Wire Characteristics

Insulation Types Insulation around a wire has two purposes: prevent electrical leakage from the wire by preventing contact with other conductors, the ground or other conductive objects and shield the wire from physical damage. The type of insulation determines the environment in which it can safely be used. Wires used indoors are subjected to less exposure to the elements than those designed for outdoor use where water and ultraviolet light proof insulations are needed. Insulation on wires buried in the ground must also be able to withstand the damp corrosive environment in the soil. The type of insulation on a wire influences its ampacity. Insulation type is important since some insulation materials and thicker insulation coverings hold heat in better than others. Most of todays electrical wires have insulation coverings made of plastic or thermoplastic which provides a long durable life. Many older wires had cloth insulation covering them. Rubber was also common, but is not used as much any longer since it becomes brittle and deteriorates over time. The National Electrical Code and standards give various letter designations and classifications for different types of insulation on electrical wires. These letter designations help indicate the type of material the insulation is made of and in what type of environment it can safely be used without deteriorating. Common Insulation Designations: T = Thermoplastic Insulation Covering N = Nylon Jacket H = Heat Resistant to 75 degrees C W = For Use in Wet Locations U = Approved for direct burial underground UF = Underground Feeder Cable R = Rubber Insulation Covering X = Cross Linked Synthetic Polymer HH = Heat Resistance to 90 degrees C SE = Service Entrance Cable USE = Underground Service Entrance Cable

Cables & Cords Cables and cords have been developed which are pre-assembled packages containing varying numbers of individual insulated wires held together with one overall outer covering. This permits an electrician to run one cable containing all the wires needed for a particular circuit in one package instead of running several individual wires saving time and keeping each circuits wires separate from another. Cables are made of solid or stranded conductors and are not meant to be flexed or bent after they are installed. They generally require some protective covering such as a wall, or placement where nothing can hit them. Cords are similar to cables except cords are always made of stranded conductors and are designed to be flexed and bent. Cords are designed for use depending on the various environments and degrees of abuse they must withstand in that environment.

Common Insulation Materials, Cables, and Flexible Cords Used in Electrical Wiring
Insulation or Material Rubber Type Letter RH & RHH RHW RHW-2 T TW THW THWN THHW THHN NM (Romex) Description moisture resistant, flame retardant outer covering moisture resistant, flame retardant outer covering moisture resistant, flame retardant outer covering flame retardant flame retardant, moisture resistant flame retardant, moisture, heat resistant flame retardant, moisture, heat-resistant flame retardant, moisture, heat resistant flame retardant, heat resistant factory assembly of 2 or more insulated conductors having a fibrous, flame-retardant, moisture resistant sheath of non-metallic material Use dry and damp locations dry and wet locations dry and wet locations dry locations dry and wet locations dry locations dry and wet locations dry and wet locations dry and damp locations exposed and concealed work in normally dry locations--may be installed or fished into air voids in masonry block or tile walls not exposed or subject to excessive moisture or dampness dry, moist, damp, or corrosive locations--in outside and inside walls of masonary and tile underground including direct burial in earth--install minimum 18" deep in earth, reducible to 12" if protection is installed above cable generally as a service-entrance conductor on the outside of a building, carrying power to service panel inside, also as branch circuit or feeder if all conductors are insulated with rubber or thermoplastic underground service entrances-single conductor cables having rubber insulation specifically approved for the purpose of not requiring outer covering single phase service drops or feeder lines between buildings Article 321 Quadraplex Junior Hard Service Cord SJ SJO SJT SJTO Hard Service Cord S SO ST STO three individually insulated current-carrying wires twisted together with a bare or covered neutral thermoset insulated with thermoset outer cover thermoset insulated with oil-resistant thermoset outer cover thermoplastic insulated with thermoplastic outer cover thermoplastic insulated with oil-resistant thermoplastic outer cover thermoset insulated with thermoset outer cover thermoset insulated with oil-resistant thermoset outer cover thermoplastic insulated with thermoplastic outer cover thermoplastic insulated with oil-resistant thermoplastic outer cover three phase service drops or feeder lines between buildings pendant or portable uses in damp places with only hard usage same as above same as above same as above Article 400 pendant or portable use in damp places with extra hard usage same as above same as above same as above Article 310 Code Reference

Thermoplastic

Nonmetallic Cables

Article 336

NMC

similar to NM but with a flame retardant, moisture, fungus, AND corrosion-resistant sheath of nonmetallic material factory assembly of 2 or more insulated conductors encased in flame retardant, moisture, fungus, and corrosion resistant outer cover suitable for direct burial in the earth flame-retardant, moisture-resistant cover

Underground Feeder and Branch Circuit Cable Service Entrance Cable

UF

Article 339

SE

Article 338

Underground Service Entrance Cable

USE

identified for underground use, has a moisture resistant cover but is not required to have a flame retardant cover

Service Drop Cable

Triplex

two individually insulated current-carrying wires twisted together with a bare or covered neutral

Ampacity Electrical wires must be able to carry current safely without overheating and being damaged. The current carrying capacity of a particular wire is dictated by its ampacity - how many amps it can handle. It is a function of the cross section area or diameter of the wire, material type and insulation. Larger diameter wires have larger cross section areas and can safely carry more electrical current without overheating. The maximum ampacity that the varying sizes of wires can safely carry is reported in the electrical codes used throughout the industry. This information is generally listed in tables such as Table 310-16 or 310-17 in this section. In order to use the table you need to understand insulation types and wire size designations. Wire Sizes & Designations Electrical wire sizes are indicated using two different systems, the American Wire Gauge System (AWG) and the thousand circular mill system (kcmil) formerly known as MCM. Both systems designate wire size to their diameter and cross sectional area. American Wire Guage (AWG) Sizes In the American Wire Gauge (AWG) system number designation, as the wire gets smaller, the diameter of the wire gets larger. The smallest AWG size is 40 looks like a metal thread. Common electrical extension cords on many lamps are typically 18 gauge wire. The smallest gauge allowed for lighting and receptacle circuits in a house is 14 gauge wire. The gauge sizes get smaller with corresponding increases in the wires diameter all the way down to 0 gauge, commonly referred to as 1 ought and written 1/0. The next larger size as 2/0 (double zero: 00), commonly referred to as 2 ought. The next AWG size larger than 2 ought is 000 (3 ought). 0000 (4 ought) is the largest AWG wire size designation. Wires larger than this size are designated by their kcmil or MCM sizes. Thousand Circular Mill (kcmil or MCM) Sizes All wire sizes larger than 4 ought AWG are given as kcmil or MCM sizes. kcmil, formerly known as MCM wire size is the equivalent cross sectional area in thousands of circular mills. A circular mill is the area of a circle with a diameter of 0.001 inch. Notice that the wire sizes in the kcmil system increase as the numbers get larger, which is exactly opposite from the AWG system. Prior to 1996, these were commonly referred to as MCM sizes where M stood for 1000 from the Roman Numeral System. Example: A 500 kcmil conductor would be equivalent in cross section area to 500,000 circles with a diameter of 0.001 inch.

TABLE 310-16. Allowable Ampacities of Insulated Conductors Rated 0-2000 Volts, 60E to 90EC (140E to 194EF) Not More Than Three Current Carrying Conductors in Raceway or Cable or Earth (Directly Buried), Based on Ambient Temperature of 30EC (86EF)
Size 60EC (140EF) TYPES AWG kcmil TW UF 75EC (167EF) TYPES FEPW RH, RHW THHW THW THWN XHHW USE, ZW COPPER 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 350 400 500 600 700 750 800 900 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 ----20 25 30 40 55 70 85 95 110 125 145 165 195 215 240 260 280 320 355 385 400 410 435 455 495 520 545 560 ----20 25 35 50 65 85 100 115 130 150 175 200 230 255 285 310 335 380 420 460 475 490 520 545 590 625 650 665 14 18 25 30 40 55 75 95 110 130 150 170 195 225 260 290 320 350 380 430 475 520 535 555 585 615 665 705 735 750 Temperature Rating of Conductor, See Table 310-13 90EC (194EF) TYPES TBS, SA, SIS, FEP, FEPB MI, RHH, RHW-2 THHN, THHW THW-2, THWN-2 XHH, XHHW XHHW-2 USE-2, ZW-2 60EC (140EF) TYPES TW UF 75EC (167EF) TYPES RH, RHW THHW THW THWN XHHW USE 90EC (194EF) TYPES TBS, SA, SIS THHN, THHW THW-2, THWN-2 RHH, RHW-2 XHH, XHHW XHHW-2 USE-2, ZW-2 AWG kcmil Size

ALUMINUM OR COPPER-CLAD ALUMINUM ------20 25 30 40 55 65 75 85 100 115 130 150 170 190 210 225 260 285 310 320 330 355 375 405 435 455 470 ------20 30 40 50 65 75 90 100 120 135 155 180 205 230 250 270 310 340 375 385 395 425 445 485 520 545 560 ------25 35 45 60 75 85 100 115 135 150 175 205 230 255 280 305 350 385 420 435 450 480 500 545 585 615 630 ------12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 350 400 500 600 700 750 800 900 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000

CORRECTION FACTORS Ambient Temp. EC 31-40 41-45 46-50 51-60 61-70 71-80 For ambient temperatures over 30EC, multiply the ampacities shown above by the appropriate correction factor to determine the maximum allowable load current .82 .71 .58 ------.88 .82 .75 .58 .35 --.91 .87 .82 .71 .58 .41 .82 .71 .58 ------.88 .82 .75 .58 .35 --.91 .87 .82 .71 .58 .41 Ambient Temp. EF 86-104 105-113 114-122 123-141 142-158 159-176

Unless otherwise specifically permitted elsewhere in this Code, the overcurrent protection for conductor types marked with an obelisk () shall not exceed 15 amperes for No. 14, 20 amperes for No. 12, and 30 amperes for No. 10 copper; or 15 amperes for No. 12 and 25 amperes for No. 10 aluminum and copper-clad aluminum after any correction factors for ambient temperature and number of conductors have been applied.

TABLE 310-17. Allowable Ampacities of Single Insulated Conductors Rated 0-2000 Volts, In Free Air Based on Ambient Air Temperature of 30EC (86EF)
Size 60EC (140EF) TYPES TW UF 75EC (167EF) TYPES FEPW RH, RHW THHW THW THWN XHHW ZW Temperature Rating of Conductor, See Table 310-13 90EC (194EF) TYPES TBS, SA, SIS, FEP FEPB, MI RHH, RHW-2 THHN, THHW THW-2, THWN-2 USE-2, XHH XHHW, XHHW-2 ZW-2 60EC (140EF) TYPES TW UF 75EC (167EF) TYPES RH RHW THHW THW THWN XHHW 90EC (194EF) TYPES TBS, SA, SIS THHN, THHW THW-2, THWN-2 RHH, RHW-2 USE-2, XHH XHHW, XHHW-2 ZW-2 Size

AWG kcmil

AWG kcmil

COPPER 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 350 400 500 600 700 750 800 900 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000 ----25 30 40 60 80 105 120 140 165 195 225 260 300 340 375 420 455 515 575 630 655 680 730 780 890 980 1070 1155 ----30 35 50 70 95 125 145 170 195 230 265 310 360 405 445 505 545 620 690 755 785 815 870 935 1065 1175 1280 1385 18 24 35 40 55 80 105 140 165 190 220 260 300 350 405 455 505 570 615 700 780 855 885 920 985 1055 1200 1325 1445 1560

ALUMINUM OR COPPER-CLAD ALUMINUM ------25 35 45 60 80 95 110 130 150 175 200 235 265 290 330 355 405 455 500 515 535 580 625 710 795 875 960 CORRECTION FACTORS ------30 40 55 75 100 115 135 155 180 210 240 280 315 350 395 425 485 540 595 620 645 700 750 855 950 1050 1150 ------35 40 60 80 110 130 150 175 205 235 275 315 355 395 445 480 545 615 675 700 725 785 845 960 1075 1185 1335 ------12 10 8 6 4 3 2 1 1/0 2/0 3/0 4/0 250 300 350 400 500 600 700 750 800 900 1000 1250 1500 1750 2000

Ambient Temp. EC 21-25 26-30 31-35 36-40 41-45 46-50 51-55 56-60 61-70 71-80

For ambient temperatures other than 30EC (86EF), multiply the allowable ampacities shown above by the appropriate factor shown below. 1.08 1.0 .91 .82 .71 .58 .41 ------1.05 1.00 .94 .88 .82 .75 .67 .58 .33 --1.04 1.00 .96 .91 .87 .82 .76 .71 .58 .41 1.08 1.00 .91 .82 .71 .58 .41 ------1.05 1.00 .94 .88 .82 .75 .67 .58 .33 --1.04 1.00 .96 .91 .87 .82 .76 .71 .58 .41

Ambient Temp. EF 70-77 78-86 87-95 96-104 105-113 114-122 123-131 132-140 141-158 159-176

Unless otherwise specifically permitted elsewhere in this Code, the overcurrent protection for conductor types marked with an obelisk () shall not exceed 15 amperes for No. 14, 20 amperes for No. 12, and 30 amperes for No. 10 copper; or 15 amperes for No. 12 and 25 amperes for No. 10 aluminum and copper-clad aluminum after any correction factors for ambient temperature and number of conductors have been applied.

VOLTAGE DROP
VOLTAGE DROP OR LOSS The voltage used up while pushing the current through the conductors. C Excessive voltage drop in a circuit can cause lights to flicker and/or burn dimly, heaters to heat poorly, and motors to run hot to the extent of motor burnout or not start at all.

CAUSES OF VOLTAGE DROP Voltage drop is caused by resistance in the conductor or connections leading to the electrical load. There are many causes of resistance in the conductor path. There are four fundamental rules to remember affecting voltage drop: 1. Material - Copper is a better conductor than aluminum and will have less voltage drop than aluminum for a given length and wire size. 2. Wire Size - Larger wire sizes (diameters) will have less voltage drop than smaller wire sizes (diameters) of the same length. 3. Wire Length - Shorter wires will have less voltage drop than longer wires for the same wire size (diameter). 4. Current Being Carried - Voltage drop increases on a wire with an increase in the current flowing through the wire. VOLTAGE DROP LIMITS The National Electrical Code, Section 210-19(a), recommends limiting the voltage drop to 3% on a branch circuit to the farthest output for power, heating, or lighting. C C The fine-print note to NEC Section 215-2(b) recommends limiting voltage drop on feeder conductors to a maximum of 3%. Voltage over the combined length of both the feeder conductors and the branch circuit to the farthest outlet should not exceed 5%.

Common practice is to use 3% for feeders and 2% for branch circuits so the total does not exceed the 5% maximum.

REMEMBER C C C A 120 volt circuit should be a minimum of 120 volts at the transformer secondary and a minimum of 110 at the equipment outlet or controller. A 240 volt circuit should be a minimum of 240 volts at the transformer secondary and a minimum of 220 at the equipment outlet or controller. A 480 volt circuit should be a minimum of 480 volts at the transformer secondary and a minimum of 440 at the equipment outlet or controller.

PROCEDURE FOR MEASURING VOLTAGE DROP 1. Turn on all electrical equipment which is normally operating when voltage drop is suspected to be a problem.
Utility Transformer 120 Volts

VOLTAGE DROP
Voltage Drop: 3% X 120 = 3.6 volts 120.0 - 3.6 = 116.4 @ Service 116.4 - 3.6 = 112.8 @ Sub-Panel 112.8 - 3.6 = 109.2 @ Outlet/Controller 109.2 - 3.6 = 105.6 @ Motor Minimum: 103.5 Volts @ Motor

2. Measure voltage at Main Service Panel. It should be 233 volts or more between hot conductors and 116.4 volts or more between hot and neutral of a 120/240 volt, single phase system. If not, call the utility. 3. Measure the voltage at the service panel board with the problem circuit. It should be 225.6 volts or more between hot conductors and 112.8 volts or more between hot and neutral of a 120/240 volt, single phase system

Service Panel 116.4 Volts

Sub-Panel 112.8 Volts

Outlet Controller 109.2 Volts

Motor 105.6 Volts

4. Measure the voltage at the outlet or controller of the problem piece of equipment. It should be 218.4 volts or greater between hot conductors of a 240 volt circuit or 109.2 volts or greater between hot and neutral of a 120 volt circuit. 5. Measure the voltage at the problem piece of equipment if a motor. Motors rated for use in the US are rated for satisfactory operation down to 103.5 volts on a normal 120 nominal system and 206.5 for a nominal 240 volt system. RESULTS C C C If a problem with the voltage exists at the main service-call the utility. If voltage at main service was fine but low at service panel-check feeder from main service for problems. If voltage at service panel was fine but low at outlet or controller, check branch circuit for problems.

FORMULAS AND EXAMPLES

The size of copper conductor for any voltage drop can be determined readily from the following formulas which will be found accurate within practical limits. These formulas may be used to determine any one of the four factors if the other three are known. In applying the formula to aluminum conductors the difference in current carrying capacity and type insulation must be considered. Formulas For Single Phase Circuits (Copper):
CM ' 25 x I x L Vdrop

Where:

CM = Area of conductor in circular mills I = Single phase line current in amperes L = Length (one-way) of circuit in feet Vdrop = Voltage Drop in wire (volts)

For Three Phase Circuits (Copper):

CM ' 12.5 x I3 x 1.73 x L Vdrop ' 22 x I3 x L Vdrop

Where:

13 = average three phase line current in amperes.

For sizes of Aluminum conductors these formulas may be used and the results multiplied by 1.6 or the formulas may be modified as follows: Single Phase - Aluminum:
CM ' 25 x I x L x 1.6 40 x I x L ' Vdrop Vdrop

Three phase - Aluminum:

CM ' 22 x I3 x L x 1.6 Vdrop ' 35 x I3 x L Vdrop

Example 1 Find the size of wire to carry a load of 40 amperes at 240 volts a distance of 500 feet with 2% voltage drop. Use the formula:
25 x 40 amperes x 500 feet ' 104,167 circular mils 4.8 volts

Referring to Table showing "Data on Sizes & Weights of Conductors", this size lies between No. 1 and No. 0, so No. 0 would be the wire size selected. For aluminum, multiply 104,167 X 1.6 = 166,667 circular mils. This lies between No. 00 and No. 000, so No. 000 would be selected. Example 2 What size copper wire will be needed to carry 85 amperes a distance of 50 feet, at 230 volts and 1% voltage drop?
25 x 85 amperes x 50 feet ' 46,196 circular mils 2.3 volts

This size is between No. 4 and No. 3, so No. 3 would satisfy the requirements as far as voltage drop is concerned. Example 3 What voltage drop will result from carrying 50 amperes a distance of 250 feet on No. 8 UF copper cable?
25 x 50 amperes x 250 feet ' 18.9 volts 16,510 circular mils

(For aluminum wire, multiply by 1.6, (18.9 x 1.6 = 30.2 volts) Example 4 How far can No. 6 copper wire be used to carry a load of 30 amperes at 240 volts and keep within 1% voltage drop?
26,250 circular mils x 2.4 volts ' 84 feet 25 x 30 amperes