NEURO-BIOLOGICAL BASES OF BEHAVIOR General Psychology

Bachelor of Science in Entrepreneurship BEN21

Reporters Besario, Troy Cadigal, Eduardo Jr. Coronel, King Moises Crusit, Felix Cumigad, James Lloyd Fabre, Lindley P. Macainan, Patrick Henry Mancol, Roneil Ronquillo, Chervin

Neurotransmitters
Approximately 100 billion brain cells form groups of neurons, or nerve cells, that are arranged in networks. These neurons communicate information with one another by sending electrochemical messages from neuron to neuron, a process called neurotransmission. These electrochemical messages pass from the dendrites (projections from the cell body), through the soma or cell body, down the axon (long, extended structures), and across the synapses (gaps between cells) to the dendrites of the next neuron. In the nervous system, the electrochemical messages cross the synapses between neural cells by way of special chemical messengers called neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are the chemical substances manufactured in the neuron that aid in the transmission of information throughout the body. They either excite or stimulate an action in the cells (excitatory) or inhibit or stop an action (inhibitory). These neurotransmitters fit into specific receptor cells embedded in the membrane of the dendrite, just like a certain key shape fits into a lock. After neurotransmitters are released into the synapse and relay the message to the receptor cells, they are either transported back from the synapse to the axon to be stored for later use (reuptake) or are metabolized and inactivated by enzymes, primarily monoamine oxidase (MAO) (Lewis, 2000) (Fig. 2-3). These neurotransmitters are necessary in just synapses. Studies are beginning to show differences in the amount of some neurotransmitters available in the brains of people with certain mental disorders compared with people who have no signs of mental illness (Fig. 2-4). Major neurotransmitters have been found to play a role in psychiatric illnesses as well as actions and side effects of psychotropic drugs. Table 2-1 lists the major neurotransmitters and their actions and effects. Dopamine and serotonin have received the most attention in terms of the study and treatment of psychiatric disorders (Tecott, 2000). The following is a discussion of the major neurotransmitters that have been associated with mental disorders. DOPAMINE Dopamine, a neurotransmitter located primarily in the brain stem, has been found to be involved in the control of complex movements, motivation, cognition, and regulation of emotional responses. Dopamine is generally excitatory and is synthesized from tyrosine, a dietary amino acid. Dopamine is implicated in schizophrenia and other psychoses as well as movement disorders such as Parkinsons disease. Antipsychotic medications work by blocking dopamine receptors and reducing dopamine activity. NOREPINEPHRINE AND EPINEPHRINE Norepinephrine, the most prevalent neurotransmitter

in the nervous system, is located primarily in the brain stem and plays a role in changes in attention, learning and memory, sleep and wakefulness, and mood regulation. Norepinephrine and its derivative, epinephrine, also are known as noradrenaline and adrenaline respectively. Excess norepinephrine has been implicated in several anxiety disorders; deficits may contribute to memory loss, social withdrawal, and depression. Some antidepressants block the reuptake of norepinephrine, while others inhibit MAO from metabolizing it. Epinephrine has limited distribution in the brain but controls the fight-or-flight response in the peripheral nervous system. SEROTONIN Serotonin, a neurotransmitter found only in the brain, is derived from tryptophan, a dietary amino acid. The function of serotonin is mostly inhibitory, and it is involved in the control of food intake, sleep and wakefulness, temperature regulation, pain control, sexual behavior, and regulation of emotions. Serotonin plays an important role in anxiety and mood disorders and schizophrenia. It has been found to contribute to the delusions, hallucinations, and withdrawn behavior seen in schizophrenia. Some antidepressants block serotonin reuptake, thus leaving it available for longer in the synapse, which results in improved mood.the right proportions to relay messages across the HISTAMINE The role of histamine in mental illness is under investigation. It is involved in peripheral allergic responses, control of gastric secretions, cardiac stimulation, and alertness. Some psychotropic drugs block histamine, resulting in weight gain, sedation, and hypotension. ACETYLCHOLINE Acetylcholine is a neurotransmitter found in the brain, spinal cord, and peripheral nervous system particularly at the neuromuscular junction of skeletal muscle. It can be excitatory or inhibitory. It is synthesized from dietary choline found in red meat and vegetables and has been found to affect the sleep/wake cycle and to signal muscles to become active. Studies have shown that people with Alzheimers disease have decreased acetylcholine-secreting neurons, and people with myasthenia gravis (a muscular disorder in which impulses fail to pass the myoneural junction, which causes muscle weakness) have reduced acetylcholine receptors. GLUTAMATE Glutamate is an excitatory amino acid that, at high levels, can have major neurotoxic effects. Glutamate has been implicated in the brain damage caused by stroke, hypoglycemia, sustained hypoxia or ischemia, and some degenerative diseases such as Huntingtons or Alzheimers.

GAMMA-AMINOBUTYRIC ACID (GABA) GABA, an amino acid, is the major inhibitory neurotransmitter in the brain and has been found to modulate other neurotransmitter systems rather than to provide a direct stimulus (Shank, Smith-Swintonky, & Twyman, 2000). Drugs that increase GABA function, such as benzodiazepines, are used to treat anxiety and induce sleep

Annotate Edit Delete You are driving down the freeway, and a horn blares to your right. You immediately swerve to your left. Charlie leaves a note on the kitchen table: See you later. Have the stuff ready at 6. You know the stuff is chili with taco chips. You are dozing but you awaken instantly as your infant son makes a soft cry. What do these three events have in common? They are all everyday examples of the functioning of your nervous system, which has your body cells humming with activity nearly all the time. The nervous system is the master controlling and communicating system of the body. Every thought, action, and emotion reflects its activity. Its cells communicate by electrical and chemical signals, which are rapid and specific, and usually cause almost immediate responses. The nervous system has three overlapping functions (Figure 11.1): (1) It uses its millions of sensory receptors to monitor changes occurring both inside and outside the body. The gathered information is called sensory input. (2) It processes and interprets sensory input and decides what should be done at each momenta process called integration. (3) It causes a response, called motor output, by activating effector organs. For example, when you are driving and see a red light ahead (sensory input), your nervous system integrates this information (red light means stop), and your foot goes for the brake (motor output).

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FIGURE 11.1 The nervous systems functions.

This chapter begins with a brief overview of the organization of the nervous system. It then focuses on the functional anatomy of nervous tissue, especially that of nerve cells, or neurons, which are the key to neural communication. Organization of the Nervous System

We have only one highly integrated nervous system. However, for convenience, it can be divided into two principal parts (Figure 11.2). The central nervous system (CNS) consists of the brain and spinal cord, which occupy the dorsal body cavity. The CNS is the integrating and command center of the nervous system. It interprets sensory input and dictates motor responses based on past experience, reflexes, and current conditions. The peripheral nervous system (PNS), the part of the nervous system outside the CNS, consists mainly of the nerves (bundles of axons) that extend from the brain and spinal cord. Spinal nerves carry impulses to and from the spinal cord; cranial nerves carry impulses to and from the brain. These peripheral nerves serve as the communication lines that link all parts of the body to the CNS.

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FIGURE 11.2 Levels of organization in the nervous system. (a) Organizational chart. (b) Visceral organs (primarily located in the ventral body cavity) are served by visceral sensory fibers and by motor fibers of the autonomic nervous system. The somata (limbs and body wall) are served by motor fibers of the somatic nervous system and by somatic sensory fibers. Arrows indicate the direction of nerve impulses.

The PNS has two functional subdivisions (see Figure 11.2). The sensory, or afferent, division (afer-ent; carrying toward) consists of nerve fibers that convey impulses to the central nervous system from sensory receptors located throughout the body. Sensory fibers conveying impulses from the skin, skeletal muscles, and joints are called somatic afferent fibers (soma = body), and those transmitting impulses from the visceral organs (organs within the ventral body cavity) are called visceral afferent fibers. The sensory division keeps the CNS constantly informed of events going on both inside and outside the body. The motor, or efferent, division (efer-ent; carrying away) of the PNS transmits impulses from the CNS to effector organs, which are the muscles and glands. These impulses activate muscles to contract and glands to secrete; that is, they effect (bring about) a motor response. The motor division also has two main parts: 1. The somatic nervous system is composed of somatic motor nerve fibers (axons) that conduct impulses from the CNS to skeletal muscles. It is often referred to as the voluntary nervous system because it allows us to consciously control our skeletal muscles. 2. The autonomic nervous system (ANS) consists of visceral motor nerve fibers that regulate the activity of smooth muscles, cardiac muscles, and glands. Autonomic means a law unto itself, and because we generally cannot control such activities as the pumping of our heart or the movement

of food through our digestive tract, the ANS is also referred to as the involuntary nervous system. As indicated in Figure 11.2 and described in Chapter 14, the ANS has two functional subdivisions, the sympathetic and the parasympathetic, which typically work in opposition to each other what one subdivision stimulates, the other inhibits. [ previous page ] [ next page ]

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