N curves

is given in the ESDU

A compromise response. wave whose response probability Rayleigh be single effect (base amplitude distribution Distribution.

has to be made is randomly degree of the peaks This would actual

in the reproduction response system

of the complex takes

time history the form case

of the of the and the a

For a predominantly of a single

uni-modal of freedom

the time history noise

of a sine

modulated. has been

This is an example to a white shown by Crandall

of the classic form and Mark plate (21),

of excitation

to follow

be the form structural by Miles the wave

of response where form begins

of a single the response to show

and would peaks.

also by a The

characteristic mode. of these excited

of some For multi-modal peaks beam) is being

plates

is dominated secondary

response studied

(22) who has shown by an order and so the

that in a simple if all peaks damage limitation damage. on

structure resulting noise

the life can is not

be reduced white peaks of noise

of magnitude cumulative bandwidth

from white In practice will reduce and Galef

noise excitation the excitation

are included

in the Palmgren-Milner

assessment. of jet

the number (23) made

of secondary an analysis

and hence reduce time histories

this additional many tests

Schederup

from

representative

11 structures and showedthat evenwherethe response was multi-modalin character the peakto troughdistributionin this wave-formapproximated to a Rayleigh Distribution. Basedon this evidenceandthe needfor a relatively simple andquick test procedure, narrow band randomcoupontestingwas adopted. The test specimenis usually a singleor doublecantileverwhich is mountedon a vibrationtable. In sometestsit may bemassloaded at the tip. The specimenis driven by a narrow band force centredon the first bending frequency of the cantilever. The root of the cantilevercan be designedto reproducethe rivet or bondedjoint at the edgeof a typical panel. Data from thesetestsare then used to constructa random S-N curve. The ordinateis rms stressand the endurance is basedon the numberof zerocrossings (19) asderivedby Rice(24) from a Gaussian white noisesignal. This form of testprocedure wasusedtoproduce the ESDUDataSheets (4). 3.3.2
Effect The amplitudes However give metals bending the fatigue of Nonlinear early and when work composite response of composite in the endurance behaviour of the structures range 10' 10 '0 is a are much feature have cycles reasonable greater is at low stress assumption. at levels stress which In the

on metals linear

therefore Thus

structure

construction nonlinear surface

is used the deflections behaviour stress,

failures. effect

is an important is to superimpose stresses

of the response. onto the same magnitude reduce failure

of nonlinearity For a given

in response

a membrane which

stress.

membrane

throughout the depth zero at the centre. usually strain 3.3.3 delamination. measurements. Effect Section band and noise the structure

of the plate will do more damage than bending In fibre reinforced composites however the Further work is needed to link delamination

stresses which mechanism of failure

to is

to the

surface

of temperature 4 discusses The buckles.

on fatigue the most effect

life of temperature effect on the response the critical of vibration motion and operate the of structures temperature of the lowest occurs. damage rate to wide is reached mode Fatigue above this fails. region external

excitation.

dramatic

is when

In this condition and violent stiffens, be

the frequency

is reduced damage critical Normally although environment The tests the life

to a minimum in this phase the structure

oil-canning but its frequency so that structure

or snap-through if the temperature increases it did heats not

is at its would through

maximum designed it as the

is increased in this response

value,

a structure it may pass changes. effect

critical to the

up in the

of temperature the work rms stress specimens

on material of Schneider level. is also Later

properties (25) and work by

has been Soovere by

investigated been shows increase (26) an

in coupon found that the life

type of

(see for example at a given laminate

it has usually

to decrease ambient 150-

composite temperature. 200C

reduced

somewhat the upper

in the

In the majority

of this test work

temperature

has been

usually

but a few tests have been made up to 600C.

12
3.3.4 Crack propagation

The assumption ensure skins become components, that which initiated loads in some by that inspections.

fail-safe that the The that such would the an crack

design incipient does

philosophy crack

for parts is present fatigue

of an aerospace after construction. or dangerous in such is long materials

structure

is based

on the to

It is then length that in structural and

necessary

not propagate of acoustic phase occurs to crack

to a critical failures initiation rapidly. skin from loading This was the

between elements a crack thicker the

major as thin has than

experience the initial propagation

suggests visible

of crack relatively initiation

once certain to be where (27)

However is likely can arise loads.

structural has been acoustic (28)

as pressurized give rise cabin crack

fuselages,

acoustic conditions studied

But if a crack

main

pressurisation, propagation.

cause

additional

by Clarkson

and Jost

of the early

series of tests on the Concorde

design.

These stress plate length, panel canning increases. the cause crack in the and which became

early

tests

were

made

on a fiat plate crack (normal acoustic

under to the

steady tensile As

tension stress the crack area This

simulating field) was reached in the is similar

the hoop cut the in the critical of the

fuselage. caused unstable

A central local and buckling violent

observed

to propagate

under

loading. edge, motions when established of the again. (31)

of the free snap-through next

an elliptical occurred. a plate and first

centre

to the oil

phenomena The increases

described the of the buckling plate.

in the propagation

section well

is buckled further of

by temperature of to a of length falls of this fatigue on this Element

rate of crack

is at a maximum frequency rises Byrne (32,33,34)

at this stage, mode

but as the length increases vibration analysis basic work

becomes The

a stiffening

minimum vibration information

at the snap-through was made done by Petyt required

point

and then and

A finite obtained

element Recently further

(29,30)

some

of the

for predicting by Fujimoto

the rate of growth and Sumi

of the crack. who develop

topic has been approach.

the Finite

13

4.

Thermal

Effects

4.1

Early In the

Studies early of the increase was concerned work military in of studies made referred during designs the of the (25, to in the the brief of 36) preceding exposure the section there was little increase However and early Air Force (37, 38). there loads in in can and Flight This design

temperature some be high early a large

structure

to high intensity plates. of went In to high

noise. the the

of the newer a series

the jet grazes response 35,

or impinges surface the structures

on the structure

temperature

nineteen

seventies

of plate under

acoustic

temperatures Laboratory. was (25). work

sponsorship to an AIAA effects and

Dynamics

Summaries

were later

presented basic

meetings

with a study

of the

on to propose

nomographs Hieken's to distributed particular the

report random

(35) begins pressure to the acoustic

by developing It follows characteristics

the equation Powell's of the the test

for the response mode method A the enclosure. between Acceptance the cooling

of a structure (39) and pays called field The of the heating The is factor acoustic function. effect The was flux used.

loads.

normal coupling Joint with

attention

'Participation

Factor' mode section

is introduced shapes. on

to describe

and the structural final airflow energy theory assuming given. cannot should part of the

This is the same facility tube in the effects when

as Powell's dealing

is that the

in the progressive requirements for the steady There predict state part the thermal is a good

wave stresses

sound

generator the maximum

is operating. air flow the heat from effects to two of

increased conditions.

by a factor

of 3 when

structure

is developed method of the edge is limited thickness the

equations a structural therefore This program

A f'mite difference and treatment theory gradients plates across as developed

of solution both a test The

of the equations from dimensions specimen. computer

description The

and a thermal

of view. temperature

be satisfactory

for thin metal

but not for honeycomb. across the panels.

given calculates The report thermal stiffeners description chosen loading which of

the temperature by Jacobson of

and stress distribution and Finwall This (36) gives is an edges

a good discussion experimental uniform study

of the mechanism with no

of the

structures. acoustic rigidly

theoretical carrying A very the material 2 full

development.

Thermal the tests

tests are made on beams, at their Three elevated

plates are

and plates used and

are mounted

(or ends in case temperatures

of beams).

is given.

appropriately: 300F 600F 1000F Aluminium Titanium Ren_ 41 alloy (2024) alloy (64 4V)

Vibrator the analysis the strain.

tests

at elevated

temperatures

were

made

to provide

fatigue

information components

and of

of the strain measurements

gives both the membrane

and the bending

14

In plates in-plane buckles. will buckle is known becomes curvature increases. stress

restrained as the plate

from

in-plane

motion

at their A acoustic

edges pressures

there

builds reached

up a compressive when the the the cause plate plate plate the

temperature is subject

increases. to intense violently As direction. and

point between Further

is then

If the as

during

this phase to rise

outwards permanently of the

or inwards buckled plate

and move in one

these positions. continues rises

This phenomena

oil-canning buckled

or snap-through. to increase

the thus

temperature

in temperature frequency

its fundamental

of vibration

There to reproduce their the data ends

is a good and excited wave A semi

discussion The by a shaker tube. There

of the oil-canning fatigue specimens centres. at their

effect Heat

and

the

shaker tests of beams but

are designed held rigidly used at in

this buckling.

are in the form is supplied development is given w. For fully

by the lamps

progressive is given.

is no theoretical criterion displacement

a lot of experimental of the buckling oil-canning

empirical

for oil-canning

in terms

amplitude occurs if

A 0 and A0
W

the rms acoustic in the range

f'Lxed boundaries

A0

1.5

-< 6;

for

- >h

0.3

where gives to hold

h is the the

plate

thickness. i.e. change when edges.

In addition the plate There

to giving buckled.

the

onset

of

oil-canning relationship

this

also

termination

is well

A similar of oil-canning

is likely of vibration out

for flexibly

restrained

is no measurement

of the frequency

and so the frequency in this work.

associated

with the development

is not brought

The industry. its edges across

report The and

by

Schneider considers from

(25)

forms

the

basis

of the design uniform

procedure plate stress:

adopted

by

the at

analysis restrained

the heating motion.

of a single It assumes

simply uniform

supported temperature

in-plane

a spatially

the panel

and hence derives

the simple relationship

for thermal

o" =_ x y

E&T 1v

The edges.

next

step After the as

is to compute buckling given natural the stiffer A simple

the

buckling the the

temperature bending The above.

assuming stresses effect mode occurs. the are of

no in-plane computed the After plate. buckling of the

motion to The plate add

of the to stress the is

is established by the formula frequency and of increases further

membrane to reduce decreases the plate frequency

stresses

of in-plane

compressive

fundamental buckling increases

frequency and the

temperature

until buckling

is developed

is now rises.

curvature

relationship

for this is given:

15

f(r) =f
0

[1 - r]

1/:

o_

r_< 1

1/, f(r)= f
0

[2(r-

1)]

r->

where

r = T/I'
C

and f
0

= fundamental

plate natural

frequency

T
C

= buckling

temperature

Measurements

show

that the frequency

does change

in a similar

way

to that predicted

although

it does not reduce

to zero.

Coupon fatigue with data data fully and

tests show

are

used were checks. data

to provide in life with tested The

fatigue

data

at temperatures wave facility used form.

up

to 600F 9 bay stress semi

and

the

a reduction edges life

increase theory

in temperature. is then

3 bay and to provide to derive caution

panels

fixed fatigue

in a travelling simpler

response empirical in

relationships

and design

is presented

in Nomograph

Extreme

is advised

using this simple data sheet. The about the errors panel in using edge this work supports. buckling a thermal are likely Any will take to arise from the simplifying of the supports assumptions will realistic affect 9 bay made the test in

in-plane place. and The

motion supports

temperature panels the plate. The thermal single plate

at which There three

in the more to non

will provide

discontinuity induced

so give

rise

uniform

temperature

will also be stresses reports taken

by the thermal a good

gradients of the bend

at the edge. problem of thermal of the acoustic of a for a of the stringers direction

together

give

study

excitation could fixed where

of skin be made

structures. by assuming This, would

A more however, depend This

realistic would crucially

estimate

buckling assumption

that the edge

members

in the in-plane

but remain panel array

at the comers. the restraint direction

not be an appropriate on the method as would stresses.

of attachment allow the

stringers

to the

supporting

frames.

is likely

to be such thermal

to move in the in-plane 4.2 Recent Studies

in order to minimise

An experimental and Clevenson (40). subjected 250F. and to a broad In the first second

study

of the effects tests

described

in these

three

reports

was

made

by Ng was up to frame inserted not

In these band sound series series a

a single

aluminium

plate

(12"

x 15"

x 0.063")

field at levels the glass plate

up to 160dB overall was clamped layer were rigidly (10

SPL and temperature in a massive of tape) steel was

of tests fibre

in the

insulating gauges

layers

between

the plate

and

the mounting.

Strain

attached

to the plate

but it was

16

possible thermal achieved case based would and on be the fully distribution

to provide stresses could across 200 F clamped

thermal the plate.

compensation In both There and more test

for series

the the

strain

gauge

bridge temperature 130F these 100F

and

so

the

static was In

not be measured. but the edge onset result to fixed In the do

Thermocouples

were used to measure maximum to about to calculate at about plate formula

the temperature of 250F distributions. and show calculations reasonable supports. temperature Element buckling Finite higher It in the uninsulated

at the centre case,

temperature was

was down no attempt occurred an average

in the insulated. (25) a

of thermal

buckling using the

Schneider's This and (41). but interesting fully

temperature assumes using the slightly motion higher

agreement. distribution programme temperature The The The changes rms

is surprising

because

Schneider

simple actual EAL

accurate This could support

calculation be done case there

supports. insulated reduction was support

with the new is a

a marked phenomena were

in central are probably apparent and

deflection due to some the effects

at equivalent in-plane showed lower using response

centre

temperatures. at the supports. temperature. low frequency did in given

in central

deflection highest

snap-through strains to take

in the strain

at the buckling

at this point

spectrum

content. not appear reference

For the insulated place.

the buckling

were much temperature

and snap-through the method

Calculations agreement

of the buckling in this case.

25 did not give good

This chaotic rigidly

work

suggests and

that

the extreme When some

effects in-plane

of snap-through damage motion may

with their only occur

associated when

large is

motion supported

subsequent the most

high rate of fatigue severe effects

a plate

at its edges.

is allowed

(as will be in the case

in built up structures)

are mitigated.

17

5.

Theory The

and Design which

Procedures triggered Thus

for Metallic off the These

Structure_ studies concentrated the basis occurred on aluminium more recent alloy work

incidents skin procedures

theoretical was also formed

stiffened and design

structures.

the early

work

on metallic for much

configurations

were developed.

on composite 5.1

construction. Degree-of-Freedom theoretical The jet Model studies noise was made by Miles was (42) in which he modelled the

The Single One

of the earliest as a single a spectral density

smacture field f . n

panel. density

excitation

represented resonance over

by a uniform frequency the frequency

pressure

having The

Gp(f)

at the fundamental was then

of the panel, domain to

spectral

of the response

integrated

produce

the now much used expression

for the mean square

response:

y 2 (t) =--f 4

n G p (f)

rl

iy;l
.

The stress

equivalent

of this result

is:

o 2 (t)=4 rl

f n

G p

(f)

where

y 0 is the static stress, form

displacement

produced damping of the

by the uniformly ratio. degree-of-freedom 3. Miles

distributed

force F
0

the static The randomly hypothesis The developed pressure cross solution

and rl is the modal of the response

single

system used Miner's

to white cumulative

noise

is a

modulated

sine wave as discussed an estimate step mode is the

in section

damage

(43) to obtain next the loads. major normal The density.

for the fatigue theoretical

life of the panel. was the the work of Powell (39). He

studies

approach

to formulate of the coupling cross

response were the

of a structure described modes fully leads

to random by their series to a

statistical density

properties of displacement:

pressures between

spectral

Neglecting

for the spectral

Or (x G (x_ ,o) = r=Z1 Y

,)

ff
M2 r

AOr (x [(O:
_ r

:) 032)

0r(X3)G P : + fir
2

(x

2, x3,

o) dAdA

034]

18

If it can be assumed the mean square

that each

mode

is relatively

lightly

damped over

and separated each mode square

in frequency, separately and displacement

displacement

can be obtained

by integrating result

using the Miles result. Thus we have the approximate as a summation of the response in each mode:

for the mean

e,o

_r

y:(t)

=r=-lZ 2 3 C0 r 1"1 r Mr 2

Aq_r(X2)_r(X3)G p

(x2,x3,03)dAd.A

To obtain panels Clarkson that the response

a relatively (44) is dominated

simple

formulation

which

could

be used

in the design

of aircraft assume the

suggested

a considerable by one mode in phase over

simplification

of this result. frequency the

If we

and that at the natural the area of the

of that mode static displacement

pressures are approximately y0(x_) at x_ is given by

panel,

f A y0(x_)=

q_r 0_
r 2

(x M
r

)dA _r(X_)

Then the equation section.

for y 2 (t) reduces

to Miles

equation

(eqn. 1) given

at the beginning

of this

In using boundary able to propose 1.

this to produce

a design

procedure

we need to make process f

n

some

assumption and

about

the

conditions

of the panel.

Clarkson

(44) assumed a design

fully fixed i.e.

conditions

then was

a series of steps to constitute the natural frequency

Estimate

of the panel

Estimate 3. Assume

the spectral a damping

density

of the acoustic

load at this frequency 1"1.

Gp(fn).

ratio at this frequency

Compute uniform allowed

the force

static of

stress unit

c_ 0 at the

edges (The

and effect

centre

of the

panel

induced etc. could

by a be

magnitude.

of edge

doublers

for in this calculation). 1 estimate the rms stress.

5.

From

the equation

From

a knowledge

of the rms stress using the results

and frequency, of coupon

estimate tests such

the time as those

to failure described

at in

the edge or centre section 3.3.1.

19 If we look at the assumptions madewe seethatsomeleadto anoverestimate andsometo an underestimate.The assumption thatthe pressure is in phase over the whole surfaceof the panel and the assumptionof fully fixed edgeswill both give over estimatesof the stress.
The stress neglect of the contribution to the rms of the stress. been produced for each of these items by the (45). in the Engineering to include to a design for a make up-tohis own stress from the higher modes to the overall rms will give an underestimate Separate Sciences items new the Data Data Sheets have over

Unit taking and

from the early

work produced available current In

for AGARD titles is given

The individual Appendix

are continuously materials Reference the Section data

updated configurations. at the also The and the

as new data becomes A list of the end show designer the of this report.

and they are extended addition and sheets spite of to presenting measured scatter offer all and the these

procedure, wide date range allowance information improvements which

sheets

comparisons is thus

of estimated The allows In

stresses hence most

of structures. for this for available any of

able to see the likely parameters. process wishes.

in choosing

his structural step-by-step components made mean

information

the designer

to use

if he

continuous a band

the assumptions

that in general value.

the data is scattered

through

extends

from half to twice the estimated

5.2

Development Many attempts of and than

of the Model have mode been

and made

Nomographs to improve the He cross computed result smacture and Olson given model the accuracy of the of for then 1. estimation pressure a range be used Barnoski field. a finite in procedure. at the double the joint of structural as a factor and Maurer and Sen

Early area

ones integral

of note were the function

by Bozich, shape flow (39). field

Jacobs and

and Sen Gupta. spectral this This forms

Bozich density function could

(46) looked

acceptance wavelength (always (47) Gupta less work

of Powell 1) applied

pressure

characteristics. for different

to the simple the periodic Lindberg plates

by equation to give

out examples

for this function

of pressure

Mead element results.

(48,49,50) curved

developed stiffened

an alternative

representation model Jacobs a

of stiffened of fiat and and the response compendium

skin structures.

(51, 52) developed

but made a finite loads. Hay

no comparison model review many and (56) surveyed more recently

with experimental of a skin-stringer all the data available

Lagerquist

(53, 54, 55) used to random of damping of results its influence of 2. pressure factors. has been

element

panel

to compute to produce and a listing all aspects of than

A very thorough presented (58, 59) contain response an agreement

of the role of damping by Soovere papers theory which (57). address

of a wide range of the workshops damping to within and improvements

The proceedings none of these better

held by the USAF were able to guarantee

on structural

fatigue.

Unfortunately

between

and measurement

a factor

Early loads were sinusoidai curved

experimental made loads. by NASA Fatigue

studies (14). lives

of the were

response obtained was

of single for the

panels were types

to high

intensity and stress

acoustic and for also

In these tests the panels

subjected

to both random

two

of loading the response

as well

as flat panels

but there

no attempt

to compute

levels.

20 Early test work on aircraft structures in the USA not only reportedon full scaleexperience and special tests on representativestructure but went on to propose suitable design configurations. Belcher and his colleagues (60) wereamongthe first to presentthe design informationin the form of a nomograph. In its simplestform a nomograph consistsof a single diagram containing several series of curves. Each series represents one feature of
the design i.e. Starting panel thickness, width, pressure aspect level ratio, curvature, through damping, the diagram enough the material from curve process properties. with the sound one moves

to curve until one reaches the final fatigue life. If this is not great is repeated but this time a different th._ckness and or width could be chosen.

This

represented

a different

approach

to design.

In the European

case

the

procedure

uses data sheets fatigue life, and data during wider standard as explained the nineteen et ai. of range form

separately to determine the loading action, thus allows the designer greater flexibility earlier sixties (62) made structures. in this section. from the early successive This For skin In the USA developments structures noise

stress response and finally the in the use of the most recent approach and was (61) extended on evolved earlier. and fatigue developed and then it to a tests as on a

the nomograph of the empirical panel procedure

work of Belcher

et al. (60) McGowan approach (15) described and stresses based

BaUentine representative of structures

is a completely

structures. are tested

a 9-bay

configuration

of test specimen

following

the work of Nelson environment

A series life

in a high

intensity

measured for each specimen. The basic single form of the result but empirical modifications 'best design Rudder, the fit' curves for section are then carried all types now used of forms to construct structural the

degree-of-freedom analysis is used to give the are made in order to fit the data. These homographs and guide of the support for the form shown in figure comprehensive The work of in (25) discussed aerospace industry. data sheets. It considers the 5.

Extensive

tests were guides Plumblee

out to derive

the information configuration design

necessary

to produce details. US

and Jacobson

(63, 64, 65) together basic regularly

with that of Schneider

previous

Unfortunately The following

these guides most

are not updated guide

as is the case of the ESDU and Plumblee (63).

comprehensive of structure: skin

is that of Rudder

types

Stiffened

rivetted + temperature effects

Box structures

skins and internal holes

ribs, lightening

Wedge

structures plates flat curved

Honeycomb

21 Typesof construction chemically milled corrugated bonded/beaded laminated-seeHolehouse (100)

Stress concentration factors holes ) rows of holes _"

J
Random rms. S-N curves stainless steels, A1. alloys,

tension

and bending

titanium,

nickel,

and glass fibre.

All the Nomographs in use multibay reports depends test which Many considers proposes a panel support scale important (5 different the maximum on how structure.

are based closely the Experience

on tests on simple behaviour of using of the the

structures actual

and

therefore resembles

the

accuracy of the of the

structure

that

Nomograph

is discussed

in some

will be dealt with later. failures occur calculation in the design support guide structure gives This This computes mode. not appear (65) made was of the rather a good is then study been than in the loading there series of that skin. of the around Rudder problem the edges load with (64) and of full to the of this 10 panels stress line at in an A

this

in the next

which

description applied and

a simple responding structure.

procedure.

the shear

in its fundamental It is regarded given. There does of design. which point panel. Jacobson each in the The

as a lateral is no check

as a preliminary

experience aspect

to have stiffeners about panel one

any further

development of tests on The rivet

a comprehensive bonded fifth

designs) stress

had J section panel lives

to the skin. at the

equivalent revised feature many ratio long mode. subjected

rivet'ted

were

thus

considerably

increased.

nomograph is produced for use with the standard of these tests which is difficult to understand failures side at the centre test panel 45% higher from comes loading was of the shortside was that that the

design procedure (63). There is one - that is that there were twice as of the short edges long side side. in the The aspect of the plate

as at the centre would centre expect of the at the

of the central to about This figure to a uniform

2 and so one at the ratio

the stress

at the centre fixed

fundamental

of stresses

of a fully

(as given made

by Timoshenko

and Woinowsky-Krieger of detail guides design

(66). changes The such results as of

A series joints, these structure. edge are used

of studies close-out together

to investigate plates comprehensive

the effect and design

effects

in honeycomb

different

materials. to produce

with the more

a satisfactory

Wentz which are

and

Wolfe were

(67)

made

a series

of tests

on

flat

and

curved and

stiffened some

panels

in

the joints in

fabricated recent

with by

different Wolfe

jointing and

techniques (68).

further typical

results aircraft

given

a more

paper

Holehouse

Some

22 structures were also testedand two jointing methodsusedwere: weld bondingandadhesive bending. Coupontestswerealsocarriedout to providesupplementary fatiguedata. Failures occurredeither in the skin abovethe web of the stiffeneror by peeling of the joint. The life for the skin failure mode is longer than that for a rivetted joint becauseof the reducedstressconcentration at the joint. The adhesion failures are due to 'peeling' of the joint starting from the bond edge. The peel stresscannotbe measured readily and so skin surfacestrain measurements are used. For a given surfacestrain thicker skins give higher peel stresses and thereforefail earlier. A better indicatorof failure was found to be the bending moment at the joint sectionand when this parameterwas usedthe fatigue data collapsedonto a single designcurve. Considerations suchas thesewill alsobe importantin consideringthe failure mechanisms in composites where failure usually takes the form of delamination. Themain design
produced close-out made by Ballentine design. One guide (63) contains This design the nomographs work does and is used for flat aluminium not study all data refer design the to that. honeycomb effect Soovere panels of edge (69) has the

et al. (62). specific study

important

a comprehensive

of the effect

of the edge

in an attempt

to explain

measurements which show that there is a higher strain on the inside outer. A method is given for the prediction of the surface strains asymmetry superimposed stresses of the edge on the fatigue fixture bending and predicts strain. a membrane gives strain This better agreement

faceplate than on the which allows for the face plate measured which surface is with

on the inner

and hence

life predictions

can be improved.

The guide showed were Estimated empirical

data

on diffusion from the work peak at the was lower than

bonded

titanium

honeycomb (70). by frequency the were

panels however single 1/2

included

in the main overall measured. best

design stresses (42). An the

is taken

of Holehouse those of made

The response

of the panels the measured equation of those the mode

used in the tests of Miles fit with

a predominant consistently stresses modification

at the fundamental predicted the centre

panels

to 1/4

to the

theoretical

result

to provide

data from which

a design

nomograph

was produced.

Jacobson design Some tests stresses aluminium were

and

van

der

Hyde panels

(71) were

describe tested any

a large to provide

series or boron

of tests fibre

aimed reinforced

at producing faceplates. Coupon were too theoretical stresses involves data.

information conducted but there in their

for honeycomb honeycomb to provide is no comparison are deduced

structures additional with from

with glass fatigue the fatigue

a check results. Such

with earlier Faceplate The a deduction The

information. data.

measured

theoretical

so called

paper

much scatter to be considered showed marked nonlinearities

comparable to other theoretical methods. at overall noise levels about 155dB.

strain

responses

5.3

Comparison

of Experimental

Results

with Theory

and Nomographs

In several of the theory

of the

reports

already

discussed

experimental design

results relationships.

are quoted There

in support are several

or as a means

to develop

the empirical

23 other reportswhere experimentalresultsare describedand attemptsare madeto use one or moretheoreticalmethods. Someof thesecomparisons will now be reviewed. Areas(72) has proposeda modification to Clarkson's method (44) and also comparedthe results with Ballentine's(62) method. This comparison is shownin figure 6. This showsthat with the simple analysescurrendy available there is considerablescatterin the results. Some of the discrepancies may be due to experimental error but this causewould only count for a proportion of the scatter. It is likely that the agreement shown here is the best that can beexpected from the simpletheory. It alsoshowsthatalthoughthe designnomographs were 'tailored to fit' their experimentaldata closely, when they are applied to results from testsby otherworkersthecomparison is little betterthantheothermethods. The experiments of Coe(8) compare measured displacement andstrainspectra on a single fully fixed panelrespondingto a turbulent boundarylayer and separated flow. The normal modemethoddescribed aboveis usedto compute the response but althoughthe theoryincludes the full descriptionof the cross spectrathe computationassumedthe flow fields to be uniform and homogeneous.A comparison of measured andcalculated responses is shownin Figures7 and 8. The displacement peakpredictions follow the measurements closely but are high by a factor of about3 to 4. The agreement at eachof the stresspeaksis more variable but the predictedoverall rms stresswould be abouta factor of 2 greaterthan the measured value. Part of the discrepancy is likely to be due to the simplification in the representation of thepressure field. Measured valuesof dampingwereused. JacobsandLagerquist(53, 54, 55) haveusedthe finite elementmethodto computethe response of a stiffenedpanelandhavecompared theresultswith measurements. This wasone of the first pieces of work to use the finite elementmethodto model a structuralsection which was typical of fuselageconstruction. The modelof the structurerequiresthe force to be specified at each node point connectingthe individual structuralplate elements. The authorsdevelopa methodto derive the crossspectraldensityof the force on the nodesfrom the distributedpressures under a turbulentboundarylayer. A similar formulationcould be usedfor jet noise excitation. The methodwas usedto computethe response stresses in the single panel testsperformedby Maestrello(73) in a turbulentboundarylayer. Using a 72 element structural model of the plate results were obtained for the responseover the frequencyrange which included the first five normal modes. Using the measured damping ratios producedgood agreementwith the measureddeflection spectraldensity. Stress comparisonswere not made. A three bay stiffenedskin panel is modelledby Jacobsand Lagerquist(54) and rms deflection is computed. This result is shown in figure 9 and the singlemeasurement point is given for comparison.The skin is of 0.032in. thickness,while the measureddeflection is 0.064 in. This indicates that the panel is having nonlinear response. There is then a discussionof the applicationof this methodto a stiffened skin fuselagestructurebut no computationsof the stressare given. This is because many more elements would be requiredthancould be handledon the computers of the day. However,a decade laterthe largefinite elementprograms suchasNASTRAN beganto beusedto givemore accuratemodels of larger areasof structure. The greatestproblem remains that of the

24 modelling of the region of high stressgradientsto produceestimatesof the maximum stresses. In theseregionsa largenumberof elements arerequired. A descriptionof testson major structuralcomponents in the B1 aircraft development programme is given by Belcher(74, 75). The ."zrst reportgivesmeasurements of the acoustic loads on the surface of the rear fuselageand the horizontal stabiliser. It goes on to describestructural acoustictests on a large section of the rear fuselage(fuel bay) and severalbox test sectionsto representthe principal featuresof the stabiliserdesign. The secondreport documentsthe failures which occurred giving much more detail and many experimentalresults. It is valuable as a guide to good design practice for structural details such as attachments, joints, choice of rivets etc. The rear fuselagetest specimen is a conventionalstiffenedskin structureattached to deepribs which havetheir unsupported flanges connectedtogetherby metal straps. The stabilizerstructurehas thick aluminium skinsattached to titaniumribs which havea sine-wave webform of construction.Only a few strainmeasurements arereported andthereis nocomparison with anytheoretical results. Several papersby Groen,for example, reference 76 and77 review the experience on the vertical take off fighter. This paper gives the resultsof a test programmeon a sectionof the fuselageand on a compositeflap. The fuselageis of metallic stiffenedskin design. Measurements of thermalandacoustically inducedstresses weremadeon theskin panelsbut no measurements of temperature are reported. Estimatesof temperature are used to predict thermalstresses by Schneider's methodgiven in reference (25). Thereis no agreement at all with the thermalstressmeasurements. The measured spectraof strainsat the centreof the long edgesof the individualpanels show threeor four predominant peaks. The measured overall responsewas comparedwith the Miles predication,the designmethod (63) and a NASTRAN analysis. Because the first two predictions arebased on a unimodalassumption the rms level for eachspectralpeakwascomputedseparately andcomparedwith the predictions. This is not the correct way to use the predictionsbecauseas has beenexplainedearlier in this sectionthe assumption on the pressure field, edgefixing andsinglemoderesponse taken togetherare intendedto give estimatesof the multimodalresponse. The total rms of the measuredspectrashould be used. If this is done the measured rms stressof about 1,1001,200lbs/in2 compares with estimates from the Miles type of predictionof 4,080lbs/in2 andtheempiricaldesignmethod of 1,870lbs/ina . The NASTRAN analysis used a full multibay
model in which the substructure of connected was also included Even but only modelled as bending bars rather than as a series plates. so the agreement with the measurements was good

(490, and 1010 lbs/in 2 rms for the response

in the first two modes).

The most recent STOVL in the content aircraft. spectra to the are materials plus the multiple

paper

by Groen is a detailed

(78) gives a very comprehensive description noise. This of the gives The (76). near powered greatly stress There where the field The new higher

design noise increased engines

procedure show

for new of tones

There broad jet

characteristics screech high frequency

nozzleengine

configurations. band mixing from the the shock noise

normal repeated for

spectrum. report

response is also

measurements a good survey

and of is

calculations candidate

earlier temperature

higher

regions

maximum

temperature

25 expectedto reach 370F. stresses aredescribed. The measurements of

showed the two again design that the actual of a single modelling methods

New structuraldesignsfor theseregions to minimise thermal

the acoustic stresses panel (79):

response 1450

of the composite than lbs/in2 edges Holehouse gave

skin of the flap structure the predictions (100): stress made from A 480 lbs/in _].

(374 lb/in 2) are lower having fixed

[Jacobson

NASTRAN and a more

analysis elaborate

a predicted

of 560 lbs/in

as a multi bay structure

gave 520 lbs/in 2 .

These the support of structural the support

experimental structure response structure

results to acoustic

from loads.

a full scale structure The model should

suggest

that

a good further method

modelling estimates beam by modelling

of

by a computer with

programme

such as NASTRAN of interconnected

will give reasonable not just a single design

be improved plates

a configuration

in

bending. The thermal stress measurement inaccurate for a real structure.

indicates

that the present

(25) is very

5.4

Conclusion The

from

the Early Experimental panels were The showed well

Work a response dropped to third of falling in which by at least etc. peak level 2. is more pattern. together panels at which of in and band representative For of the individual and the an order with modes could in

f'trst tests on single identified. in the first from the first They mode. mode showed levels panels

be clearly occurred moving levels number

separated level second pattern

in frequency

maximum of the increase

response response in mode

response

of magnitude

to second, a similar

Calculations

in each

mode

but the calculated Tests on multibay constructions unit. The

were usually or stiffened

high by a factor skin structure different panels one

of about which response

actual spacing phase very

aircraft

showed lowest (usually mode

a markedly is usually Thus

a uniform and respond out of acoustic mode all panels and still so give is

of stiffeners and the The

and frames

the individual in the region response with only

are now in which Hz)

coupled adjacent is one

as a complete pressures low.

vibrate the

frequency over modes higher

200-400 have

are in phase

the panels. first panels frequency

the effective band the highest length using

excitation mode in the

of the coupled having model

in the

combinations

out of phase

displacements in phase. the effective

of individual At this excitation

the correlation Calculations

of the pressures this more realistic

is smaller

is reduced. levels.

over predictions In actual (which spacing different described uniform

of the stress aircraft

construction to the the The taper

the highest of

stiffened acoustics the of

skin

designs

at the loading) to is show to

rear have disturb one

of

the

aircraft

is usually of frame in the response

subjected as stations. previous There are is changed

pressure leads now often

a non-uniform running the ou_ patterns at

stiffeners,

structure this shapes present

stiffeners

effect

non-uniformity

paragraph. still many

Mode modes

panel but

responding the more gives a

predominantly.

in the

response The single

pattern mode

to one showing

only a few peaks.

model

26 better prediction in this case as the two major simplifying assumptionshave opposite effects. The nomographs havebeen developed fromtestson 9-baystructures - mostly
spacing of stiffeners panel and frames. The empirical results from these give with the uniform arrays (76) but not with the non-uniform. where showed theory a finite element local model nature This was used extensive stiffened that modelling skin was of the achieved. with of the with uniform agreement

better

In the single support The the stiffener early panels. In box connected uncorrelated skins estimate calculations and impracticable structure spacing attempts computed mode

case

a reasonable shapes to correlate described

estimate

of the response the more with paragraph. experiment

of the

of the response suggests the boundary

for non-uniform the problem condition

in the previous

structures by show

such ribs. that enough response. by

as horizontal The range very elements 3 to allow acoustic many

and

vertical on The Finite

stabilisers the two to

the

two

skin will

surfaces generally strain level. It

are be is

together in the ribs to use and

loading modes

surfaces spectra the

frequency

of interest. in the the

response Element which energy

of the overall to give and

in the

contribute method,

models in the ribs result.

a reasonable skin response skins,

of the stress

The ESDU

design

uses the single

divides

vibration

opposite

gives predictions The the theory construction damping next

that are usually uncertainty are

within a factor

of 2 of the measured

is the value for machined

of the damping. built-up skins there

Approximations structures. can However be a significant

have

to be made types

in of

which such

adequate

typical

in new reduction

as integrally

in the

in the structure. trying likely + 1/2 to make experimental d.B and of the make also comparisons errors. the effect sound the strain introduce between The sound theory level low All of and experiment itself level these cannot smactural one should generally surface in the except will also bear in vary with and of

When mind better the the the that angle random

be determined structure analysis the reflection

of reflection waves. errors. The

at the

of incidence thermal effects can signal

of strain and errors

possible

measurement

difficult

the subsequent

effect are unbiased In rivet which line stiffened or along

and so there would skin construction above

be an equal probability the failure of the date. occurred support

of over or under prediction. almost member always either by Byrne along These the stress

a line to provide

the edge

of doubler.

concentrations

are reproduced

well in coupon the basic fatigue

tests such as those

conducted

(80, 81)

were made

27 6. Studiesof
Early summarises describes construction. acoustic response methods modal elements. loading are Rayleigh Both used work tests Composite Structures panel of the arrays is reported develops panels resonant in the of by Wolfe the general boron-epoxy panel peak panel. and Jacobson theory. and subjected nonlinear first are used procedure The (82). This also (82) skin band broad Two a unithe 2 or with 25 are

on composite of Jacobson a series on a single on

the work Tests give

(79) which multi-bay multi-bay predominant that the panel the stresses

first paper broad

graphite-epoxy to a but a very manner. to represent is used

graphite-epoxy is behaving of beam the Finite

at 139 dB SPL in a very The functions Element which

at 166 dB indicating to estimate method Ritz

is essentially

in which methods data.

a series method give similar

displacement

function.

In the second

theoretical

predictions

in themselves

2.5 times higher 6.1 Studies

than the measured

in the UK

In the United understanding beams and their and single

Kingdom plates. and fibre.

complementary of composites of the early (see for and (85)

work

was concentrated of the tests work with The similar on short

on gaining were

a fundamental to simple and White dynamic range was of on

of the behaviour Much Adams and co-workers. of stiffness configurations and carbon

and many experimental example

confined the work

was done 83,84) frequency majority

by Adams studied of the in a wide

references

properties composite glass fibre. with fibre

damping different White

their

variation materials.

fibre

also made of tests aimed on matrices was fibres also and

tests but concentrated (chopped) the aligned by White simpler practical by a factor fibre fibres paper

on carbon

This random

paper and A fuller

also aligned

rePorted fibres

a series in studies

configurations damping together gives (86). but in the with an The the a higher At high

at increasing of short paper

inherent

composite. associated random damping degradation fibre fibre) stiffness volume the fibre in length

account study of short that

of the work is given fibres which aligned great

theoretical orientation ratio than fractions from

in the most recent

and Abdin to manufacture configuration. of about with

studied

in the earlier

of the is too

is much

in strength length

to make

it a feasible

(65%) 3mm 40%.

the damping (which More behaves modest

can be increased in a manner increases

3 by reducing this reduction reduction in

very similar with

to that of the continuous a smaller

to 0.25mm. is about

The reduction with fibres studies

in the modulus of intermediate

of elasticity in damping length.

associated

can be achieved of the the often in figure first

One produced is shown peaks

of the response of aluminum spectra

of composite alloy plates the nonlinear (130dB) six plate and the higher

plates was

to random

acoustic (87). several

loads This which clear level as the recent

in comparison

with

the response quoted 10. strain

made behaviour but

by White shows as the much marked

showing levels first

of the panel excitation wider More

At low excitation the response of the The cases in the peaks

the spectrum modes peaks also

associated the level

with frequencies increases. for the

increases overall

increase

become shows

probability

distribution to the

nonlinear

characteristics

corresponding

excitation

levels.

28 experimentalwork by White and Mousley (88) compares overall plate responselevels to predictionsmadeusingthe simpleformula(equation1). Modeshapes werealsomeasured and in later tests the plate was subjectto in-plane compressive loads. As the in-plane load increasesthe plate approaches the buckling condition and 'snap-through'occurs (89). A studyof the snap-through phenomena on aluminiumbuckledplateshasalsobeenreported by Ng (90). The paperby White (91) reviewsthis work andgoeson to discussfatiguefailure of the compositeplates. The coupontestswhich havebeenusedsuccessfully to developbasic S-N data for metal structures are much lessreliable for composites.This is because of the edge peelingproblem which makesit difficult to reproducethe kind of failure which takes place in actual structures. This is usually a delaminationfailure within the plate at some distance from the edge. To overcome this problemWhitehasdeveloped anextrawide coupon test which uses a half sine wave clamp for the cantilevered plate. This yields a representative delamination failurewithin theplate. The conclusionto be drawn from the seriesof studiesby White andhis co-workersis that, at responselevels lower than those which producepronouncednonlinearities,the response of singleplatesis dominatedby the response in oneor two of the lower modesand that the overall level is closeto that predictedby the simple formula (equation1). When in-planeloadsor higherexcitationlevelsproducedmarkednonlinearresponse the estimations arehigherthanthemeasured overalllevels. A furtherinvestigation of damage initiationandpropagation wasmadeby DrewandWhite 92). In this work a finite elementmodel wasusedto computethe stresses in the region of
delamination damping also detected Ferguson of composites breakage mechanics. and and measurements progressed. changes were made of the chafiges and natural in static stiffness, frequency and as damaged significant This conf'u'med in damping micro can the work of others frequency [i.e. Soovere (93)] who had

of plate specimens. the dynamic of moisture of fatigue behaviour and fibre damage

(94) is developing and shows debonding. This

mechanics then be used

equations to build

to describe the effect

how the method

can be used to study

up a theory

An investigation by Galea eliminated. with increasing reductions responsible bending over f'trst mode agreement for strain and White before It was test temperature

of the effect (95). found The that the edge

of temperature test plate and were

on the material surrounding Thus of the

behaviour were plates

has been heated decreased effects

made were

structure thermal CFRP

up to the slightly by been the

clamps the natural

tightened.

buckling

frequencies

temperature. this change. response temperature

This decrease The result higher

was somewhat in residual temperatures was no intensity

greater thermal (up significant

than could stresses did The increase

be explained may not have change

in material

properties. significantly.

Reductions There

to 120C) increased. based

in nonlinearity response 1 gave in the good

the room

as sound results.

levels

was predominant

and therefore

the prediction

method

on equation

with the experimental

29 The designproceduredeveloped by
under latest This Sheet tests review and new results are information is all (figure of put available together This simple on properties in the estimation of the measured the amount linear prediction shows the Engineering as soon frequency procedure of scatter It is given Sciences as they information described of the also stresses shows 96. Data have The Unit is continuously been validated. in reference 99. from hence the This the a range onset The damping 98. Data of of likely measured

incorporated

in reference

properties

are collated

in 97 and the natural

is given obtained and clearly

in reference results

also gives 11). the

comparisons

and estimated theory.

accuracy nonlinear 6.2

behaviour. in the U.S.A.

Studies

The developed metallic N data. strains the

USAF structures. 9-bay

equivalent (100, Test panel array.

of were finite mode.

this made

design

procedure

for

composite having

construction and Plumblee

is that (63) for stiffeners random shapes gradient Sand at The type

by Holehouse

101).

It complements on a series program found

the work of Rudder of panels was used difficult small to provide

Z or J section more extensive the mode the strain in that

in a standard in the

Coupon element

tests were made

The NASTRAN fundamental without using the using

to calculate to reproduce elements

It was number

stiffeners had than

a large Element

of very elements shapes

region. The Miles

stiffeners higher has

to be modelled the Finite ratio

by several Design

plate

- not just produced This

a beam. of stress by 'best variable

of estimation In this case been the method

mode

gave estimates were

which fits'

were much to the data. value applying

the measurements. damping into one forms

nomographs

is not included

as an independent

- a typical when

absorbed

of the empirical of construction.

constraints.

is a weakness

to different

The approximately sound sections the time

fatigue

tests level. of their

showed compared They and after

that also

the showed

composite that

construction aluminium J section

gave structure

a weight were better

saving than Although

of Z

50% when

with an equivalent attachment first crack whereas

for a given curves

life and are given alloy rate

pressure because

stiffeners The

symmetrical of the is rapid

to the skin. is suggested Once panel

design

for Z section the fatigue delamination)

stiffeners

a modification that point

procedure is longer was very

for J sections. failure there has occurred is a much

to the appearance development disintegration

than in the case

of aluminium slower

rapid.

(through

in the metal

of crack propagation. The describe problem the a further with latest analysis this series results. of nomographs However is that they are not being recent the design programme 103. sandwich paper by nomographs. for a composite The design by a thin tests on aileron the full design scale surfaces. resin regularly updated does

to incorporate

a more

Holehouse

(102)

of the data used in deriving of a development later tests two on

Soovere (95) aileron These and were skins

gives backed are

a good account version appeared up by coupon with

a fuller

in reference the thin layers

of the skin core

constructed

3-ply

separated

of epoxy

30
contain the frequency 20%) glass micro-balloons. tests value 10 wave This The predicted report progressed by the cycles facility behaviour stress (103) time where was damping spectra life gives due is Failure there failure increased before took the form was took by a factor failure. of delamination small Noticeable full aileron change change structure test level nature close in response to the root. the first reduced was was tested As to 0.4 (about in a to be spectral stress be a The No

cantilever

a relatively place. The

natural

but the damping

of 2.4 and the peak

of its initial occurred progressive nonlinear. density. with second degradation

in damping observed

the response also conf'u'med given.

to the maximum by the broad tests

of the response of measured there would environment. that

measured

was very low (0.004) Early tests to exposure of coupon in water to moisture

but no comparison suggested in the operating

of fatigue

details

designed

to investigate

this phenomena. at 180F.

The test specimens degradation

were immersed

for 19 days at 150F

and then tested

in fatigue

life was observed.

Areas, epoxy skin skins. comparison. the aluminium composite at normal (using panel had (1/3 heads panel on the panel thickness A

Parente

and Goss

(104) report designed

on tests on an aluminium to withstand panel had (of skin the same static had Z cross thickness

panel loads. and section

and on a graphiteThe test panels and 0.04" thick made ratio ply for for 0.0525" was also and stiffeners

both of which whereas lighter panel Damping the was falls and method

were

were of 5 x 3 bay construction. weight

The aluminium composite composite measured panel panel

top-hat

stiffeners modes.

0.042) by Hay

in the first 20 resonant of values suggested used by Holehouse stress 63) and 100. levels

The damping (56) The panels were

within

the band

that for the all tested of 145

panels incidence

agrees

with the values the response level. given method

(100). were

was linear

for all up to the maximum 43% 34% high

test level

dB 1/3 octave using a 20% octave began

spectrum

The predicted in reference given

high for the aluminium composite panel life tests at 140 clB the rivet skinned by 4%. octave composite The level)

the design

for the equivalent

the design reduction levels), to break

in reference after were initial

The thinner only increased to 145 dB (1/3

in weight panels when and showed the after

of skin but the stress that, a further levels increased 4 hours

aluminium

tests of 5 hours the skin began

on all panels

to crack.

In the composite level). for fuselage and a Z micro 105). of skin with skin in

no failures Soovere

occurred (26) reports

in the test zone (centre

3 panels)

at 150 dB (1/3 octave panels

on tests on two designs of each design have been separated which were tested in other had

of composite at sound work

suitable

construction. J section which balloons Rectangular on the magnitude the two

Two panels stiffeners The which layers section,

levels

up to 167 dB overall 8-ply those for the with glass tests (93, than filled having

up to temperatures cross-section. two 3-ply - a form cross designs greater in

of 254 F. One of the two designs shown design second were panel

was made of conventional to be better resin sandwich of epoxy successful used on these sandwich structure. possible that construction in the aileron two panels. skin was

a thin

by a thin core had proved were of the

of construction or blade, that that showed than the

stiffeners the damping

Measurements an order attributes this to type of

about

of the more radiation of the extra

conventional but it is

Soovere the to the

difference

acoustic some

sandwich mode

construction

contributes

damping.

If it is due

shape

alone

31 (i.e. acousticradiation) this may not be reproducedin a full scale structurebecausethe modeshapes would bedifferentfrom thoseof the 3-baytestpanels. At 157dB soundpressure level thereweremarkednonlinearities in the response. Comparison of the measured stresses with those predicted by the Holehousemethod (100) shows that the estimatesfor the conventionalpanel are about half of those measuredwhereasthe estimatesfor the thin sandwichskin panelaretwice asgreatasthe measurements. Soovere puts downthe difference betweenthe two designsto the orderof magnitude differencein dampingandthuspointsout oneof the weaknesses of the Holehouse method. Thereis no termto allow for the measured damping- as is normally the casein the ESDU and otherNomographs.This is a particular weakness whenconsidering composites because someof the noveldesigns possiblewith sucha versatilebuilding materialcan haverelatively large dampingbuilt into them. The effect of temperature itself onthe materialproperties wasnot markedupto theselevel (245F). The next paperby Soovere(105)summarises the abovepaperand alsothe oneson the aileron tests (93,103). It addsadditionalinformationabout static shearload superimposed on the above fuselagepanel tests. At buckling the overall dynamic strain is increasedby about30%. Plotsshowthe decrease in frequencyas the shearload increases anddampingis alsoincreased. Sometestsweremadeat 125C but the evidence of a temperature effect was inconclusive. Jacobson(106) describesa similar seriesof testson compositepanelstypical of what might be designedfor a VSTOL aircraft fuselage. The panelswere 36" x 24" containing3 bays. Four were flat and four had 100"radius of curvature. Ambient temperatures and 250F were usedto 163dB SPL. The panelshadtwo top-hatstiffenersandJ sectionframes. Heating was applied from the inside of the structure. Stresses were measuredand the Holehousemethod (100) was used for the predictions. For the top-hat stiffeners two dimensions wereusedin the prediction. Oneuseda panelwidth equalto thedistance between the stiffener centrelinesand the other usedthe distancebetweenthe edgesof the support stiffeners. Even using the smaller width in the calculations yields predictionswhich generallyover estimatethe measured stresses.Measurements showthat the dampingratio lies in the range0.014to 0.042andJacobson agrees with Holehouse thatdampingcanbeomittedas a specific term in the nomographs becauseof scatterof the results (this conflicts with Soovere'sfindings). Jacobson statesthatthe life was loweredby the high temperatures but the data given in the paperdoesnot supportthis contention. One pair of testsgave lower life whilst anothergaveincreasedlife. Thesetestsshow someof the problemsassociated with usingthe Holehouse designmethod(100)on structures which differ in designfrom those on whichthe nomograph is based.

32 7.
Recent Developments

A review Roussos (11). on the National 7.1

of the recent These Aerospace

work at the NASA the current project. Plane

Langley

Research

Center

if given

by Mixon

and and

describes

aims of the research

on aircraft

developments

Experimental

In an attempt of the simple on a single complications panels which spectral ratio were provided density formula panel and mounted showed

to understand or the design The aluminium in the centre restraint response

the over

estimation NASA composite massive rotation mode

of acoustic

fatigue

stresses controlled nonlinear with edge translation.

by the use experiment response The The The than a the high gave of lower conditions

homographs, level three was and

set up a carefully panels particle but were board

(107). one elastic

sound

of low intensity

to avoid used plate

in the tests.

of a very against

prevented

measurements

that the response

in the in'st mode was used measured

dominated was an order ratio and

the strain a mode

spectrum. which spectra were

of the peak to centre was were three.

in the second analysis to the

of magnitude shape

that in the fh-st. of edge field pressure

A Rayleigh-Ritz strains in very calculated.

to compute and

equal The good

the response of the calculations

to a uniform

measurements agreement,

predictions the strain

central acceleration by a factor of about

however

To reported used. over estimated of in-plane sight mode Other 7.2 the

investigate by Roussos There was

this

discrepancy (108). method

further,

additional

analyses shapes

were

carded program strains

out

and

and Brewer excellent

In this work the mode and the NASTRAN between of three. model Both

were improved predictions and edge is good. that little the

by the use was also still over were

of more terms estimated

in the Rayleigh-Ritz the response at the the

Finite Element centre

agreement which

the two theoretical

but both

by the factor boundary in the

by the same amount motion fact that

suggests predictions

that the mode were good

shape model any leaves suggests

The inclusion At f'_rst is in the for doubt. error

did not give aspect

improvement. room

acceleration the

shape. possibilities Theoretical

However

extensive

studies

of this

are errors

in the measurements

as these are very small strains.

7.2.1

Normal

Mode

Method

Blevins representation better panel results is equal

(109) of the than to function

starts the the

from

the

formulation which field. load He goes

set out can lead gives

by

Clarkson that the the

(44)

and

proposes which load gives on

a the

pressure uniform mass

distribution pressure inertia unity. from

to an approximation pressure simplication improved

He assumes which on to discuss

that

the

joint and Good

acceptance compares agreement

becomes with those between

approximations panel.

his results is achieved

the ESDU

method methods.

(4) on an aluminium NASTRAN

the two prediction

is then used to calculate

33 the frequencyand stressresponse in the first two modesof an integrally stiffenedtitanium paneltestedin a travellingwave tube. Estimates of the two peaksin the spectrumof strain responses showqualitativeagreement with the measurement but the amplitudeis overestimated by a factorof about3. 7.2.2 Methods for
Theoretical well established structures Nonlinear methods [see Response for treating applications results to high the physical are the characteristics (110)]. and others is for The have the different (87) noise forms of composites main features of nonlinearities shown peaks Two (as groups seen are now

for example fatigue the response

the review

by Reddy

of these present in the

in acoustic on

in the response. of nonlinearity linear have response made

Experimental

by White intensity

that the effect

spectrum) acoustic lead

to broaden contribution

and to move to developing

up in frequency. the theory

of workers to

the greatest

of the response

of composites

high intensity The subjected equivalent second effect the range two groups

pressures. by Mei pressure method principal which at Old field. to worker have study Dominion In the several is Vaicaitis of the been included University majority different field have of their forms but considered work of has University been The they single have has more plates the The studied limited papers the in

group

to a simplified linearization group whose realistic

used

nonlinearity.

of Columbia in the model.

of more

representations

pressure

of nonlinearities

major

of the

are listed in the Bibliography Mei and Wentz and different development theory is a most of motion. be needed the

and will now be reviewed. (111) and Mei and Prasad panels. the feature The and numbers equivalent which as typical (112) give a comprehensive nonlinearity technique to move structures will of large This and a

In the fin'st papers, theoretical deflection gives single plane some where showing given. The and Prasad increase next stage study is considered theoretical analysis. This freedom motion effect will

of the response

of composite using

geometric linearization

lay up angles

of plys are included.

a good mode in-plane such the direction.

The

is developed important This

for edges

are allowed aerospace design feature stresses. on rms

in the inhave

will be a particular quasi-static layup

of hot structures Many displacements graphs are

to minimise composite

thermal

of varying

construction

of sophistication aim to explain by including is a very takes

is to include the observed damping

nonlinear

damping.

The amplitude

papers peak

by Mei and its

(113,114,115)

broadening

of the response

in frequency This

nonlinear

as well as large because unknowns damping becomes

displacements nonlinear It is In this up-to-date.

in the theory. and its behaviour clear that once

valuable place

formulation the

is inherently very nonlinear.

and magnitude slippage

is one of the major at joints

in the work

damping show

work a single in frequency.

mode The

analysis

is used and the results itself does

the expected as that

broadening observed

and increase by White (87).

broadening

not look as great

34 The first study on a beamis extendedto plates(114) andthengoeson to includeadditional modes(115). A mostrecentstudyof the effect of nonlineardampinghasbeenmadeby Robinsonand Mei (116) where the objective is to separate out the effects of large displacement and nonlineardamping. In this work a digital simulationmethodis usedwith a time domain representationof the forcing pressures. The pressuredistribution itself is taken as spatially uniform over the panel. For a morerealistic representation of the cross spectral densityof pressures close to a jet or turbulentboundarylayer it may be better to use the frequency domainform for the simulationasdiscussed in the next section. Howeverin this work Robinsonis ableto showthe separate effectsof largedeflectionandnonlineardamping. The interestingresult is that the large deflection nonlinearbehaviourcauseswidening of theresponse peakandanupwardshift in frequency whereas nonlinear dampinghasthe opposite effect. Starting with a large displacement response at 150 dB the effect of increasingthe nonlinearterm in the dampingis to reducethe width of the peakandmove it downwards in frequency. This unexpected result should be investigated further.
The Prasad clearly shows At and effect of transverse This solution response. transverse shear is considered theoretical using over ratios only in the next study. which group of papers equations by Mei and This

(117,118). a modal to the of 20 Thus next at the supported, imperfection by for mode the the range

is a wholly

The governing linearization the shear bending 10% and in special effect

are set out

developed At a ratio shear

the equivalent

technique. 60%

of length/thickness

deformation is only about above

is an important of the total. effect is 50 the

contribution a ratio negligible. The restraint simply initial

of 10 the contributes

stress

this phenomenon study panel of note and

will only be relevant is that devoted

configurations. of elasticity (119,120). It also in the This rotational follows of an

to the

edges

the effect and the

of initial papers

imperfections and edges.

the method

of analysis fully

developed fixed takes

in the earlier elastically form The

goes on to consider of the plate same

the effect considers such

restrained

which shape changes

of an initial shape and rms by the initial central

curvature central

as might results in the small

be induced fundamental are edge given

the curing

process. and is defined in frequency and the

is assumed central deflection. case very

to be the deflection. due The have difficult

as that of the

Theoretical to variation show effect a true that

deflection

rotational in edge and

stiffness restraint indicate

initial the

results a marked to get

increases parameters supported

above that in

simply

supported be

on both simply

practice

it will

edge condition.

Following workers begun [Mei to develop

earlier

work

on nonlinearities Chiang element method

in uniform

beams Locke

and

plates

Mei and

his coalso fin'st and The

and Chiang the finite papers

(121),

and Mei (122),

and Mei (123,124)], nonlinear problems. representation

have

for use in these for the multi-modal The method

two of these the third the paper

develop

the equations to plates. Paul

of a beam plate

extends of those

this work used by

is tested

on a single the buckling

having

dimensions

(125).

It reproduces

temperature,

35

subsequent temperature The the chapter The experimental

curvature

and the membrane level. theoretical

stresses.

The rms strain

is computed

as a function

of

and sound pressure earlier part of this

work

and

associated

experiments

is described

in

by Mei and Wolfe project work The of by study time the and the Moyer of the domain

(126). (127) response simulation The was intended to be a theoretical study the work system the the Duffing broadening backed by

on aluminium

and graphite-epoxy of a single procedure response Moyer

plates. is claims

In the event used with shows

is limited equation of the

to a theoretical force. representation spectral peaks

degree-of-freedom spectra

to a random

nonlinearity. shift in frequency.

that this

'discovery'

is unreported

prior to this work.

The next distinct of his co-workers. frequency series: domain

group

of work is that due to Shinozuka (129) is one of the basic is used in which the pressure

(128,129,130) references function

and used by some to this method. A by the

Reference simulation

fix) is represented

N fix) = 2 Z k= 1 A((0 k) Cos (ok .x + Ck )

Ck Ck is the independent
1

random

phase which

is uniformly

distributed

from 0 --, 2n.

o k is also randomly

distributed

in a small range

_0J

--+T << (%=

to avoid in later simulation adequate. The represent simulation working numerical fh'st paper by Vaicaitis pressure but results number and his co-workers are given in the periodicities processes Yang for a given papers. appearing and (131) number in the discusses of terms simulation. to boundary the Shinozuka in the series.

%,)
This layer paper and discusses fields looks the simulation etc. at the are discussed accuracy would of be of

multi-variate

applications

pressure

model

He concludes

that 500 terms

(132)

uses from

this simulation the paper from exactly panel.

scheme how The

to the

a boundary shows that

layer the

field.

It is not clear series

is implemented integration

for a typical

structural

initial

of terms

can be reduced

for subsequent

in the time domain.

36 The next paper(133)extendsthe work on boundarylayerpressure fields and showsthe time history of the generalised randomforce, its probability density,distribution of peaks and threshold crossings. An exampleis given of the responseof a stiffened panel to boundary layerpressure fluctuations. The paper by Vaicaitis, Dowell and Ventries (134) gives little information on the simulationbut goeson to give resultsfor the nonlinearresponseof a panel to boundary layer pressures with and without a backingcavity. The interestingresult on the wave form of the response is that in the nonlinearcasethe maximumresponse amplitudeis only 1.6 x rms whereasin the linear caseit is 3 x rms. The next paper (135)appliesthe methodto a sectionof SpaceShuttlestructurewhich holds the surfaceinsulationpanels. Estimatesof natural frequenciesagree closely with those obtained by the t-mite element method.
Estimates where of the deflection are data. by Vaicaitis the in a for time up form each equation. on acoustic procedures fatigue by Vaicaitis in earlier (137) papers. is a brief Little results. of the The transfer matrix attempts pressure, review new of the material as used (136) domain gives modal for numerical at each a general solutions The time use with review of the domain the of the basic concepts of the and the and available the stringer acoustic stress are also tests produced. the predictions In the are two about cases twice measurements from tunnel

as great as the measured The simulation Monte function realisations time history averages to solve is next paper Method rewritten of the

procedures,

nonlinear representation FFT

equations

Carlo

to 1986. suitable are by

of the forcing Simulated the response ensemble method and

algorithm. statistical finite element

forcing

function

applied

to the equation integration. time interval

of motion Then the

is obtained

are obtained the structural more

for the response response paper

using

The applications is contained The method thermal detailed to include

general

of the

simulation

described

in the paper next all paper the

and there is no comparison by Vaicaitis and solution i.e. Choi (138)

with any experimental introduces plate pressure, the use array. unsteady unable

to produce loads

the response forcing as random

for a stiffened cavity

treatment

functions

aerodynamic to give

as well

pressures. results and Choi model (140).

It is therefore are given. (139) and extends

an adequately

study of each. next paper linear

No experimental by the Vaicaitis same damage rule

The fatigue paper, reported life.

the fatigue

previous procedure life.

work This

to consider earlier is also work

Using

structural

computation

as in the

Miner's

is used

to estimate

in the Conference

Proceedings

Maekawa panel. allow

(141) provides

the one completely

independent and Kolb edges

check (142) model

on the method. for the three the case for this structure

He applies bay stringer and of so to simply

this to the specimen for the

tests reported of the

by Van der Hyde stringer supported

He is only able flexibility

to use a single

degree-of-freedom

he considers

37

supported is one

and fully fixed snap-through most

edges.

He gives and thorough

examples phase pieces

of the forcing of vibration of analysis.

and response of the heated The theoretical up.

waveform panels. results

in This and 2 or

the unbuckled, of the simulations

and post

buckled

interesting closely

follow

the nonlinearity

but the magnitude piece

of the response

is between

3 times that of the experiment. The the The (142) The response and most of equation used recent and first paper the

This is an excellent by Vaicaitis panel simulation using and the

of work to follow puts together method the time of

Choi transfer

(143)

the previous to solve history the the of the

work

on

response structural

a stiffened

matrix

structural response. and Kolb model Good paper (143). and method. 12.

method the theory (141) gave

to determine the

model

used to check by Maekawa matrix method The results the simulation

was that designed accuracy and Choi

by Van a much

der Hyde simulation

to check Vaicaitis

use of the transfer between by

better

structural A second paper theory

of the test specimen. agreement just This published is a most Choi

of their computations results and the experiment (144) is almost the response.

are also shown identical closest to the agreement

in figure previous between

is now achieved.

and

Vaicaitis

important

paper

as it represents for nonlinear

experiment

that has been achieved

7.3

The Statistical An alternative noise flow fields from

Energy method the sound The result At first

Analysis of field sight

(SEA)

Method the balance band vibration flow in the equation average However mode of of aircraft structure. is constructed of the crude there the total way structures Starting for each vibrational in from energy where method for has a broad and use ribs, method from less than therefore high the in it is and

modelling the an energy

intensity energy each

is to consider

energy

element

of the structure. component. points to get it is at critical impossible therefore applications estimates few form, standard have external the expected consider worthwhile acoustics modes such get better

is a frequency this appears excited to monitor The the majority

to be a very

to estimate

rms stresses

in randomly good worthwhile cases. where the levels

structures. the

axe situations wave method to provide of interest shows SEA seem

estimates

using

normal already

or travelling

developments spectrum of 2. Where

possible only a to band the may an is and

in specific of stress agreement as may methods where contributing

methods response a factor

described at the Even structure like

reasonable

point

of the response. for internal itself of the needed Recent was noise

in this case it is difficult such as frames for

than to within often be The the are much

the response

case

less reliable. method interest

It is in cases level

this that the SEA primarily a room via the is usually to refine It is

something noise

to offer. the field. elements. application main The

developed is then studies have problems.

in building also through

is in the

inside

resulting air and much the thought

transmission accuracy work. structural

energy in these studies

structural the

The vibration to

in structural

tried

method

vibration the present

to outline

the method

and indicate

state of development.

38 Lyon suggested the methodand his book (145)givesa generaldescriptionof the main features. A very goodrecentaccounthasbeengiven by Norton(146) andthis also includes an extensivebibliography. Proposals for the useof this methodin the study of the response of spacecraftstructuresto acousticexcitation are described in references (147) and (148). A mathematicalmodel of the structure is built up by considering the average energy of
vibration square uniform energy vibrating heat, plus structure The average octave of one of velocity manner. input from structures the energy an energy energy many mode each structural An energy the is equal which matrix equations natural acoustic component. if the mass balance to the This can in turn involves the spatial average mean The attached as of the structure be assumed pressure attached to describe to be distributed field) structures. and/or as sound, from or in a reasonably the

equation (acoustic energy

can then be written which is radiated

for each component. dissipated

environment is transferred

to the

For a multi

component

equation only

can be written become

all these transfers. to handle in this way (usually level level if an 1/3 is is

sufficiently Bands of modes of modes

simple is assumed in the in the

over typical

frequencies work)

is taken.

of frequencies band. band.

are chosen The The

for room

and the total response by the number to the number

to be equal

to the response response response

multiplied proportional proportional of energy this etc. from loss sound

thus approximately thus approximately The loss factor. and friction of the radiation Where

to the modal density. from the structural primarily must and data component by hysteretic be used to obtain is described losses typical by the dissipation in the material loss values. itself Part

is caused radiation

at joints

empirical

loss results

this can be expressed

in terms

of the radiation

efficiency The coupling

of the structure. transfer loss of energy By from writing one component loss in to another the same matrix is expressed form as the can be built up. in terms hysterefic of the loss

factor.

this

(i.e. rl co E) the equations The SEA Parameters

are simplified

and a loss factor

The power in accuracy equation. estimation structural developed. Modal Density

flow balance early use sound

matrix from of the

equation SEA could

is a very simple one and therefore in the parameters in room to estimate used which acoustics structural sufficient simple levels,

improvements into the of the of accuracy models more

can only come In the of internal

improvements

are inserted

method trying

levels

be obtained

by relatively

components. of the

However type

if we are

precise must be

representations

of structures

commonly

in aerospace

construction

The analysis vibration occuring

procedure

described

above requires

an estimation

of the number

of modes

of

in each frequency

band.

39 Analytical resultshavebeenderivedfor severaltypesof uniform structureand a good summary of availableresultshavebeenprepared by Hart andShah(149). Honeycomb platesand shellshavebeenstudiedby Wilkinson (150)andErikson(151)and this hasbeenextendedto parabolicshellsby Elliott (152). For aerospacestructures,however, the majority of componentsare far from being uniform. There are irregular cut outs and stiffenersand irregularly distributedmassesof varying sizes. Also sometypesof structuralcomponent suchas corrugatedplatesand sheUs havenot beenstudiedextensively. An experimental technique for the measurement of modal densitybased on the measurement of the point impedance of the structurehasbeendeveloped
by Clarkson has provided and his co-workers for: plates and shells on honeycomb plates fibre reinforced face plates plates on honeycomb with carbon for typical spacecraft components (153,154,155). This work results

Corrugated Effect Effect

of cut outs and stiffeners of masses

Honeycomb Radiation Resistance

plates

The and is the structure of sound structures

radiation important the and

resistance parameter surrounding

of a structure which medium. radiators The

is the

measure the energy

of its ability transfer relative waves

to radiate

sound

determines

between in flat

a radiating or curved

size of the structure parameter. Flexural

to the wavelength

in the

medium

is a major

controlling of sound.

are the most efficient

The al. (156). Maidanik by Ferguson Loss Factor

most (157)

recent

results to

for flat the

isotropic

plates

are plate

those

produced has to honeycomb

by been

Broadbent produced plates

et by

A modification and a method (158).

simply

supported

results

for the application

of these results

is given

There measurements structures.

are

no

theoretical to be relied

results upon

for

the

loss

factor

of

structures average results

therefore values given.

damping of typical

have

for estimate and Clarkson

of the frequency (159) and typical

This is discussed

by Ranky

40
Coupling Loss Factor for Structural Joints

There (160) and

have plate

been to

some plate

analytical (161).

studies For other

of specific types of

junctions junctions

such of

as beam direct

to beam in

interest

aerospace structure of the experimental the coupling loss

one must reply on the limited experimental data (162). The development techniques is discussed by Norton and Greenhalgh (163). The values of factor loss for factor typical and joints thus are about an order are very of magnitude difficult and the less than the must

internal be treated Maximum

structural

experiments

results

with great caution. rms Stress in Plate Structures

As mentioned from a structural averages usually There

in the introduction response over time, point of

to this section, view and if we is that

the major the area. to extend the rms results

disadvantage are all in

of the method the form of

statistical this is applications failure.

frequency, but we need

surface are

For room the stress

acoustic

applications to of likely

perfectly has been

adequate fatigue little work

method at the

successfully points that the maximum

to structural

to know

on this aspect.

Clarkson

has suggested

stress in stiffened plates is about twice the spatial average stress. Ungar (164) studies of the effect of structural discontinuities on stress concentration (165,166) stress developed a theoretical The discontinuity analysis are based about on the random papers twice shows the spatial distribution that the average

made some and Steam waves of rms most

of bending values The value.

in a reverberant

field.

second

of these

highest

at a structural

recent work of Norton statistics of the velocity

and Fahy (167) gives the results and strain distributions.

of a much

more extensive

study of the

Further formulation probabalistic provided latest work and space a

refinements to estimate models theoretical expressions Green

are coupling

being

made

Clarkson

(168)

who

has

used (169) (170)

the

normal

mode the this

loss factors used of coupling in the the

and Keane SEA method. approach system.

and

Price Langley

are developing has also prediction. In

which

are

recently

derivation for the functions

SEA

to vibration

loss factors

are obtained

in terms

of the frequency

averaged

of the coupled

41
8. Conclusion

The study predict of 2. estimates and early a greater

review

of the of sonic error

early

work

and of the activities quite well

which level than

have

begun

more

recently

to that to life

the behaviour the response This possible computer results. made

of composite fatigue implies stresses

materials is now

in a high noise to better

environment but it is still an accuracy of magnitude more

has shown not possible in fatigue of about

the phenomenon

understood an order that the able

in a new stage. fatigue The design to good

structure

a factor methods on the to form is the supports.

an error

of at least have

in the design power Sonic

It is disappointing not been to ensure life of continues required fatigue of design

sophisticated significantly of of edge spreads

now available procedures

to improve because

simple

to be a problem that no minor any which specific fasteners

unacceptable structure

inspection potential very worst

and maintenance catastrophic to the and testing

damage piece the and

failure. detail has lead

sensitive problem. The

attachments, practice

Experience

can do much

to alleviate

reasons vary from and

for one and the

the type errors data

discrepancies of structure were recent likely work processing. which shows

between to another. in the This estimates

experimental In the early a

results test work

and

the

theories were the about very low the

probably many stress

there field,

difficulties levels estimates.

measurement produced

of the scatter errors

sound of

results

theoretical

In more

the experimental

are reduced

considerably results

and a bias is now appearing by a factor Metallic of about 2. Possible responding a single mode

to be greater

than the experimental

reasons

for this are:-

structures plates:

in the linear range. f'trst order overestimate (acoustic structure support mode the dominates strains. the response. This the could be forces is important inertia Calculations the result of the of an and

Single response lateral vibrating Stiffened In these

in this motion plates.

underestimate

of the damping of the

radiation

damping

in this mode) produced

to balance

in the

plate structures structures with many the

with uniformly modes first

spaced harmonic

stiffeners. about the frequency etc. methods have been which would have been transfer with some of a single plate. developed The

exist in bands structure) improved. construction. spacing

associated matrix success Built-up In these resulting than its structure. reasonable

fundamental, wave

and travelling but the accuracy structure structures mode shapes

(periodic

is not much of aircraft stiffener

typical the

is

not

usually

exactly

uniform much flexible

and

the

are ones which This now

show one panel having to a single

a displacement panel with model

greater support

neighbours. Recent estimates

approximates in the predominant

work by Groen of response

shows that a good finite element mode achieved.

can be made and

42
Composite Structures

Tests a metallic details the are linear

have

shown can

that a composite have symmetrical the estimates similar the behaviour

structure stiffeners of stress

designed enhanced have levels been

to the same sonic shown fatigue

overall life.

requirement The results. manner of the due These of motion

as In as high

structure important response structures the of

a considerably

design

and range and

to give

better

can be made However, becomes been using have

in the same because nonlinear developed.

for metallic strength large mostly

agreements

are achieved. stresses work response method

materials to a single

at working the recent

to the are is

displacements. limited

Theories mode. matrix

for the nonlinear However, or finite element

the simulation the equation

techniques

coupled with the transfer giving good results.

to solve

The place spreads

fatigue

mechanism layers within

in composite the matrix.

structures This

is usally

one in which to detect and

delaminations once initiated

take it

between rapidly. Temperature

is difficult

does not seem does

to pose a major problem but the almost occur on Much re-entry loads higher vehicles and cause not and built-up

up to about effect such structures will cause

250F. which the

Most edges that thermal

materials to not are

show some result rigidly associated which could from held

degradation snap-through

in performance direction.

catastrophic temperatures damage

was expected

where

in the in-plane with the couple

as those

will be strains more on

sub-orbital

transient

with pseudo-acoustic

to the structure. which

Much

work will be required before we can have the basis of existing knowledge.

any confidence

in any estimates

are made

43
9. Recommendations for Future Studies

To controlled used response The

improve and

conventional be made the develop

sonic with theories.

fatigue The between

design structures metal

it is suggested structures, would the need

that results

several of which

carefully can be

experiments

representative

to check

to exhibit construction. many

multi-modal

and also show up the differences next I leap suggest forward that the into f'rrst

and composite vehicles requires

hypersonic studies

fundamental for this next

investigations. development 1.

to be

made

in preparation with acoustic

be on the combination structures

of transient

thermal

strain effects

loading.

Conventional

Experimental : Multi-bay stiffened skin panel

Type of test specimen

(1) Uniform stiffener and rib spacing to give uniform mode shapes. (2) Larger central panel to give non-uniform mode shapes.
Support Materials : Heavier edge frames Alloy plastic composites (to be included in theoretical mode) : (a) Aluminium (b) Carbon (c) Metal matrix

fibre reinforced

(d) Titanium Test in high intensity Theoretical travelling

alloys wave facility to get linear and nonlinear response.

Develop of motion.

the simulation This method

method

together

with different

methods

of solving

the equation

will then be able to handle

nonlinearities.

Further analysis analysis Fatigue Extensive plates. design Fatigue

work

on

the (64).

stresses Finite

in

internal/support modelling

structure would make

following a more

on

the

early

by Rudder possible.

Element

comprehensive

studies Methods

of

the

delamination of initial

form failure

on

sonic

fatigue

failure of progress.

of

composite Link with

of detection

and monitoring

surface

strains. for damage tolerant desgins.

crack growth

44 2. NASP and
Combination strains develop will pilot Similar Hypersonic temperature Vehicles with (if not high more acoustic important) rates loads. flexibility in the range of parameters loads. than As high the transient thermal

of high be as

important

soak

temperatures, rises/falls

facility

to reproduce

correct

of changes

of temperature

and co-ordination

with the time history is not certain,

of acoustic

As future of project should be sought.

the maximum

3.

Alternative

Theoretical

Approach

Monitor

developments

in the

application

of

the

Statistical

Energy

Method. offer

If the a good

accuracy for structural vibration estimates can be improved method for combined thermal and acoustic environments.

this would

45

11.

References E.E. Ungar, J.F. Wilby, D.B. Bliss, 1976, of aeroacoustic loads on flight vehicle surfaces'. AF

'A guide for estimation FDL-TR 76-91. M.J. Lighthill, 564-587. M.J. Lighthill, 'On sound Roy. Soc. 1953, generated 1952,

'On sound generated

aerodynamically

I; General

Theory'.

Proc. Roy. Soc.

A211

pp

aerodynamically

II; Turbulence

as a Source

of Sound'

Proc.

A222 pp 1-32. Fatigue Series loading

ESDU Engineering Data; Acoustic Volume 1 General Endurance Volume Volume Volume Volume Volume ESDU 2 3 4 5 6 Loading Damping Stress/Strain Natural Natural Natural response

under acoustic actions

to acoustic

loading

frequencies frequencies frequencies

of plate structures of shell structures of sandwich panels and box structures

International

Ltd. London list

See Appendix B.L. Clarkson, 'Scaling Chapter edited

for contents 1965,

of the nearfield 1 'Acoustical W.J. Trapp,

pressure Fatigue

correlation Syracuse

patterns Structures' University

around

a jet ehaust'

in Aerospace

D.M. Forney.

Press 1965. 1972, impingement' AGARD CP

D.L. Lansing, 'Dynamic 113. R. Scholton, 'Influence V/STOL'

J.A. Drischler, loading

T.J. Brown, surfaces

LS. Mixson,

of aircraft

due to jet exhaust

1973, of the ground, CP 113. 1972, inputs and response layers' of panels underlying TM-X- 62189. attached and turbulent-boundary NASA on the near field noise levels of a jet supported AGARD

C.F. Coe, W.J. Chyu, 'Pressure separated supersonic

fluctuation

46

C.F. Coe, W.J. Chyu, 'Pressure separated supersonic

1973, inputs and response layers' of panels underlying 5 in AGARD attached CP-113. and turbulent-boundary Section

fluctuation

10.

M.K. Bull, 1967, 'Wall-Pressure flow' fluctuations associated with subsonic turbulent boundary-layer J. Fluid Mech 28p 719. L.A. Roussos, Fatigue: 1961, acoustical fatigue' ICAF/AGARD Symposium on Aircraft Fatigue, Paris 1987, of activities at NASA Langley' NASA TM 89143.

11.

J.S. Mixson, 'Acoustic

Overview

12.

J.G. Wagner, 'Caravelle May 1961.

13.

H.C. Schjelderup, 'Structural

1959, proof testing' Aircraft Engineering, October 1959.

acoustic

14.

R.W. Hess, R.W. Herr, W.H. Mayes, 1959, 'A study of the acoustic exposed fatigue characteristics and discrete noise' of some flat "IN D1. and curved aluminium panels 1970, of the effects of surrounding structure on sonic fatigue' NASA to random NASA

15.

T.F. Nelson,

'An investigation CR 1536. 16. Y.K. Lin, 1960, 'Free vibration

of continuous

skin-stringer

panels'

J. Applied

Mechanics

27 No4

pp 669-676. 17. Y.K. Lin 1962, 'Stresses Aerospace 18. B.L. Clarkson, 'The in Continuous skin stiffener panels under random loading'. J. Sciences, 29 pp 67-75.

R.D. Ford, 1962, of a typical aircraft structure to jet noise. J. Roy Aero Soc 66

response

pp 31-40. 19. B.L. Clarkson, 'The 616. 20. design 1962, of structures to resist jet noise fatigue' J. Roy Aero Soc 66 pp 603-

D.J. Mead, 'Wave Current

G. Sen Gupta, group theory Developments

1970, applied to the response of finite structures' 1970. Proc Conf. on in Sonic Fatigue Univ of Southampton

47

21.

S.H.Crandall, W.D.Mark,1963, 'Random Vibrationin mechanical systems'Academic Press 1963. R.N.Miles,1989, Seminar NASA LangleyResearch Center'Effectof broadbandresponse on fatigue life'. H.C.Schederup, A.E. Galef,1961, 'Aspects of theresponse of structures subject to sonicfatigue'ASDTR 61-187. S.O.Rice,1945, 'Mathematical analysis of randomnoise'Bell System Technical
46-156.

22.

23.

24.

Journal

Vol 24 pp

25.

C.W.

Schneider,

1973, of aircraft structures at elevated temperatures' AFFDL TR-73-

'Acoustic

fatigue

155 parts I and II. 26. J. Soovere, 'The panels' 27. 1985, effect of acoustic/thermal 22 pp 257-263. environments on advanced composite fuselage J. Aircraft 1965, of fatigue 18 'Acoustical Syracuse cracks in a tensioned in Aerospace plate subjected to acoustic edited W.J. Fatigue Structures'

B.L. Clarkson, 'The loads' Trapp,

propagation Chapter D.M. Forney

Univ. Press 1965.

28.

G.S. Jost, 1969, 'Combined stress crack propagation England. in thin panels' Fracture 69 Proc. 2nd Int Conf. April 1969 Brighton

29.

M. Petyt, 1967, 'Finite element vibration analysis of cracked plates in tension'. AFML-TR-67-396.

30.

M. Petyt, 1968, 'The vibration

characteristics

of

a tensioned

plate

containing

a fatigue

crack'

J. Sound Vib. 8 pp 377-389. 31. K.P. Byrne, "Bending acoustically 32. T. Fujimoto, International 1975, induced crack propagation cracks. in a 4% Cu AI Alloy with reference to propagated S. Sumi, 1987, behaviour Journal of centrally cracked plates under tension' JSME 30 No. 269 pp 1715-1723. fatigue J. Sound Vib. Vol 42 pp 337-355.

'Post-buckling

48

33.

T.

Fujimoto, 'Buckling Modem

S. Sumi, 1987, of center Technology cracked Elsevier plates under tension' Role of Fracture pp 747-759. Mechanics in Science Publishers

34.

Fujimoto, 'Vibration

S. Sumi, 1988, characteristics of centrally Mechanics cracked plates under tension' Society Proc of VI 1988 pp 1261-1266 for Experimental

Int Congress on Experimental Mechanics, Inc.

35.

M.H. Hieken, 'Sonic

W.E. Noonan,

E.F. Shroyer,

1973, temperatures' AFFDL TR 73-8.

fatigue

test methods at elevated 1973, on

36.

M.J. Jacobson, 'Effects structures'

P.E. Finwall,

of structural heating AFFDL TR 73-56. F.F. Rudder, fatigue 1973, of

the

sonic

fatigue

of

Aerospace

vehicle

37.

C.W. Schneider, 'Acoustic

resistance

aircraft

structures

at

elevated

temperatures'

AIAA paper 73-994.

38.

M.J. Jacobson, 'Oil-canning 982.

O.F. Maurer, of metallic

1974, panels in thermal-acoustic environments' AIAA paper 74-

39.

A. Powell, 'On the

1958, fatigue fields' failure of structures due to vibrations excited by random

pressure

JASA 30 pp 1130-1135. 1989, tests of a thermally stressed aluminium plate in TAFA'

C.F. Ng, S.A. Clevenson,

'High intensity acoustic NASA TM 101552.

41.

W.D. Whetstone, 'EISI-EAL Information

1983, Language Reference Manual'. Engineering

Engineering Analysis Systems, Inc.

42.

J.W. Miles,

1954, fatigue under random loading'. J. Aero Sc. 21 No. 11 pp 753-762.

'On structural

43.

M.A. Miner, 'Cumulative B.L. Clarkson, 'Stresses

1945, damage 1968, in skin panels subjected to random acoustic loads' J. Roy Aero Soc 72 in fatigue' J. Appl. Mech. 12 No. 3 pp 159-164.

4.

pp 1000-1010.

49

45.

A.G.R.

Thomson,

1972, design data' AGARDograph 162.

'Acoustic 46. D.J. Bozich, 'Spatial 47.

fatigue 1964, correlation

in acoustic-structural 1970,

coupling

JASA 36 No. 1. pp 52-58.

R.L. Barnoski, 'Distributed 1660.

J.R. Maurer, system

response

characteristics

in random

pressure

fields'

NASA

CR

48.

D.J. Mead,

G. Sen Gupta, of flexural

1970, waves in infinite, damped fib-skin structures' AFML TR

'Propagation 70-13. 49.

Sen Gupta, 1970, 'Natural plates' flexural waves and the normal 89-101. modes of periodically supported beams and J. Sound Vib. 13pp 1971, of periodic skin stringer structures using a wave approach'

50.

G.

Sen Gupta, 'Natural

frequencies

J. Sound Vib 16 pp 561-580. 51. G.M. Lindberg, 1973, element modelling of flat and curved stiffened panels' AGARD CP

'Accurate 113. 52. M.D. Olson, 'Jet 855. 53. noise

finite

G.M. Lindberg, excitation

1971, stiffened Panel' J. of Aircraft 8 pp 847-

of an integrally

L.D. Jacobs,

D.R. Lagerquist,

1967, of simple panel response to turbulent boundary layers'

'A finite element analysis AFFDL TR 67-81. 54.

L.D. Jacobs, 'Finite 44.

D.R. Lagerquist, analysis

1968, of complete panel response to random loads' AFFDL TR 68-

element

55.

L.D. Jacobs, 'Response

D.R. Lagerquist, of complex

F.L. Gloyna,

1969, boundary layers' AIAA Paper 69-20.

structures

to turbulent

56.

J.A. Hay, 1973, 'Experimentally determined 1985, technology damping design guide' AFWAL TR-84-3089. damping factors' AGARD C.P - 113.

57.

J. Soovere,

M.L. Drake, structures

'Aerospace

50

58.

L. Rogers,

Editor,

1984, 1984 Workshop Proceedings' AFWAL TR-84-3064.

'Vibration 59. L. Rogers, 'Damping P.M. Belcher,

damping 1986,

Editor

1986 Proceedings' J.D. Van Dyke, of 18 No.6. 1963, design for acoustic et al. 1968, of sonic fatigue H.E. Plumblee, design aircraft

AFWAL

TR-86-3059. 1959, withstand acoustic loads'. Aerospace

0.

A.L. Eshleman, structure to

'Development Engineering 61. P.R. McGowan, 'Structural 62. J.R. Ballentine 'Refinement 63. F.F. Rudder, 'Sonic

fatigue'

ASD TDR 63-820.

structural

design

criteria'.

AFFDL

TR 67-156.

1974, aircraft' AFFDL TR 74-112.

Fatigue 1971,

guide for military

4.

F.F. Rudder, 'Acoustic

fatigue 1977,

resistance

of internal

airframe

structures'

AFFDL

TR 71-107.

65.

M.J. Jacobson, 'Sonic

fatigue

design

data for bonded 80-0303.

aluminium

aircraft

structures'

AFFDL

77-45

See also: AIAA paper 66. S.P. Timoshenko, 'Theory 67. K.R. Wentz, structures pp 70-76. 68. H.F. Wolfe, 'Acoustic Proceedings Southampton 69. J. Soovere, 1985, I. Holehouse, fatigue life of Recent p.763-773.

S. Woinowsky-Kreiger, and Shells' 1978, fatigue data for adhesively bonded and weldbonded 100 to dynamic excitation'. J. Eng. Materials and Technology McGraw-Hill 2nd Edition 1959, p 202.

of Plates

H.F. Wolfe, subjected

'Development

of random

1984, of adhesive Advances bonded structures subjected April to acoustic loads' of in Structural Dynamics 84, University

'Vibration analysis 85-0603-CP.

of stiffened

honeycomb

panels

with beveled

edges'

AIAA paper

51

70.

I. Holehouse,
'Sonic

1973, of diffusion bonded titanium sandwich structure' AGARD CP-113.

fatigue

71.

M.J. Jacobson, 'Acoustic facings'

R.C.W. fatigue

van der Hyde, 1972, design information for honeycomb panels with fibre reinforced 9 pp 31-42.

J. Aircraft

72.

N.R. Arcas, 1969, 'Prediction of stress and fatigue life of acoustically structure' Shock and Vibration Bulletin No. 39 Part 2. excited aircraft

73.

L. MaestreUo, 'Measurement excited

1965, and Analysis of the Response field of turbulent boundary layer J. Sound Vib. 2 pp 270-292.

panels'. 1979, topics

74.

P.M. Belcher, 'Selected

from

the structural

acoustics

program

for the B1 aircraft'

Shock

and Vibration 75. P.M. Belcher, 'Acoustical 76. D.S. Groen, 'Acoustic 77. D.S. Groen, 'STOVL 562. 78. D.S. Groen,

Bulletin

49 part 3 pp55-68.

1983, fatigue 1988, technologies 1988, acoustic fatigue technologies' Proc. Int. Powered Lift Cord" P-203. pp553for STOV'L Aircraft' AIAA Paper 88-2238. requirement for large aircraft structures' AFFDL-3102.

1989, technology assessment for supersonic advanced STOVL aircraft' NASA

'Sonic fatigue CR 182131. 79. M.J. Jacobson, 'Advanced 71-126. 80.

1972, composite joints: design and acoustic fatigue characteristics' AFFDL TR

K.P. Byme, panels'

1977, induced edge cracks in acoustically excited

'On the growth rate of bending J. Sound Vib. 53 pp505-528.

81.

K.P. Byrne, 1980, 'On the growth random pressure rate of bending fields' induced edge cracks in panels excited by convected J. Sound Vib. 68 pp 161-171.

52

82.

N.D.Wolfe,M.J.Jacobson, 1973, "Design andsonic fatigue characteristics

CP-113.

of composite

mamrial

components'

AGARD

83.

R.D. Adams, 'Effect CFRP'.

D.G.C.

Bacon, 1973, and laminate geometry on the dynamic propedties of Materials 1984, for obtaining the dynamic mechanical properties of lamina Composites for 15 and damping of laminated plates and beams' Z pp 402-428.

of fibre orientation J. Composite

84.

R.G. Ni, R.D. Adams, 'A rational predicting method

the stiffness

(3) pp 193-199. 85. R.G. White, 1975, 'Some plastic 86. measurements beams of the dynamic Aero Journal properties 79pp of mixed, carbon fibre reinforced and plates' 318-325.

R.G. White, 'Dynamic

E.M.Y.

Abdin, 1985, of aligned short carbon fibre-reinforced plastics in flexure 16 pp 293-306.

properties

and tension. 87.

Composties

R.G. White, 1978, 'A comparison of some statistical properties Of the responses 9 pp 251-258. of aluminium alloy and CFRP plates to acoustic excitation' Composties

88.

R.G. White, R.F. Mousley, 'Dynamic Proc. response 4th Int. Conf.

1987, plates under the action Paisley of random College acoustic loading' July Composite Structures, of Technology,

of CFRP

1987 pp 1519-1535. 89. C.F. Ng, R.G. White, 'Dynamic behaviour 1988, of postbuckled isotropic plates under in-plane compression'.

J. Sound Vib. 120 (1) pp 1-18. 90. C.F. Ng, 1988, 'The influence intense Structural 91. acoustic of snap-through excitation' motion on the random 3rd response on of curved panels Recent Advances to in Proceedings Int. Conf.

Dynamics,

Southampton

UK, pp 617-627.

R.G. White, 1988, 'The acoustic Structures, 260 papaer excitation and fatigue of composite plates' Proc 25th AIAAJASME USA 1988 pp 253Structural 88-2242. Dynamics and Materials Conf Williamsburg,

53

92.

R.C. Drew, 'An

R.G. White,

1987, investigation in CFRP into composite damage propagation Proc 4th and Int its Conf effects upon

experimental properties Paisley 1980, fatigue testing

dynamic Structures, 93. J. Soovere, 'Sonic Bulletin 94.

material'

Composite

College

of Technology,

July 1987 pp 245-256.

of the NASA

L-1011

composite

aileron'

Shock

and Vibration

50 part 4 pp 13-23. 1988, investigation Advances into the behaviour of composites' Southampton Proceedings 3rd in Structural Dynamics, UK, pp 605-615.

N.S. Ferguson, 'An

analytical

Int. Conf. on Recent 95.

S.C. Galea, 'Effect

R.G. White, of temperature Recent

1988, on acoustically Advances induced stresses in CFRP University plates'. Proc of in Structural Dynamics, of Southampton,

3rd Int. Conf.

UK, July 1988, pp 629-640. 96. ESDU 'Estimation plates' 97. ESDU Data of the stiffnesses and apparent 4. and fibre reinforced plates'. Data elastic properties of laminated

Sheet of

83035 see reference damping in 4. laminated

'Estimation Sheet 85012

see reference

98.

ESDU

'Natural plates' Data

frequencies Sheet of loading'

of

rectangular, 4.

specially

orthotropic

laminated

83036 see reference strain in

99.

ESDU

'Estimation acoustic

rms

laminated

skin

panels 4.

subjected

to random

Data Sheet

84008

see reference

100.

I. Holehouse,

1980, techniques for advanced composite aircraft structures'

'Sonic fatigue design AFWAL TR 80-3019.

101.

I. Holehouse, 'Sonic paper

1981, design techniques for graphite-ephoxy stiffened skin panels' AIAA

fatigue 81-0633. 1984, fatigue Conf.

102.

I. Holehouse, 'Sonic Proc.

design Recent

method Advances

for

the

response

of

CFRP April

stiffened-skin 1984,

panels' of

in Structural

dynamics

University

Southampton

pp 787-798.

54

103.

Soovere, "Sonic 310.

1982, fatigue testing of an advanced composite aileron' J. Aircraft 19 pp 304-

104.

Arcas, 'Sonic

C.A. Parente, fatigue

R.P. Goss, 1986, of graphite-epoxy 1986. panels' Soc. for Ep. Mechanics

evaluation

Conference

Proceedings

New Orleans

105.

Soovere, 'Dynamic Conf.

1984, response Recent and acoustic in fatigue of stiffened Dynamics composite April 1984, structures' University Proc. of

Advances pp 775-786.

Structural

Southampton

106.

M.J. Jacobson, 'Sonic

1983, of advanced composite panels in thermal environments' J. Aircraft

fatigue

20 pp 282-288. 107. L.A. Roussos, 'Predicted loading' 108. L.A. Roussos, H.E. Heitman, and AIAA measured paper C.E. Rucker, strain 1986, of rectangular panels due to acoustic

response

86-1931. 1987, on dynamic response of rectangular panels' AIAA

T.K. Brewer,

'Effect of boundary paper 87-0935. 109. R.D. Blevins, 'An Vib. 110. 1989,

conditions

approximate

method

for sonic

fatigue

analysis

of plates

and shells'

J. Sound

12....99 No. 1 pp 51-71. 1985, of the literature on Digest finite-element modelling of laminated composite

J.N. Reddy, 'A review

plates' 111. Mei,

Shock

and Vibration 1982,

1_.27 No.4. pp 3-8.

K.R. Wentz,

'Large Journal 112.

amplitude random 2.._Q0 pp 1450-1458.

response

of angle

ply laminated

composite

plates'

AIAA

C. Mei, C.B. Prasad, 'Nonlinear random

1985, response 1987, damping on random response of beams to acoustic loading' J. of composite panels' NASA CR 176689.

113.

C.

Mei,

C.B. Prasad,

'Effects Sound

of nonlinear Vib.

11....27 (1) pp 173-186.

55 114. C. Mei, C.B.Prasad, 1986, 'Responseof symmetricrectangularcompositelaminateswith nonlineardamping subjected to acoustic loading'.AIAA paper86-1933. C.Mei, C.B. Prasad, 1987, 'Multimode large deflection random responseof beanswith nonlinear damping subjected to acoustic loading'AIAA paper87-2712. J. Robinson,C.Mei, 1989, 'The influenceof nonlineardampingon the randomresponse of panels by time domainsimulation'AIAA paper89-1104.
C

115.

116.

117.

Mei,

.B. Prasad, of

1989, deflection laminates and transverse subjected to shear on response loading' of J. rectangular Composite

'Effects symmetric Materials

large composite

acoustic

23 June 1989 pp 606-639. 1987, deflection laminates' and transverse papers shear 87-0933. on response of rectangular AIAA

118.

Mei,

C.B. Prasad, of large composite

'Effects symmetic

119.

C.B. Prasad, 'Large restrained

C. Mei, 1988, deflection edges random response of cross ply laminated plates with elastically

and initial imperfections'

AIAA paper

88-2239.

120.

C.B. Prasad, 'Effect composite of

C. Mei, 1989, transverse laminates shear on large deflection conditions' random response of symmetric

with mixed boundary 1987, large deflection AIAA random paper

AIAA paper

89-1356.

121.

C. Mei, C.K. Chiang, 'A finite element to acoustic subjected

response 87-2713.

analysis

of beans

and

plates

loading'

122.

C.K. Chiang, 'A finite beams Structural

C. Mei, 1988, element Dynamics large deflection loading' multiple-mode Proc 3rd random Int. Conf. response Recent analysis Advances of in to acoustic University

subjected

of Southampton

UK July 1988 pp 769-779.

123.

Locke, 'A

C. Mei, 1989, finite element buckled formulation beams' for the large deflection random response of

thermally

AIAA paper

89-1354.

124.

J. Locke, 'A

C. Mei, 1989, finite element buckled formulation plates'. AIAA for paper the large deflection random response of

thermally

89-110.

56

125.

D.B. Paul,1982, 'Large deflections of

distributions' AFFD:

clamped TR 3003.

rectangular

plates

with

arbitrary

temperature

126.

C.

Mei, H.F. Wolfe, 'On Status 302. large

1986, analysis in acoustic fatigue design' R.H. Lyon Random Elsevier Vibrations 1986 pp 279-

deflection

and recent

developments

Ed I. Elishakoff,

127.

E.T. Moyer 'Response

Jr. 1989, of composite 1971, of multivariate and multidimensional random processes' JASA 49 (1) pp plates subjected to acoustic loading' NASA CR 184618.

128.

Shinozuka, 'Simulation 357-367.

129.

M. Shinozuk, 'Digital pp 111-128.

C.M. Jan, Simulation

1972, of random processes and its application' J. Sound Vib 25 No. 1

130.

M. Shinozuka, 'Monte Carlo

Y.K. Wen, 1972, solution of nonlinear vibration' AIAA 1...0037-40.

131.

J.N. Yang,

1973, and accuracy of simulated random processes' J. Sound Vib 26 No.

'On the normality 3 pp 417-428. 132. Vaicaitis, 'Nonlinear pp 895-899. 133. Vaicaitis, 'Generalised 988. 134. 1973,

G.M. Jan, M. Shinozuka, panel response

1972, boundary layer' AIAA Journal 10 No. 7

from a turbulent

Ro

random

forces

for rectangular

panels'

AIAA

Journal

1].1No. 7 pp 984-

Vaicaotos. 'Nonlinear 685-691.

E.H. Dowell, panel response

C.S. Ventries, by a Monte

1974, Carlo approach' AIAA Journal 12 No. 5 pp

135.

Ro

Vaicaitis, 'Response Spacecraft

E.H. Dowell, of Space

1977, Shuttle surface insulation panels to acoustic pressure'. J.

and Rockets

1.._4 pp 739-746.

57

136.

R. Vaicaitis,1986,
'Non fatigue, linear response - a time domain materials' approach IAA - with paper applications to acoustic spacecraft 1987, fatigue - A Monte 1987, panels for applications to acoustic fatigue' AIAA paper Carlo approach' AIAA paper 87-0916. and composite 86-1934.

137.

R. Vaicaitis, 'Acoustic

138.

R_

Vaicaitis, 'Response 87-2711.

S.T. Choi, of

stiffened

139.

R. Vaicaitis, 'Sonic

S.T. Choi, fatigue

1988, panels' AIAA paper 88-2241.

of stiffened 1988,

140.

R_

Vaicaitis, 'Acoustic Structural

S.T. Choi, fatigue Dynamics. 1982, sonic

of stiffened

structures'

Proc

3rd Int.

Conf.

Recent

Advances

in

Southampton

UK, July 1988, pp 593-603.

141.

Maekawa, 'On the

life

estimation

of

skin

structures

at

room

and

elevated

temperatures.

J. Sound

Vib. 80 pp 41-59. 1973, aircraft structures' AGARD CP 113.

142.

R.C.W. 'Sonic

van der Hyde, fatigue

A.W. Kolb,

resistance

of lightweight

143.

R. Valcaitis, 'Sonic

S.T. Choi,

1989, response of stiffened panels' AIAA paper 89-1101.

fatigue

and nonlinear 1989, and

144.

S.T. Choi, 'Non

R. Vaicaitis, linear response

fatigue

of stiffened

panels'

Probabalistic

Engineering

Mechanics

_4pp 150-160. 1975, energy analysis of dynamical systems: Theory and applications'. MIT

145.

R.H. Lyon, 'Statistical Press

1975.

146.

M.P.

Norton,

1989, energy analysis analysis of noise and vibration' Cambridge Chapter 6 in Fundamentals Press. of for engineers. D.C.G. University 1981, using Statistical Energy

'Statistical noise

and vibration

147.

B.L. Clarkson, 'Prediction Analysis

R.J. Cummins, of

Eaton, J.P. Vessaz, structural vibrations

high-frequency ESA Journal

(SEA)

Vol 5 pp 137-152.

58

148.

R.J.Cumminsetal 1986. 'Response of spacecraft to acoustic excitation'IntelsatReportINTEL-385. F.D. Hart,K.C. Shah,1971, 'Compendium of modaldensities for structures' NASA CR 19773. J.P.D.Wilkinson,1968, 'Modal densities of certainshallowstructural elements' JASA43 pp 245-251. L.L. Erikson,1969, 'Modal densities of sandwich panels-TheoryandExperiment' ShockandVibration Bulletin 39 (3) pp 1-16.
G.H. Elliott, 'The Vib. 1988, of the modal density of paraboloidal and similar shells' J. Sound

149.

150.

151.

152.

evaluation

126 pp 477-483. R.J. Pope, 1981, of modal densities and loss factors of flat plates

153.

B.L. Clarkson, 'Experimental and cylinders'.

determination

J. Sound Vib. 77 pp 535-549. M.F. Ranky, 1983, plates' 1986, shells' J. Vib Acoustics, Stress and Reliability in J. Sound Vib. 91 pp 103-118.

154.

B.L. Clarkson, 'Modal

density

of honeycomb

155.

N.S. Ferguson, 'Modal Design

B.L. Clarkson,

density of honeycomb 10.._.88 pp 399-404.

156.

E.G. Broadbent, 'The acoustic pp 245-271.

K.H. Heron, radiation

F.G. Leppington, efficiency

1982, panels' Proc. Roy. Soc.

of rectangular

A382

157.

G. Maidanik, 'Response

1962, of ribbed 1986, frequency of sandwich panels' Letter to Editor J. Sound panels to reverberant acoustic fields' JASA 34 pp 809-826.

158.

N.S. Ferguson, 'A note

on the critical

Vib 10....66 pp 171-172.

159.

M.F. Ranky, 'Frequency

B.L. Clarkson, average E. Eichler, vibration

1983, of plates and shells' J. Sound Vib 89 pp 309-323.

loss factors 1964, of connected

160.

R.H. Lyon, 'Random

structures'

JASA

36 pp 1344-1354.

59

161.

D.A. Bies, 'In-situ 197-204.

S. Hamid,

1980, of loss and coupling loss factors' J. Sound Vib - 70 pp

determination

162.

B.L. Clarkson, 'On Sound the

M.F.

Ranky,

1984, of the coupling loss factor of structural connections' J.

measurement

Vib 94 pp 249-261. R. Greenhalgh, estimation of techniques 1986, loss factors in lightly damped Vib. pipeline systems: some and their limitations. J. Sound 105 pp 397-423.

163.

M.P.

Norton, the

'On

measurement 164.

E.E. Ungar,

1961, of plate JASA flexural waves through reinforcing beams: Dynamic stress 33, 5 pp 633-639.

'Transmission concentrations' 165. S.M. Steam, 1970,

'Spatial broad 166. S.M.

variation frequency 1971,

of

stress,

strain

and

acceleration

in

structures

subject

to

band excitation'

J. Sound Vib 1_.22 pp 85-97.

Steam,

'The

concentration

of dynamics

stress

in a plate

at a sharp

change

of

section'.

J. Sound 167. M.P. Norton,

Vib 15 pp 353-365. F.J. Fahy, 1988, on for the correlation energy of dynamic stress Noise and strain Control with pipe wall 30 statistical applications'. Engineering

'Experiments vibrations

(3) pp 107-111. 168. B.L. Clarkson, 'The ASME 169. 1987, of high frequency Topics vibration energy pp 25-31. across structural joints' in Vibration

transmission

DE Vol 8. Advanced

A.J. Keane, 'Statistical 331-360.

W.G.

Price,

1989, analysis of periodic structures' Proc. Roy. Soc. AS 42....33 pp

energy

170.

R.S. Langley, 'A general dynamic

1989, derivation of the statistical energy analysis equations for coupled systems'. J. Sound Vib 13.__5 pp 499-588.

6O Appendix to Reference List

Contents

of Acoustic

Fatigue

Data Series

(Reference

4)

ESDU Volume

Engineering 1

Data: General

Acoustic

Fatigue

Series

Definition Bandwidth Combination The relation

of terms analysis correction

for acoustic

fatigue Sheet Sheet 66013 66016 66017 66018 74037

of levels between

in dB sound pressure pressure

Sheet Sheet Sheet

level and rms fluctuating

Design information on acoustic fatigue Estimation of the stiffnesses and apparent laminated Design elastic properties of

lat plates

Sheet

83035

against fatigue. Vibration of structures under acoustic or aerodynamic excitation acoustic loading Sheet 86025

Endurance

under

Endurance

of aluminium elements

alloy structural to simulated Sheet 72015

subjected

Endurance

acoustic loading of titanium and titanium alloy structural to simulated elements acoustic subjected

loading composite, elements random acoustic

Sheet

73010

Endurance

of Fibre-reinforced laminated structural subjected loading to simulated

Sheet Actions sound Sheet the

84027

Volume

Loading The estimation pressure Estimation

of near-field levels

due to jet noise levels noise within

72002

of sound pressure due to buzz-saw intake

duct of a supersonic estimation procedure

fan or Sheet for Sheet 86034 74033

compressor Computer-based near-field

single-stream

jet noise

6l Damping

Damping Estimation

in acoustically structures of damping fibre-reinforced

excited Sheet in laminated plated to acoustic loading and Sheet 85012 73011

Volume

Stress/strain Estimation

response

of the rms stress in skin panels Sheet panels pressure of rms stress in stiffened panels subjected to random Sheet 72005 under Sheet 67029 67028

The effect

of edge uniform

The estimation skin

acoustic Stress response flexxural random The estimation panels

loading of fiat or singly-curved panels stiffness acoustic with cores subjected loading of zero/ to

sandwich

Sheet

72017

of rms stress in skin with flexxible stiffeners loading Sheet 73014

subjected to random acoustic Estimation of rms stress in internal plates Estimation of a box structure acoustic

subjected Sheet skin acoustic Sheet 84008 74026

to random

loading

of rms strain panels subjected

in laminated to random

loading Estimation of rms strain in laminated face plates sandwich acoustic simplified prediction Volume 4 Natural Frequencies of a simply panels loading. natural method of Plate Structures supported to random a

subjected Including frequency

Sheet

86024

Natural

frequencies skin-stringer

of built-up structures. of panel

periodic I. Stringers Sheet with flexible Sheet 72013 75030 flat Sheet 72003

rigid in bending Reference Natural frequency stiffeners frequencies plates of rectangular

with various

edge conditions

62 Naturalfrequencies of rectangular, speciallyorthotropic laminated

platesSheet 83036 of rectangular plates of isotropic rectangular and plates loading Sheet 87029 Sheet 87002

Naturalfrequencies
singly-curved

Naturalfrequencies
orthotropic under

static in-plane plates edges

Naturalfrequencies
laminated supported

of singly-curved with simply Sheet 89011

Volume5

Natural Natural

Frequencies frequencies

of Shell Structures of thin-walled shells circularSheet shells Sheet 81018 80040 isotropic Sheet 78004

circular-cylindrical Free vibration of thin-walled, orthogonally cylindrical Natural frequencies isotropic

stiffened, shells

of thick-walled circular-cylindrical

(Shear diaphragm

end conditions) Panels

Volume 6

Natural

Frequencies

of Sandwich

and Box Structures

Natural

frequencies

of fiat or singly-curved with cores of zero Sheet 72016 Sheet 74025 face Sheet 85027

sandwich panels flexural stiffness Natural Natural frequencies frequencies sandwich plates

of box structures of simply-supported panels with laminated

63

1.0 _-_ 08
a%

\ _)\ ,_ _

/v 06

[] A X I _ 0 0 V

I00 200 _20 4O0 500 640 800 I000

\
I,Z taJ (.) LL

\\
4 x ,,\ XX /
06

02-

/
1
p8

//

C_///_

\ \\

//
12

'\
1 %_\14 1 \ 1 1.6

012 _" _01 _\ \ ',

/1 o

O (J

-02-04

., t
0

\ 0',

Z O I'-,M uJ

._x /O

_._\

-//

-(36 -0 8 -t0 -

",o
\ "040

0 1.0 _ 0.8 A X O 0 6 V

200 CPS 300 400 500 600 IO00

Z _u u. L, "'

04 02

Oo. 0

,,

_._% I

, _//

-0.8 -I.0

Figure 1.

Real part of the cross spectral density of pressures at two positions close to a jet efflux (Reference 5).

64

.08

_ _'_
H

Moo = 2.0

1.0 --

_ //
O _ I L 1

_:_"
_ ._1

- o;Poo _oo
n

I__
Q

i0-!

%
_

4 xs/h

10-2

N8
ET

%
IN T ESRH%IcTKT EN T _1;I _ ee_:;i0 o_. < _ _oov(_ SEPARATED FLOW

8 10 -3
A

1-4 E

\
oo_

%\

%%
%
_::)_b

10-5

/
ATTACHED TURBULENT BOUNDARY LAYER

%
10-6 iO-3
i _ llllil I I i lillll J J t Jll.l L I L_._J..L_

IO"z

iO-I |8 o /U_

I.O

IO

Figure 2.

Typical power spectra of pressure fluctuations underlying supersonic flow (Reference 9).

65

OT

dB

VSTOL

f
l

f
L v

Time

(a)

Aircraft:

conventional

take off and vertical take off

OT

dB B

IT

/ I

\
\

12000 /

160dB
f _ J

Time

(b)

National Aerospace
- --

Plane (NASP)
Pressure Temperature

Figure 3.

Time history trends for acoustic

loads and temperature.

68

10
o

/ /
A

500-

4"

/
300-

/ / /
/
A

A Grumman Clarkson

o Ballentine

/
100

( 300

500

1000 Measured RMS Stress, psi

3000

5000

10,000

Figure 6.

Comparison

of predicted

and measured

rms panel stress (Reference

72).

69

ATTACHED

FLOW

M=, Z..5 Zl, 0.3048 m

q,,., _'170 N/m ZZ86m

SEPARATED

FLOW

iz,O.

d =O.O0118m

[3 n Q 0 o o o o []

I0 -9

I0 "lO

O CALCULATED EXPERIMENT

I0"11 10-12

iO-13

I0 -7 -

iO-8

13

Q 10-9 13 {3 n

I
Lt

on ,o.,o
O I0 "11 i I0"i2 ) I0 "13 c--

_ I
l i 200

,,,, !
I

--

I_I

_ I
i

,,',,,,, | i

----

,,., _-,_ I ! i
I, 600 II

I_I

-- erl rr_

I_i r,'_

--

NI

'

,,_

i 0

, II 400 f. HZ

,I 800

, iO00

i0-i4 0

, 200

i II 400 l, HZ

I II 600

,I 800

IOUO

Figure

7.

Comparison (Reference

of predicted 9).

and measured

displacement

response

spectra

7O

-_TTACHED

_'LOW

M== 2.5 _q=0.3048m

q_-- 2170 Ntm 2 _z=O.Z286m d =O.OOllSm

SEPARATED

FLOW

r.-j
iO -I

_0-8

,_

IO l?

tO_9

=
io-lO

IO'H

iO-t_

(3
i l l _ IO'12 I I I I I

(3

iO-8

o uO-_Z O O
N

o o

I0-9

"_

i0__3

E E
I0 14

iO__ Io-_O

O i0-_5

(3 I i0-12 ./

'
i0-_6 0 I _ 200

' _' I

'-" _''
!,il aO0 f. HZ

i i i1,1q,

0 --

, I_1

/ q"

A'',_.-IO-a3 iO00 0 t 200 I J, 400 fi f.HZ I 600 II

0
I

J II

, f

I, [ l 800

I000

Figure

8.

Comparison (Reference

of predicted 9).

and measured

stress

response

spectra

71

;5 i
i
i

I0

;
'

4 i
i

r ]
i

i
i

0 1 T

EL
BAY 1 BAY 2

J
BAY 3

y 0.10

15.0

o o,It
= z 0.0"2 0 ' 5

If:,
[
10 15

!1

!._

II 11

J 1

20

(IN.)

z o u
ul

tl W

x " 0.06

17.8

0o4 2
0

1 ,J_"_'_, -_"_/'F
5

-_"_-

t
10 15

Figure 9.

RMS Deflection

of a stiffened

skin panel (Reference

54).

72

ICX30 I00

0.1

0.01 0.001
, I . I , I , I . t I , t I

1.0

J:.. ........ .'-...__----_--_--_...._----........

s f _o g ._,., _ ' ....... _"" "

%o.s
0.4 0.6
Q

/r-. ,._.__J [ ," / ...

I" /

.......

Ii!

Excztohon sound I:_Ssum le,,eJ _30dB

-----H5 dB I I

.i

"
I I ! I

_]

0.2, 0 0

_-"'--,""

I00

200

300

400

500

600

700

800

900

IOOC

Frequency (Hz)

Figure

10.

Strain

response 87).

spectra

of carbon

fibre reinforced

plastic

plates

(Reference

73

104

103
II 7

e-

ra

o
E

lr

E
'0

== .=
0 Q

i0 z

--,

=..-

=_-.-.

. ..................................

I0 I0

Estimoted

r.m.$,

micro

stroin

Figure 11.

Comparison of measured and estimated plastic plates (Reference 99).

strains in carbon fibre reinforced

74

40O0 35O0

* Experimental

25OO 20O0 1500 IO00 50O 0 0

.o2.04.o6.oo.io.12.,4.,s.to.2o.22 Input RMS pressure, psi

Figure

12.

Comparison of measured panel (Reference 143).

and estimated

nonlinear

response

of a three

bay

REPORT

DOCUMENTATION

PAGE

Form &:_omved
OMB No. 0704-0188

Pu/_i r_ b_zbm for thiz _ _ iP4oeqallion il _ Io averaBe 1 hour p_r rw_oomm, ieclu_ _ ti_ _ _ _, _ _ _ _. _h_ ilrd nllMI__0 thl _11 nllldod, I_ o_o_t_ Iced r_lu_ Iho oo_1_ ot infotw_lt_l. S4_ Gcnmmttstl(_ltd}n_ thll I_Jrd(Ntolt_f_lo Orany o_ a_0m_l_ thB oodleclm o_irdot_on, irc'ludi_l =_ti_w for mduong thil bur(_n, to WIhin_ I-_u_tm S4_vcq_. D_ectorxte for Intow_JK_ Op_m_ and Rlel=O_, 1215 _ Dm_ High.,_ly. Suite 1204, _i_, VA _220_-43(_, and to the Offi_ d Ma_ and Bud_. Pa_ R4_ductio_ Pm_ (0704-0188), W_#tmgto_, DC 20603. 1. AGENCY USE ONLY (Leave b_ 2. REPORT DATE 3. REPORT TYPE AND DATES COVERED

April 1994
4. TITLE AND SUBTITLE

Contractor
5. FUNDING

Report
NUMBERS

Review of Sonic Fat_ue Technology

G NAG1-363 WU 763-23-45-70

0. AUdio,S)

B. L. Clarkson

7. PERPORMtNG ORGANIZATION NAME(S)ANDADDRES_(ES) Old Dominion University Norfolk, VA 23508

8. PERFORMING ORGANIZATION REPORT NUMBER

IL SPONSORING/MoNrrO_INCI

AGENCY

NAME(S)

AND

ADDRES_q(ES)

10.

SPONSORING/MONITORING AGENCY REPORT NUMBER

National Aeronautics and Space Administration Langley Research Center

Hampton, VA 23681-0001

NASA

CR-4587

II1.

SUPPLEMENTARY

NOTES

Clad(son:

University

College

of Swansea,

U.K.; Langley Technical University

Monitor:

C. A. Powetl by Langley Research

This work was done in collaboration Center.

with Old Dominion

and sponSOred

12=. DISTRIBUTION / AVAILABILITY STATEMENT Unclassified -Unlimited -71

12b. DISTRIBUTION CODE

Subject Category

113. ABSTRACT

(Max/m_um

200 _)

From the early-1960s until the mid-1980s, there was very little theoretical development for sonic fatigue prediction. Design nomographs based on sirr_le theoretical models and results of specially designed tests were developed for most COmmon aircratt structures. The use of advanced composites in the 1980s, however, generated an increased interest in development of more sophisticated theoretical models because of the possibilities for a much wider range of structural designs. The purpose of this report is to review sonic fatigue technology and, in particular, to assess recent developments. It also suggests a plan for a coordinated program of theoretical and experimental work to meet the anticipated needs of future aerospaca vehicles.

14.

SUBJECT

TERMS

15.

I_UMB'ER

OF PAGES

Sonic Fatigue, Acoustic Response, Aerospace Structures, Composite Structures, Dynamic Response, Structural Response, Thermal buckling, Acoustic Loads

8O
18. PRICE COOE

_05
17. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF REPORT 18. SECURITY CLAssIFICATION OF THIS PAGE 19. SECURITY CLASSIFICATION OF ABSTRACT 20. LIMITATION OFABSTRAC_

Unclassified
NSN 7540-01-280-5500

Unclassified

Unclassified
Stxnd_rd P_ 2'1_- 1Z Form _ (Rev. 2-8g) by ANSI Std. Z30-18