Sustainable Aboriginal Housing in Canada

A Case Study Report Johann Kyser, Student Housing Intern

For the HSC-CPNet@Western Housing Intern and Scholar Programme* December 2011

*The Housing Internship and Scholar Programme is organized and run by CPNets Associate Executive Director Professor Michael Buzzelli. Foundational funding is provided by the Housing Services Corporation. The programmes overall aim is to develop Canadas housing research and policy capacity by attracting and retaining the best and the brightest in the housing sector. The programme is an intensive policy research training experience that results in the publication of original housing research. For more information on HSC research, go to www.hscorp.ca The views expressed in this paper are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the opinions of the Housing Services Corporation or CPNet.

CPNet CPNet is a not-for-profit, independent think-tank affiliated with the University of Western Ontario. www.cp-net.ca

Housing Services Corporation (HSC) Housing Services Corporation (HSC) is an independent, selfsustaining organization that delivers programs and services to Ontarios social housing sector in energy management, investments, insurance, bulk purchasing, asset management, social innovation, training and research. With its research, policy and networks unit, its investments in research and its housing internship and scholar program, it is one of the biggest contributors to social housing research in Canada. http://www.hscorp.ca

Table of Contents
Abstract ................................................................................................................. 1 Executive Summary ............................................................................................. 2 Glossary ................................................................................................................ 3 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 6 Methodology and Research Design ................................................................... 9 Literature Review ............................................................................................... 11 Seabird Island First Nation: Case Study ......................................................... 21 Saugeen First Nation: Case Study .................................................................. 35 Treaty 7 First Nations: Case Study ................................................................. 44 Conclusions and Recommendations ............................................................... 64 Recommendations for Aboriginal Housing Design .......................................... 68 Recommendations for Aboriginal Housing Policy ........................................... 69 Acknowledgements ........................................................................................... 71

Abstract
This report presents strategic recommendations for sustainable Aboriginal housing design and related policy in Canada. Research adopts a systems thinking approach, drawing not only on current housing conditions and policies, but also on broader technological, cultural and historical contexts as important considerations for design at the project level. Of particular interest is the potential of green building methods and clean technologies to address key issues prevalent in contemporary Aboriginal communities. As emerging sectors, green building and clean technologies present new challenges and opportunities. Understanding how these may be further influenced by implementation in Aboriginal contexts is central to the research objectives. Cultural design considerations are also explored for their potential to address key issues and improve current conditions, bridging gaps that have emerged between traditional and contemporary housing knowledge and practices. Specific attention is directed to appropriateness as a means of fostering identity, sense of ownership, and responsibility for the home. Findings are based on a literature review, exploratory case studies of pilot projects, and applied research in sustainable Aboriginal housing. Data collected through key informant interviews, document review and observation is subjected to stakeholder and SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities, threats) analyses, providing the basis for assessment and strategic recommendations. -Important notes: this report contributes to an area of study that is undergoing continuous development. For example, conditions in the communities studied and outcomes specific to their pilot projects may also have evolved since the initial data was collected. CMHC also recently released material on sustainable housing that could not be integrated into the original literature review.

Lastly, while all of the case studies herein were conducted with First Nations, literature and observation indicate similar issues, challenges and opportunities related to housing in other Aboriginal (Mtis and Inuit) communities. The reports exploration of green building methods, clean technologies, and cultural design considerations may therefore also prove relevant in these contexts. For inclusiveness, the term Aboriginal has been applied throughout the text.

Executive Summary
This report presents strategic recommendations for sustainable Aboriginal housing design and related policy in Canada. Findings are based on three exploratory case studies of sustainable housing pilot projects in Aboriginal communities, selected for their use of emerging green building methods and clean technologies. The cases confirm the potential of these strategies to address key issues and problematic conditions in this context, including provision of occupant health and safety, durability, and reduced operating, maintenance and replacement. The cases also highlight challenges and opportunities to implementing such strategies, including those specifically faced by Aboriginal communities. Inadequate design, insufficient economic resources and capacity, and barriers in law and policy are notable challenges. Unfamiliarity with emerging methods and technologies is also problematic, and may lead to increased costs and/or failure to realize benefits. Project success relies upon strong communication between stakeholders, careful alignment of strategies with community resources and capacity, and follow-up to determine efficacy and establish best practices. Incremental implementation may help communities to conserve resources and mitigate risk. Self-construction and education initiatives provide important means to foster awareness, responsibility, and capacity. The cases also offer important insight into cultural design considerations as a means to increase appropriateness of Aboriginal housing design. This may help to bridge gaps that have emerged between traditional and contemporary housing knowledge and practices, with potential to foster sense of identity in, and subsequent ownership and responsibility for the home.

Glossary
Aboriginal is an umbrella term that includes First Nations, Mtis, and Inuit peoples. There are over 600 distinct Aboriginal groups in Canada, for whom distinct cultural heritage is an integral part of their identity. These represent approximately 1.2 m illion people, or 3.8% of Canadas total population (Census Canada 2006). Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AANDC) formerly Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC), AANDC is the official federal body that governs relationships between Aboriginal groups and the government of Canada. Adequacy one of three indicators used by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) to measure core housing need (CHN), adequacy measures whether a residential unit is in need of significant repair, according to the tenant. INACs website (AINC-IANC.gc.ca) provides the formula: Adequate = Total Units - Replacement Required - Major Renovations Required. Affordability one of three indicators used by Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) to measure core housing need (CHN), based on whether the rental or purchase of a given residential unit is less than 30% of an individuals or households income. Affordable housing the definition of affordable housing follows that of CMHC identified above. Affordable housing is distinct from social housing, the former being a measure of cost, the latter being subsidized (Real Estate Foundation of British Columbia 2007). Affordable Housing Initiative - under the Affordable Housing Initiative (AHI), the federal government, through Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation, provides contributions to increase the supply of off- reserve affordable housing, in partnership with provinces and territories. See: http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/inpr/afhoce/fias/fias_005.cfm Appropriateness this concept surfaced in the context of Aboriginal housing in literature, case study interviews and observation. Despite this frequency, the term remains ambiguous. This is due in part to the diversity of Aboriginal contexts, which result in equally diverse definitions. One of the objectives of this study is to explore principles that may guide the concept of appropriateness, and its potential to contribute to improved housing. This discussion is related to that surrounding suitability, as described below. Canada Mortgage and Housing Corporation (CMHC) Canadas national housing agency. Certificates of Possession (CPs) are documents issued under the Indian Act and administered by Band Councils which permit individuals to occupy and use on-reserve land. Clean technology(-ies) methods for essential service provision (such as electricity, heat, potable water, and waste water treatment) that offer reduced environmental impact relative to conventional methods.

Core Housing Need (CHN) employed by CMHC, core housing need is a model that accounts for housing conditions in Canada. A household is said to be in core housing need if it falls below one or more standards of adequacy, affordability, or suitability (CMHC 2002). First Nations Aboriginal peoples who are of non-mixed Aboriginal heritage (non-Mtis), and not Inuit. Feed-in-Tariff (FiT) monetary compensation for excess energy that is generated by alternative sources and fed onto an existing energy grid. Green building describes methods which prioritize reduces environmental impact and/or occupant health and safety. Indian and Northern Affairs Canada (INAC) the former title for what is now Aboriginal Affairs and Northern Development Canada (AAND), INAC/AAND is the official federal body that governs relationships between Aboriginal groups and the government of Canada. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ) is used to describe the quality of indoor environments relative to human health, based on factors such as humidity, off-gassing and other particulates. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive tool that examines all stages of a projects, in order to assess its environmental impact. LCA can be applied to a variety of projects, from consumer products to skyscrapers. In the context of the built environment, LCA includes examination of relationships between material production, transportation, implementation, and decommissioning, environmental impact, and human health. First Nations Market Housing Fund a $300 million dollar fund established by the federal government in 2007, intended to support financing arrangements for housing developments on reserve and settlement lands. Maximum Unit Price (MUP) is a policy employed by CMHC which limits the amount of capital that can be spent per unit in a given geographic region. Ministerial Loan Guarantee (MLG) provided by AANDC, a ministerial loan guarantee allows individuals and communities to secure housing loans despite the fact that they cannot give a lender the rights to the property. National Building Code is the federal document which outlines requirements for design and construction of new buildings and renovations of existing buildings. Specific requirements pertain to safety, health, accessibility, and fire and structural protection. Ontario First Nations Technical Services Corporation - a corporation responsible for providing technical advice and services to 134 First Nations in Ontario. R2000 a voluntary technical performance standard for residential construction, administered by Natural Resources Canada, delivered through service organizations across the country. The aim of R2000 is to promote the use of cost-effective energy-efficient building practices and technologies. Section 95 CMHCs program for on-reserve non-profit housing provision.

Social housing subsidized housing developments. Many on-reserve homes will fall under this category. Some communities have rent-to-own programs in place, which may or may not be subsidized. Social housing is distinct from affordable housing, the former denoting subsidization, the latter being a measure of cost (Real Estate Foundation of British Columbia 2007). Suitability one of three indicators used by CMHC to measure core housing need (CHN see affordability, adequacy), suitability indicates whether a unit has a sufficient number of bedrooms relative to occupancy and gender, based on the National Occupancy Standard of Canada. This research is seeking a more comprehensive definition of suitability or appropriateness, and explores how cultural considerations may contribute to this end. Sustainability in this context, sustainability is applied to human activity. In March of 1987, the Brundtland Commission of the United Nations defined sustainable development as that which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs (United Nations 1987). Contemporary discussion surrounding sustainability also includes a triple-bottom-line approach (TBL) that is, the inclusion of environmental, economic, and social spheres. Aboriginal concepts of sustainability experienced in this research center on a similar theme, including seven generations as the temporal basis in which our current actions ought to be grounded. Volatile Organic Compounds (VOCs) are found in various human-made products, including finishes and paints used in interior decoration. These compromise indoor air quality (IAQ) with negative outcomes for occupant health.

Introduction
This report presents strategic recommendations for sustainable Aboriginal housing design and related policy. Green building methods and clean technologies present opportunity to address key issues in this context by prioritizing occupant health and safety, reducing costs of operations and maintenance (O&M), and reducing environmental impact. Simultaneously, as emerging sectors these methods and technologies present new challenges. Understanding how challenges and opportunities may be influenced by implementation in Aboriginal contexts is central to the research objectives. Absence of cultural design considerations in contemporary Aboriginal housing has also been identified as a potential cause of housing failures, undermining sense of ownership and subsequent responsibility for the home. Such considerations are thus explored for their potential to impact current conditions, by increasing appropriateness and bridging gaps between traditional and contemporary knowledge and practice.

Recommendations are derived from a literature review, applied research and multiple exploratory case studies of pilot projects in sustainable Aboriginal housing. Case studies were selected based on their implementation of green building methods and clean technologies, in order to:

Confirm and compare key issues and direct causes in specific contexts; Identify methods and technologies that were chosen to address these; Determine whether these methods and technologies proved effective; Identify what factors influenced success, including but not limited to those that emerge as a result of Aboriginal contexts.

Data from the applied research and case studies is subjected to stakeholder and SWOT (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats) analyses, providing the basis for strategic design and policy recommendations.

Rationale and Significance Despite Canadas status as a developed nation, many Aboriginal peoples in this country experience significant socioeconomic disadvantage that has persisted for decades. Sub-standard housing conditions are pervasive in Aboriginal communities across the country, within and beyond reserve lands, in rural and urban settings. The high social, environmental and economic costs of the status quo are unsustainable. Mould, fire, and crowding are national epidemics, driving negative outcomes in terms of individual and community health and well-being (INAC 2004, CREA/IHC 2006); short building life spans lead to waste of valuable community resources; and communities are unable to meet housing needs, despite significant funding from the federal government. Where housing is recognized as a stabilizer and facilitator for individual and community development (CMHC 2010), improved frameworks for Aboriginal housing are thus of real value and significance. Research in this area is also timely, as the federal government seeks to download responsibility for Aboriginal and other social housing initiatives to the provinces. While research supports a regional approach to determining issues and strategies, historic absence and ambiguity of responsibility for Aboriginal housing may also be perpetuated or worsened. Responsibility and accountability for Aboriginal housing are urgently needed, in order to address the severe socioeconomic disadvantage that continues to challenge individuals and communities. Research Questions How can emerging green building methods, clean technologies and cultural design considerations contribute to more sustainable Aboriginal housing in Canada? What challenges and opportunities accompany these methods and technologies, and how might they be further affected in this context? What design strategies and related policies can support positive change?

Objectives Provide a systems-oriented account of the drivers influencing Aboriginal housing, including historical background, policies and key issues; Identify existing challenges and opportunities to implementing green building and clean technologies; Conduct case studies of pilot projects in sustainable Aboriginal housing, to explore the influence of Aboriginal contexts on these methods and technologies; Contribute to the dialog on cultural appropriateness of Aboriginal housing design; and Provide strategic recommendations and identify areas for future research.

Methodology and Research Design

Aboriginal housing in Canada is an extremely complex phenomenon involving multiple stakeholders, and relationships occurring across different scales in both space and time. This report employs methods based in contemporary design thinking, systems thinking, case study methodology and strategic analysis. The intent is to account for this complexity identifying the drivers that influence Aboriginal housing, as well as potential means to react to these at the project level.

A comprehensive literature review identifies key issues, relationships, root and direct causes; existing challenges to implementing green building methods and clean technologies; and additional considerations that may emerge in Aboriginal contexts. The review includes a variety of sources to account for different perspectives. Findings are further triangulated through preliminary expert interviews.

Pilot projects of sustainable Aboriginal housing are the subject of qualitative exploratory case studies. The cases include multi-family developments in Seabird Island and Saugeen First Nations. Data for the cases is gathered through observation, review of project related documentation, multiple key informant interviews. Key informants were selected for their professional experience related to Aboriginal housing, including but not limited to the firsthand knowledge of the cases themselves. Interviews are used to confirm findings from the literature review; determine capacity within the case communities; identify current conditions and subsequent issues; explore how the pilot projects sought to address these; and determine whether specific approaches were successful relative to project objectives. Variables examined include sources of funding, project costs, building methods and technologies deployed, and project outcomes. Document review and observations are used to triangulate data from the interviews.

A third case is also considered, based on applied research in the design-build of a 1000ft single-family solar-powered home, developed in collaboration with Treaty 7 First Nations. Data from this case was collected through interviews, and direct participation in the project through one year of project management and one year of Aboriginal relations management.
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Data from the case studies and applied research is subjected to stakeholder and SWOT analyses (strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats), elucidating the challenges and opportunities experienced when implementing green building methods and clean technologies in Aboriginal contexts. The literature review, preliminary interviews, and analyses of cases and applied research are combined to derive strategic recommendations for sustainable Aboriginal housing design and related policy.

This methodology has its limitations. For example, it does not provide a comprehensive audit of the cases, wherein all costs and outcomes are analyzed. Such an audit falls beyond the scope of research, particularly where formal postoccupancy review is outstanding in all of the cases. Here, Aboriginal methodology literature suggests that such review may be best conducted from within the community due to sensitivities surrounding research activity, as well as potential obstacles that might emerge through differing interpretations of language and meaning. It is also important to note that performance outcomes often represent moving targets costs and standards are continually changing, and so must be evaluated by the most recent data available. With these limitations in mind, the research does offer value through a qualitative approach to the problem, identifying issues, causes, challenges, opportunities, and important strategic considerations.
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Smith,1999. Simultaneously, conducting this type of assessment from within a community presents its own challenges, where trust and communication between various groups may be undermined by corruption or other abuses of power.

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Literature Review
The literature review draws on journal articles, media articles, census data, reports, studies and texts (both fiction and non-) to explore existing knowledge surrounding the research question. This review is structured according to overlapping thematic areas:

1. The histories and cultures of Aboriginal peoples in and before Canada; 2. Contemporary Aboriginal housing frameworks, models, key issues and conditions 3. Challenges and opportunities to green building and clean technologies; and 4. Aboriginal cultural considerations that have emerged in recent discourse and practice.

Due to limitations on the length of this report, the entirety of literature considered could not be covered in this review. The review is thus intended to provide only a preliminary foundation for the concepts being examined. While the works cited are central to the current state of research, additional materials listed in the bibliography are also valuable to a more comprehensive account. It is also important to note that throughout the literature reviewed, no single report synthesized the broad systemic drivers influencing Aboriginal housing with project level strategies for achieving more sustainable design and policy outcomes. For this reason, this paper offers novel and important insight for achieving positive change. 1. The Histories and Cultures of Aboriginal Peoples in and Before Canada

The troubled history of Aboriginal peoples in Canada is a root cause of contemporary housing problems. Colonial policies and legislation have contributed to the destruction of Aboriginal economies and social structures; the appropriation of land and resources; external control of individual legal and financial status; the imposition of foreign organizational structures that foster conflict within and between Bands; the repression of cultural practices such as language and ceremony; the forced removal of children from their homes and communities; and dependency on the federal government for housing, infrastructure and social

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assistance funding. This legacy continues to shape contemporary dialog and practice; sensitivity and mistrust permeate relationships between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal peoples, in turn impacting the many housing outcomes that rely on these relationships (Royal Commission, 1996). Disrupted cultural traditions specific to housing include transfer of knowledge, ownership and responsibility. Further, new foreign systems that were imposed socioeconomic, political and technological were not properly translated or interpreted. This has driven a knowledge gap in Aboriginal communities in terms of both building science and housing market function. Many of these communities now demonstrate reduced capacity and resources, and experience a sense of marginalization, dispossession, and disempowerment (INAC 2004, Royal Commission 1996, CREA/IHC 2006). Occupying special status in this discussion, the Indian Act is the primary prohibitive factor in the development of successful housing programs on Ind ian lands (CREA/IHC 2006). The Act presents complex barriers to private ownership on reserve lands, undermining market function and financing. As the original territorial agreements between the Federal Government and First Nations, numerous Treaties also influence housing and associated infrastructure through limited land base, location, quality, and access to local resources. The most intense conflicts between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal people center on the use and control of land [as] the essential substructure of political, economic and social development (Royal Commission, 1996). Varied interpretation of laws and policies lead to conflict surrounding responsibility for housing, which indirectly contributes degradation of housing assets.
4 3

Although some of the problems that follow from the Indian Act and Treaties are specific to reserve lands, their impact has reached well beyond these physical boundaries, affecting Aboriginal people living within and beyond reserve lands in both rural and urban settings. Identity, self-determination, equity, and sense of home, community and belonging remain critical challenges, and thus deserve consideration in any housing initiative intended for Aboriginal peoples (Royal Commission, 1996). Beyond these considerations, Aboriginal housing outside of
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Royal Commission, 1996. Specific policy-based and legislative documents contributing to this legacy include the British North American Act, the Royal Proclamation, the Constitution Act and the Indian Act.
3 4

Based on oral teachings of Dr. Reg Crowshoe, former Chief of the Piikani Nation.

It is critical to acknowledge that the diversity of Aboriginal groups in Canada translates into a diversity of experience of these phenomena. In practice, despite common themes, each community must be recognized as a unique entity and treated accordingly.

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reserve lands also faces the many challenges associated with conventional social housing initiatives. 2. Contemporary Aboriginal housing Frameworks, Models, Key Issues and Conditions

The Royal Commission on Aboriginal Peoples aptly summarizes the contemporary housing crisis, stating that conditions pose an unacceptable threat to th e health of Aboriginal peoples and reinforce feelings of marginalization and hopelessness (Royal Commission, 1996). Specific conditions relevant to this research include but are not limited to housing shortages, overcrowding, substandard building quality and building disrepair, high rates of mould and fire, challenges to affordability, and inadequate access to essential services. Estimates vary, with the need for tens of thousands of significant renovations and new unit construction at a National level.
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Problematic conditions are highly interrelated in their existence and outcomes as illustrated in Figure 2 on page 20. The status quo is unsustainable from social, economic and environmental perspectives:

Individual and community health, safety and well-being are below acceptable standards; Energy inefficiency and wasted materials drive negative environmental impacts; and The economic cost of operating, maintaining and replacing homes results in unmanageable debt and unmet need.

These conditions and their relationship to negative socioeconomic outcomes are further documented in numerous government reports, and journal and media articles. See Beavon 2009, CMHC 2002/2010, CREA/IHC 2006, Health Canada 2005, INAC 2004, Robson 2008, and the Auditor Generals Report 2011.

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Desired performance improvements for contemporary Aboriginal housing thus include but are not limited to promoting health and safety, structural durability, functional flexibility, and affordability. Beyond these outcomes, strategies for enhancing capacity are also highly desirable, as a means to garner support, foster a sense of ownership, and move communities towards independence and selfdetermination. These potential improvements are used to guide the exploratory case studies.

Here, it is important to note that beyond historic root causes, current conditions are a direct result of contemporary housing policy and subsequent design options (or lack thereof). From its introduction around the mid-20 century well into the mid1990s, housing on reserve lands was centrally controlled by INAC and CMHC. A minimal range of options were available to meet the significant variety of needs and interests that follow from Aboriginal diversity, including cultural, geographic, and socioeconomic factors. Numerous housing failures can be linked to this limited approach, including rapid degradation and related health issues. While the 1996 on-reserve housing policy was created to deliver more control to First Nations, it was not applied consistently, and has been identified as largely unsuccessful. Key challenges remain in terms of responsibility, accountability, transparency, complexity of process, and centralized decision-making by government bodies (Status Reports of the Auditor General 2003/2011). Current evaluative frameworks such as CMHCs Core Housing Need (CHN) also contribute to policy shortcomings, wherein:
th

Affordability data is not available for housing on reserve lands; It is weak in rural and remote contexts, where incomes are generally lower and market functions differ significantly (CMHC 2003); It implicitly assumes that with sufficient income, a household can resolve housing difficulties (CMHC 2003); Adequacy (need for significant repairs of a housing unit) is determined by the tenant, who may not be qualified to conduct such an assessment; and Suitability is narrowly defined as the number of bedrooms in a unit based on Canadas National Occupancy Standards.

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In addition to the CHN framework, CHMCs Maximum Unit Price model (MUP) prescribes an initial capital cost based on the number of bedrooms in a unit. This indirectly limits initial design options and subsequently influences quality. The model also results in biases towards cost considerations over actual community needs. While there are allowances within the MUP for increased expenditure in order to achieve specific performance outcomes, the full range and availability of features that qualify cannot be readily identified (CMHC 1994, Shaw et. al. 2007). Additionally, research has uncovered modesty requirements certain features that cannot be included in housing developments on reserve lands regardless of cost. While the rationale for these requirements is unknown, one suggested these might create the appearance of equitable treatment across different Aboriginal communities, and also to avoid perception of high costs relative to Aboriginal housing portfolios. Specific modesty requirements identified from the 1980s include basic features such as fireplaces, microwaves, and garages. Initial correspondence with CMHC suggests that these requirements still exist in some form today, though their correlation with the features identified has not yet been confirmed.

Funding approvals for renovations, new unit construction, and land improvement currently remain in the domain of CMHC and INAC, controlled through vehicles such as Ministerial Loan Guarantees (MLGs), Section 95 allocations, and Certificates of Possession (CPs). Literature and preliminary interviews indicate resulting complexity, ambiguity of process, and unmanageable debt loads. These vehicles are explored in the context of the case studies, in order to further account for their impact on Aboriginal housing.

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3. Green Building and Clean Technologies: Challenges and Opportunities

As emerging sectors, green building and clean technologies present both new challenges and new opportunities. Literature points to unfamiliarity as one of the foremost challenges, with the potential to negatively influence project outcomes through:
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Ambiguity of effectiveness in cost and performance; Inflated estimates for services or products;
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Improper installation, maintenance or replacement; and/or Increased complexity in funding and certification. (Proscio 2008, Real Estate Foundation of British Columbia 2007)

Unfamiliarity may present additional challenges in Aboriginal contexts, where capacity in conventional methods and technologies is already insufficient to address substandard conditions. Simultaneously, there is an opportunity for Aboriginal communities to leapfrog over the inefficient, unhealthy, and costly methods that have occupied homebuilding of their non-Aboriginal counterparts in recent times.

Integrated design processes and specially designed programs are identified as means to overcome unfamiliarity. These can be used to establish and communicate project objectives and responsibilities; educate key stakeholders such as occupants and building managers on unique maintenance and replacement needs; and develop capacity-building measures. Such processes and programs may also help to overcome external stakeholders unfamiliarity with aspects of history, culture and lifestyle relevant to contemporary Aboriginal housing design. Literature also highlights the importance of comprehensive visioning and committed industry partners to achieving long-term success.

Emerging studies in life cycle assessment point to building material selection as an important part of improving environmental sustainability, including not only direct
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For example, environmental impact of new materials and technologies may not be evident until they have been in the market for some time. They may also exert substantial influence on a projects environmental impact and economic feasibility, through recycling and/or retrofitting potential.(Thormark 2002/2006, Blengini 2009) These benefits are particularly important in remote areas where supply chains represent a challenge to availability and cost of materials and their transportation and/or storage. Such complex interrelationships highlight the importance of life cycle assessment (LCA) and cradle-to-cradle housing design.
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For example, IAQ benefits will be lost if low-VOC finishes are replaced with conventional ones.

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and indirect environmental impacts through all phases, but determining options for re-use, recycling, repurposing and retrofitting (Thormark 2002/2006, Blengini 2009). Demand-side energy conservation and efficiency are also widely acknowledged as low hanging fruit for realizing O&M savings and reducing environmental impact in residential design.

The potential value of alternative energy projects should also not be discounted. While these may require higher capital investment than efficiency and conservation measures, they also demonstrate potential for O&M savings and reduced environmental impact. Further, with appropriate policy and funding support, such projects may provide Aboriginal communities with a valuable means to autonomy of service provision; independence from fossil fuels, and associated logistics and price volatility; and even revenue generation to support future initiatives (INAC 2010). Revolving loans and community level feed-in-tariffs (micro-FiTs) are among the innovations that have been used to alleviate costs, facilitate realization of longterm benefits, and incentivize valuable partnerships with financial institutions and service providers (CREA/IHC 2006, INAC 2010, Ontario Green Energy Act).

4. Aboriginal Cultural Considerations in Recent Discourse and Practice

The diversity of Aboriginal peoples in Canada includes significant variation of historic, cultural and geographic contexts. The goal of this section therefore, is not to establish a universal set or model, but rather to explore examples found in contemporary discourse. Parallels observed in different contexts do suggest however, that these examples may be used as initial points of departure for future research and design (Dobie and Seniuc 2003, INAC 2010, Memmott 2008, Shaw et. al. 2007, Dalla Costa, n.d.).

The exploration of cultural design considerations responds in part to a gap in the literature: cultural appropriateness appears in different contexts, including discussion on the form and function of actual housing units. In common language, the term may be interchanged with similar ones such as suitability. This can be problematic given the latters specific role as an indicator within the CHN framework. Beyond this use however, neither term is well-defined relative to Aboriginal housing. The review thus explores cultural design considerations as a foundation for expanding on the concept of appropriateness through the case studies. The objective is threefold: 17

1. To further develop a sense of how cultural appropriateness might be defined; 2. To explore whether related considerations were included in the case studies; and 3. To explore whether and how their inclusion or absence might affect outcomes of form and function.

Worldview is often considered central to the identities and cultures of Aboriginal peoples, and is frequently characterized by collaborative relationships with the natural order. This is indicative in part of pre-contact lifestyles, wherein relationships with local resources and other people were integral to Aboriginal existence. Collaboration was thus frequently embedded in the value systems of these peoples as a sort of survival mechanism. The degree to which such values remain intact today varies from one community to the next, as a result of varied experiences of historic and contemporary forces (King 2003, Highway 1998). Therefore, interest in or desire to include worldview in residential design will also vary significantly.
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Aboriginal worldview may be expressed through residential design, for example in the use of traditional building forms and principles; local, natural and/or reused (recycled/repurposed) materials; orientation of buildings relative to natural features; type and arrangement of functional spaces; connection to the exterior through features such as windows, skylights, doors, and intermediate spaces; and/or use of local and/or renewable sources for essential service provision.

Beyond fostering a sense of identity and cultural connection, such features may offer additional benefits. For example, use of local materials may also incur lower transportation costs and reduce associated emissions. Alternately, desired outcomes may be at odds with each other. For example, although connection to the land may be fostered by expansive windows, these also represent challenges to energy efficiency and consequent operating costs. The potential for opposing objectives highlights the importance of clearly communicating these, and establishing appropriate strategies in the design process.

The UNESCO World Heritage Center at Head-Smashed-In Buffalo Jump provides a comprehensive account of plains peoples harmonious relationship with the buffalo, which was an essential source of food, shelter and tools for thousands of years.

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Aboriginal lifestyles may also contribute to unique functional needs and interests. Examples from the literature include alternative options for food preparation and storage, as well as gathering space for family and community. Flexibility of spatial function is also identified as a way to respond to crowding, changing family needs, and/or high rates of turnover and transition (Shaw et. al. 2007). Traditional forms such as the Tipi and Long House may also act as a an expression of identity, values and practices, while also contributing to function that is grounded in Aboriginal identities and practices (Dalla Costa n.d.)

To design Aboriginal housing without acknowledging the aforementioned contextual factors runs the risk of producing band-aid solutions that is, projects or programs that do not adequately respond to root and direct causes. Positive change therefore relies upon on a holistic and sustainable approach. The overlapping areas reviewed here mark critical considerations for improving contemporary Aboriginal housing, and will be explored further through the case studies. Figure 1 represents the conceptual framework that emerged from the literature review and subsequent research. Figure 1: Aboriginal Housing Relationships Across Scales
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Further risk emerges as a result of uninformed perspectives, through the potential perpetuation of ignorance, stereotypes, racism, and externally imposed solutions that have historically undermined positive change. King 2003 Chapters 2 and 5 highlight the importance of combating these historically significant social forces.

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Figure 2: Aboriginal Housing Interrelated Conditions, Causes and Feedbacks

Figure 3: Map of Case Studies

1 Seabird Island First Nation 2 Saugeen First Nation 3 Treaty 7 First Nations

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Seabird Island First Nation: Case Study Background, Capacity, Conditions and Funding

Seabird Island First Nation is an independent community within the Sto:lo Nation, located southeast of Agassiz on the lower mainland of British Columbia (see Figure 3 on page 24).
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At the time this research was conducted, informants indicated

there were approximately 210 homes in the community, with a shortage of roughly 50 units. The Nation was constructing 12 new units, and renovating 27, which represents approximately double their annual average, made possible in part by CEAP funding described below. A comprehensive physical plan was also being undertaken by the Band management, including demographics, GIS studies, and housing strategy development.

Problematic housing conditions in the Seabird Island First Nation community include substandard buildings, mould, crowding and high rates of occupant transition. Informants identified inadequate specifications and funding as key drivers of substandard buildings. They perceive the primary cause of mould to be leakage, as a result of occupants leaving hoses connected throughout the winter. This leads to excess moisture in the home that often goes unreported and unresolved. Crowding is identified as a result of housing shortages, which stem from insufficient resources and backlog. Additional occupancy pressure is created by members returning to the community without access to their own units, resulting in as many as 7 people residing in a 2-bedroom unit. The previously unidentified phenomenon of under-crowding was also identified in this case, as challenge to optimal use of housing assets. Multiple informants confirmed that beyond these direct causes, contemporary housing problems have evolved in part from contact and colonization; imposition of foreign social, governance and ownership structures, and restrictions on access to and use of land and resources were cited as underlying problems.

Capacity for housing within Seabird Island First Nation includes community college programs in plumbing, carpentry, painting and wallboard installation. The housing department is certified to conduct home inspections, and has recently completed inspecting all homes in the community seen as a critical step to identifying

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The existence of Seabird Island as an independent Nation within the greater Sto:lo is indicative of contemporary sociopolitical complexity surrounding Aboriginal peoples in this case demonstrating a First Nation within another First Nation, within Canada. Such complexity presents significant challenges to improving Aboriginal housing, where histories and sociopolitical structures are not always well documented or understood and related issues of authority, responsibility and accountability are unclear.

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problems and needs. Insufficient funding, high rates of managerial turnover, understaffed administration, and lack of specialized trades and professions were cited as current capacity challenges. High turnover is attributed in part to lack of awareness of and/or unpreparedness for housing management responsibilities and scope of work. Understaffing is attributed to lack of resources, with subsequent multi-tasking undermining individual and community ability to sufficiently address housing and broader issues. The Nations housing department has developed and is enhancing a Housing 101 program. The objective is to educate occupants on key maintenance issues, with preventative action towards mould as the primary focus. The long-term goal is to gradually shift maintenance responsibility away from the housing department, except in areas of health, safety and plumbing. Various methods used include open houses, discussions at community meetings, monthly newsletters and flyers, inhome education and lists of tenant responsibilities. Although no formal assessment of results has been undertaken, informants felt the program had successfully contributed to reduced maintenance needs. Looking forward, they hope it will expand to include occupant perceptions of and behavior towards home systems and appliances. Funding for Seabird Island First Nations housing typically comes from INAC, administered through CMHCs section 95. Interviewees indicated that the MUP for the region is approximately $80,000-$100,000 for a single bedroom unit. They also indicated that these funds are intended to cover not only construction costs but also servicing and site development. The amount is viewed as insufficient to meet individual project needs as well as overall demand. Further, accompanying specifications result in substandard buildings that dont last. If these are not adhered to however, no funding is granted. High interest rates and resulting debt are perceived as further undermining the effectiveness of Section 95 subsidies. Funding cycles were also identified as problematic, where resources are often granted in the rainy season, creating logistical challenges for implementation. Overall, resources are spread thinly across administration and financing, forcing the maintenance department to scale back programs. Only the most critical problems are addressed, with neglect of regular maintenance needs fueling widespread deterioration.

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First Nations specific resources allocated within Canadas Economic Act ion Plan (CEAP) were identified as a valuable opportunity. These were recently used in several mould remediation projects and other renovations, as well as over 19 furnace and hot water tank replacements, with long-term benefits in the range of 25 years. Seabird Island First Nation has a rent program in place intended to cover maintenance, but informants indicated it is not sufficient to this end, and rental arrears remain a challenge. They have also recently signed onto the First Nations Market Housing Fund, and hope this will contribute to improvements in housing and related capacity. Seabird Island First Nation: Sustainable Housing Pilot Project Description In 2002, CMHC and INAC approached the Seabird Island Chief and Council, to gain access to the community, and determine their interest in participating in a sustainable housing pilot project. Resources would include contributions from INAC/CMHC Section 95, CEAP, Band resources, and the private sector. The initial concept was to build a single unit that would integrate multiple green building methods and clean technologies, providing a reference point for future housing initiatives.

An integrated planning process followed the approval to move forward. Community representation was wide and intergenerational, and complemented by numerous participants from public and private sectors. A shift to a multi-unit design was accepted, in order to demonstrate consequent reductions in land requirements and related costs of site development and servicing. Increased objectives for environmental performance were driven by the community, as was an increase of per-unit square footage beyond MUP specifications. A self-construction model emerged as a strategy for capacity building. The objectives of the self-construction model were to:

Learn to implement new methods and technologies; Foster community pride, ownership, and trust between stakeholders; Keep resources within the community, and use them more efficiently.

The Seabird Island First Nation pilot project was opened in 2004 with a ceremonial blessing involving community spiritual and political leaders. The development is comprised of four multi-storey buildings, totaling seven units in a combination of duplex and triplex configurations, which are oriented in a south facing semi-circle. The multi-storey approach diverged from the original concept of a traditional long 23

house (a low-lying structure) in order to facilitate technologies and flexibility measures outlined below. Duplex and triplex configurations were selected to foster long-term occupancy, given the developments anticipated lifespan of 75-100 years. A circular medicinal garden was installed at the centre of the development. Four Totem poles were positioned at the cardinal directions surrounding the garden, with animals on each pole representing important community values and teachings. The project also uses CMHCs flexhousing concepts , allowing adaptation according to changing needs, thereby fostering optimal and long-term occupancy. Specifically, the multi-storey units have been designed to accommodate retrofitting for changes in spatial function, additional mechanical systems, and separate entrances.
12 11

Slab-on-grade construction allows barrier-free accessibility of ground-

level areas. Independent units on different floors may thus be created, for example, to facilitate multi-generational occupancy, with the grandparents living on the ground floor while parents and grandchildren occupy a separate unit above. The effectiveness of these measures remains untested to date the community had not undertaken major changes to the units in the first 7 years of occupancy. Some of the projects objectives and strategies demonstrate overlap between social, economic and environmental outcomes. For example, reclaimed materials were purchased at lower cost while also reducing impacts associated with manufacturing or processing. Alternative energy features that were designed to alleviate operating costs and emissions also resonated with traditional values. Relationships between goals, objectives and strategies are summarized in Table 1.

11 12

See http://www.cmhc-schl.gc.ca/en/co/buho/flho/index.cfm

The aforementioned identification of under-crowding in this case provides additional justification for inclusion of flexibility measures.

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Figure 4: Seabird Island First Nation Sustainable Housing Pilot Project a) Site Plan

Images courtesy of Rob Seniuc and Broadway Architects

b) Townhouse Units

Images courtesy of Rob Seniuc and Broadway Architects

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c) Circular Garden

Images courtesy of Rob Seniuc and Broadway Architects

d) Single Family Unit

Images courtesy of Rob Seniuc and Broadway Architects

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Table 1: Summary of Goals, Objectives and Strategies Goal Ensure occupant health & safety Objective Reduce mould, provide IAQ, durability Strategy Formaldehyde-free low-VOC insulation and finishing, paperless drywall Durable materials, high performance envelope: polished concrete radiant floor, metal roof, vinyl window frames, rain screen Approximately 4kW of wind power, solar air roof, geo-exchange South-facing orientation for solar exposure: passive heating, preheating water Double insulation, efficient mechanical systems, lighting, plumbing fixtures, appliances, radiant floor, windows Site graded for storm water absorption, use of drought-tolerant plant materials Reclaimed yellow cedar telephone poles used for interior and exterior poles and beams, plastic wood made from recycled bottles used in interior finishing See durability and efficiency measures above Alternative energy: approximately 4kW wind power, geo-exchange, solar thermal/air Multi-generational community input in design Used local labour in construction See alternative energy reflects local values Opening ceremony Medicinal herb garden, carvings acknowledge community values Guided by CMHCs flex housing concepts, multi-purpose adaptable floor plan Barrier-free slab-on-grade ground level units Potential for retrofit of separate multi-storey access and additional mechanical systems

Minimize environmental impact

Use alternative sources of energy Increase energy/water efficiency Use repurposed materials

Reduced O&M and replacement costs

Longer maintenance cycle Reduce dependence on hydro through alternative energy sources, energy/water efficiency

Respond to cultural considerations, demographics

Build capacity, sense of ownership, pride, trust Reflect local values, needs, interests Provide flexibility, adaptability to meet changing occupant needs

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Seabird Island First Nation: Sustainable Housing Pilot Project Analysis Seabird Island First Nations sustainable housing pilot project provides a wealth of data to consider. The projects objectives were comprehensive, targeting social, economic, and environmental outcomes. Several opportunities were capitalized on, resulting in an attractive development that addressed certain community values and needs, and provided many lessons learned. Simultaneously, challenges experienced on this project confirm and add to findings from the literature review. Some of these undermined the success of the initiative, including but not limited to: Gaps in communication surrounding objectives and outcomes; Lack of comprehensive auditing, resulting in ambiguity of total cost and effectiveness; Lack of follow-up from key external stakeholders, compromising capacity building; and Unforeseen increases in cost due to unfamiliarity and/or complexity. From the outset, project objectives included integrating a suite of technologies, some of which were unproven in terms of effectiveness and cost. Multiple informants from both within and beyond the community suggested that complexity of this approach was driven by external stakeholders and that, with all due respect to them, it would have been beneficial to undertake a simplification exercise early in the design process.

It is also unclear whether various options and their perceived benefits and risks were clearly understood, and whether these were in turn made explicit to the community. One informant external to the community estimated significant savings from the multi-unit approach, including reduced infrastructure costs of $250,000 and reduced land costs of $300,000 - $400,000. Interview data suggests a communication gap in this area: these benefits were not identified by key informants within the community, and prevailing sentiment is that a smaller and less ambitious project might have been a better way to start.

In-kind contributions from private sector partners were viewed as invaluable to the project, including donations of materials, system components, and services. Simultaneously these contributions undermined an accurate sense of actual project costs. Informants estimate these were much higher than anticipated $150 per square foot or more, which is at least double the initial target. Further, they believe

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this is the reason for a relative lack of follow-up from CMHC and INAC that the demonstration was simply too expensive to repeat. One external informant suggests that the initial target is simply not realistic for providing adequate housing, especially when this is expected to cover site and servicing costs.

Some partnerships with external stakeholders also resulted in dependency upon their expertise for maintenance, monitoring, repeat installation, and/or realization of benefits associated with specific technologies. Several of these relationships failed, directly undermining community capacity in these areas. The projects wind turbines are a prime example of this dependence. This installation was the subject of the first small-scale feed-in-tariff (micro-FiT) in the province of British Columbia, and so required the support of high level champions in provincial politics and service provision. Informants estimated that the cost of the requisite grid connection exceeded conventional hydro hook-ups by up to 1000%. Of the multiple turbines installed, one featured a new horizontal orientation that had not been locally tested. Unable to survive heavy local wind loads, the device was blown apart, and never reassembled or replaced, as the manufacturer went out of business. Anticipated benefits from the other turbines including reduced operating costs and revenue generation were also not realized. Accounts of the reasons for this vary.

Outcomes of the geo-exchange earth tube system were the subject of additional problems and communication gaps. Despite high costs and lengthy excavation requirements, informants still identified this as possibly the most successful and promising technology. Simultaneously, research conducted by an external stakeholder points to multiple failures. Firstly contamination from soil during installation had the potential to lead to mould, and it appears that this fact was never relayed to the community. Secondly, energy requirements for circulating heat exceeded the value of the heat being captured by this and other systems. Although this was expressed in a post-occupancy assessment, the community indicated that they were unable to interpret this report. Further confounding the matter, water tanks that were installed as part of the system were far more costly than conventional units, and had to be replaced inside of their projected lifespan. The designer of this system also went out of business, again undermining community capacity relative to this system.

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Interviews suggest that community dissatisfaction with project outcomes is exacerbated by these capacity-building failures. While project implementation did successfully integrate local carpentry and other labour, the requirements for maintaining, monitoring, and analyzing advanced technological systems exceeded community resources and skill sets; requisite knowledge transfer and training had not been realized in the first 7 years of occupancy. Data suggests that informants may associate these failures not only with technological complexity and/or lack of knowledge transfer, but also with the scope of the multi-unit approach. Such association could negatively impact receptivity towards a multi-unit strategy in future housing developments, thereby influencing other areas such as land base and infrastructure. Indeed, receptivity of the multi-unit approach is further influenced by a common preference for single family-units within Aboriginal communities.
13

Interview data suggests that perceptions of densification in the

Seabird Island community may be polarized, with awareness centered on extremes of single units and high rises.

It is difficult to determine whether complexity would have been sufficiently reduced, and capacity building improved in this case, had the project adhered to the original single-unit strategy. It should be noted however, that a multi-unit approach does not preclude simplicity, capacity building, or affordability as demonstrated in the second case study. The project faced further challenges where methods and features resulted in excessive labour and related costs. The cedar shingle rain-wall entailed extensive cutting and mounting relative to simpler methods.
14

Sealing of

multiple round windows, unconventional corners and angles, and double layer insulation were also cited. Compact fluorescent lights were seen as prohibitively expensive, and their non-standard compatibility a source of inconvenience. Paperless drywall, a strategy used to prevent mould and promote durability, was applied throughout the project. Here, contractors unfamiliarity with the product resulted in hourly rather than contractual rates. The extended drying time of the product (4-5 times that of conventional drywall) further drove up costs, and also created a bottleneck preventing progress and in turn driving up costs in other areas. Informants suggested that while this and other durability measures have been successful, strategic placement of the paperless drywall in high-risk areas such as the bathroom and kitchen would have been preferable. Other healthpromoting measures employed in the project include non-toxic and low-VOC paints
13 14

This preference was identified by key informants in all cases. Local code has since been modified to include rain walls to address the wet climate.

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and finishes, and durable polished concrete floors. The housing department no longer installs carpet in any of their homes, and sees this as a strong strategy for promoting IAQ. The installation of the projects medicinal herb garden came at significant cost. The soil was never seeded, however, and the entire garden was eventually removed. Informants indicated that lack of community interest may have resulted from the hot summer climate, as well as the presence of hardy local weeds and insects. The projects south-facing orientation and use of alternative energy sources were identified as important links to traditional worldviews and practices, according to which all resources should come from the sun and the earth. In exploring other cultural design considerations, informants cited previous installations of sheds for smoking fish. These were removed, however, where resulting particulates were found to exacerbate asthma and respiratory illness in the community. This is significant, demonstrating that the absence of a particular cultural response does not mean it has not been considered or tried, as one might otherwise assume. Diversifying options for food preparation such as smoking and canning remain an area of interest, as a potential way to revitalize traditional practices that are still contribute to lifestyles in the community. Options for exterior cleaning and storage of outdoor activity gear, and larger driveways for multiple vehicles were also identified as desirable features. A formal needs assessment or community consultation to explore such interests has not been conducted to date. Analysis of this case is summarized in Table 2. Table 2: Seabird Island First Nation Strengths and Weaknesses Strengths Political, institutional, regulatory Comprehensive physical plan Absence of Treaty provides greater freedom and flexibility in land use and related negotiation Pilot partnered with external stakeholders introduced new methods and technologies to the community, in-kind donations of materials, systems, services Pilot established micro-FiT support for wind power, potential savings, revenue generation Pilot capitalized on increasing diversity of Aboriginal specific funding (CEAP) Weaknesses Vestiges of colonialism include mistrust within and beyond community, enduring socioeconomic disadvantage that affects community resources for funding housing initiatives Complexity surrounding Nation within a Nation within a Nation Territorial boundaries and local activity surrounding community limit quality and access to land and resources MUP restricts housing options Current specifications tied to funding are substandard Lack of follow-up from, and bankruptcy of external stakeholders, 31

Strengths

Weaknesses undermined transfer of knowledge and capacity-building related to emerging methods and technologies External stakeholders increased complexity (see pilot below) Failure to realize benefits of FiT (see pilot below) Housing management understaffed, high turnover Crowding, backlog, high rates of transition Tenant sense of entitlement, lack of responsibility Rental arrears undermine local governments ability to deliver housing and community services Lack of housing diversity suboptimal use (incl. under-crowding) Misperceptions, knowledge gaps surround function, maintenance, energy demand of home appliances, systems Emerging methods/technologies require specialized knowledge (architecture, engineering), exceed current community capacity to evaluate, implement, maintain, subsequent reliance on external stakeholders for capacity building, knowledge transfer Reliance on government funding for housing initiatives, high interest rates and debt challenge ability to improve conditions High cost of energy consumes limited resources Complexity increased by exploratory approach, external stakeholders increased cost, challenged capacity building, resulted in negative perception of emerging methods/technologies and multi-unit strategy Multi-unit strategy goes against community preference, familiarity Lack of follow-up from external partners with critical expertise, failure to transfer essential skills related to implementation, maintenance and monitoring/assessment 32

Socio-cultural including community resources, skills, education, capacity

Capacity to locally conduct inspections Housing 101 occupant education, multiple methods Local community college with certified trades programs Community outreach intent behind comprehensive physical plan Youth familiarity with technology allows access to information including housing innovations (methods, technologies, programs) Traditional role of Elders in knowledge transfer Use of local labour in pilot construction

Pilot project design process, objectives, strategies, outcomes

Integrated design process Prioritized occupant health and safety, reduced environmental impact Multi-faceted approach to reducing O&M and replacement costs Duplex/triplex, flexibility to meet changing individual and community needs expected to maximize occupancy Multi-unit approach to reduce costs, land requirements Cultural considerations to foster sense of identity, ownership incl.

Strengths ceremonial opening, blessing, carvings representing community values Alternative energy and building orientation tied to worldview Increased square footage per unit See above re. partnerships, microFiT, use of local labour

Weaknesses Lack of auditing undermines sense of total cost and effectiveness, incl. failure to adequately account for/communicate benefits of multiunit strategy between all stakeholders Failure to clearly identify/communicate all options, challenges, opportunities, costs, risks across stakeholders Failure to realize initial target cost Unproven technologies failed: turbine could not sustain local wind load, never replaced; cost of circulating alternative heat sources exceeded value of heat produced; see FiT failure above Geo-exchange problems: costly excavation and system components; potential soil contamination during installation Unfamiliarity, complexity increased costs: cedar shingle rain wall, round windows, paperless drywall widespread application, extended drying time, consequent bottleneck Micro-FiT required special support from government and service provider, costly grid connection for alternative energy feed-in, benefits ultimately not realized Requires custom replacement parts such as CFL bulbs, seasonal HRV filters Medicinal garden expensive, unused

Seabird Island First Nation: Case Study Conclusions The Seabird Island First Nation case provides important insight into contemporary Aboriginal housing. The case confirms key issues, and direct and root causes identified in the literature review. Substandard conditions and insufficient resources are primary concerns. Beyond this, the sustainable housing pilot project indicates some of the challenges and opportunities specific to implementing green building methods and clean technologies in Aboriginal communities. In terms of opportunities, these strategies are consistent with environmentally-oriented community values, and further aligned with their need in terms of providing durable, efficient, flexible, and healthy housing. 33

In terms of challenges, the project demonstrates that integrated processes are not sufficient to guarantee positive outcomes. Alignment between selected strategies, community resources, and current/potential capacity is needed, if success is to be realized. Planning and design should therefore include comprehensive assessment and communication of options and their perceived benefits and risks between all stakeholders. Unfamiliarity with solutions in emerging sectors may pose a direct challenge to such assessment and communications. In cases where capacity is a challenge, alignment may be fostered by keeping objectives modest, and/or grounding strategies in proven methods and technologies. Follow-up from external stakeholders may be a further requisite of success to transferring knowledge and building capacity, especially where solutions have special requirements for maintenance, monitoring and/or (re)implementation. Project auditing is also essential. In this case, the effectiveness of specific solutions remains ambiguous due to lack of comprehensive auditing, gaps in communication, lack of monitoring (where applicable), and insufficient post-occupancy analysis. While this ambiguity undermines the original project goal of providing a precedent and reference point for future initiatives, it is important to note that the project acknowledged community values, needs and interests as an important part of the design process and that, above all else, it successfully provided housing for a community in need. The data gathered on the Seabird Island First Nation pilot project does present a different reality from that of publicly available literature, which focuses on strengths, and fails to identify many of the challenges faced during development and after completion. While support for innovative approaches to Aboriginal housing may rely upon demonstrations of success, it is equally important to identify these challenges, in order to prevent repeated mistakes and develop best practices for future initiatives. The challenges identified here suggest valuable areas for future research on the Seabird Island First Nation pilot project itself, as well as important considerations for future initiatives in this and other communities. The discrepancy between publicly available literature and case data highlights the importance of conducting research to comprehensively assessing project outcomes.

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Saugeen First Nation: Case Study Background, Capacity, Current Conditions and Funding Figure 5: Saugeen First Nation Sustainable Housing Pilot Project

a) Townhouse Units (8)

Images courtesy of Derek Laronde and Saugeen First Nation

b) ICF Foundation

Images courtesy of Derek Laronde and Saugeen First Nation

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c) Eleven inch stud walls

Images courtesy of Derek Laronde and Saugeen First Nation

d) Eleven inch studs

Images courtesy of Derek Laronde and Saugeen First Nation

e) Radiant Floor

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Images courtesy of Derek Laronde and Saugeen First Nation

Table 3: Saugeen First Nation Sustainable Housing Pilot Project Goals, Objectives and Design Strategies Goal Ensure affordability Objective Reduce construction costs Reduce O&M costs Increase energy/water efficiency Provide durability Strategy Local labour, training and employment Multi-unit townhouse approach Capitalized on existing site services 11 stud walls, R40 insulation Efficient mechanical system, appliances, lighting, plumbing (low-flow fixtures, faucet aerators, economizer shower heads), drainwater heat recovery (DWHR), radiant slab thermal battery ICF foundation, laminate vinyl flooring, paperless drywall Local labour, training and employment based on emerging methods and technologies Local manufacturing of 11 inch framing

Build capacity

Increase knowledge and ability surrounding housing construction/maintenance, alternative energy options Foster creativity, unity, pride, ownership

Keep resources within community

One unit features additional 37

Goal

Objective Test viability of alternative energy sources Reduce mould Provide high IAQ Provide durable structure

Strategy technologies (integrated PV/solar thermal, solar air curtain), other units roughed-in for easy retrofit Vinyl floors, latex paint increase IAQ, reduce cleaning and replacement costs Paperless drywall resists mould HRV provides strong ventilation, comfort ICF foundation R50, sealed with 6mm polyurethane rests on foam and gravel for drainage prevent leakage, mould Consultation with community Opening ceremony All units 3-bedroom with balcony Middle units set back Maintained local vegetation Maintained consistent style with existing housing

Ensure occupant health & safety

Respond to cultural considerations, demographics

Address community need for family-size units Avoid institutional feel Satisfy community aesthetic concerns

Saugeen First Nation: Sustainable Housing Pilot Project Analysis Although eventually granted, rejection of the pilot projects initial application for funding resulted in a shortened timeline of four months, necessitating construction throughout winter. Informants thus pointed to ambiguity and complexity in the application process as challenges, with specific mention of unclear criteria for qualification and competitiveness. The Band also would have preferred a more flexible timeframe to allow for design refinements, including exploration of cultural design considerations.
15

That the project was shovel-ready was identified as a

requisite of funding approval. Informants point to CEAP funding as extremely valuable, especially where funds are dedicated specifically to First Nations initiatives. There is hope that future projects will see similar opportunity. Dialog did take place between Saugeen First Nation and INAC on potential positive changes for application processes and criteria going forward.

15

The longhouse was identified as a structural precedent that might have contributed to appropriateness had timelines allowed. One informant also pointed to a planning concept based in traditional community values, wherein roads are kept to the outside of groups of homes that surround a protected communal area. This was viewed as a good strategy for keeping children from playing on the street, and for increasing awareness of their whereabouts. Cultural considerations are expected to contribute to future initiatives; the new administration building may feature a central fire pit, and/or relevant literal representations such as an upside down canoe, a turtle, or an eagle in flight.

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The multi-unit approach of Saugeen First Nations sustainable housing pilot project was identified by interviewees as unconventional, for and generally not preferred in, First Nations contexts. It was noted that instances of this strategy are increasing, however, likely in response to diminishing land base. The Band has some concern over the potential outcomes of putting people closer together than they are used to, where historically they have occupied separate tracts of land. No significant negative feedback had been received on this matter within the projects first year of occupancy. Concern was also expressed over how these units might be passed down from one generation to the next, which informants felt could prove more complex than with a single-family dwelling, a distinct plot of land, and/or an existing certificate of possession.

Direct relationships with suppliers of structural, envelope and mechanical system components were important to reducing project costs. Bulk purchasing and potential for future procurement contracts allowed middlemen such as retailers to be avoided, resulting in discounts of up to 50%. Some of these relationships were newly established, while other existing relationships were brought to the project by third parties. These third parties were also identified as essential to project success, possessing critical knowledge, expertise and the ability to relate this to the projects vision and objectives within the community. While CMHC was not involved in the initial project planning and implementation, their international branch has now formally expressed interest, particularly in the potential for marketing the project in the United States.

The self-construction approach was not a first for the community: informants cited a marked positive difference in attitude towards, and quality of outcomes from, previous self-constructed projects. Specific training and employment outcomes of the project were not tracked or assessed, and no formal feedback mechanism was put in place. Informants estimated however, that approximately 90% of project labour came from within the community. This included representation from different generations and genders, across a broad range and level of skills. Participants in the project expressed enthusiasm towards new technologies and methods, including means for achieving efficiency and R2000 standards. This extended beyond design and implementation phases into occupancy, and inquiry surrounding policy and future initiatives.

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Informants specifically noted that hands-on experience was more valuable than written information. If mistakes were made in construction, site management was careful to ensure that these were undone and completed properly, emphasizing the important relationship between specifications, implementation and performance. Areas of learning included ICF foundations, vapour barriers, and electrical and mechanical systems. Although a micro-manufacturing model for the 11 inch wall studs was envisioned, informants opinions vary as to its realization and potential contribution to future initiatives. Informants indicated that the self-construction approach changed individuals attitudes towards both future initiatives and broader housing policy. One informant cited a community-based push for mandatory envelope testing in new projects. The self-construction model was thus seen as important not only for providing specific training and employment opportunities, but also for educating the community and strengthening support for housing policy improvements. The Band hopes the high degree of involvement will act as benchmark for future self-construction initiatives, including a new administration building.

After the first year of occupancy, the Band undertook a usage evaluation. Maintenance requirements during this time had been minimal. Despite being better insulated by the exterior units, central units were unexpectedly found to consume the most energy. Investigation uncovered an excess of 60 home appliances and entertainment devices connected within individuals homes, some of which may draw power even when not in use. HRVs had also been turned off or unplugged and highly-consumptive air conditioners installed. As a consequence, the Band intends to create a tenant education program targeting these specific areas. Analysis of this case is summarized in Table 4. Table 4: Saugeen First Nation Strengths and Weaknesses
Note: Table 4 summarizes the analysis of the Saugeen First Nation case according to the strengths and weaknesses exhibited within the community and by the sustainable housing pilot project. It is critical to note that these are determined by the case context, and may result in different outcomes under different circumstances. Accurate interpretation of this table therefore also relies upon due consideration of the case description.

Strengths Political, institutional, regulatory 10-year strategic plan as basis for community needs assessment Capacity to locally conduct inspections Receive support from OFNTSC Ontario FiT incentivizes alternative

Weaknesses Policy instability: provincial FiT may be abolished OFNTSC support can include long wait times Funding dependency on CMHC Section 95, Section 10 40

Strengths energy, provides opportunity for savings, revenue Pilot capitalized on increasing diversity of Aboriginal-specific funding (CEAP) Pilot partnered with external stakeholders for knowledge transfer related to new methods, technologies, direct bulk discount through suppliers Socio-cultural including community resources, education, skills, capacity Existing precedents for selfconstruction model Community college trades programs Local skilled trades, R2000 trained crew Awareness, education intent behind 10-year plan Traditional role of Elders in keeping and transferring knowledge Youth familiarity with technology allows access to information including housing innovations (methods, technologies, programs)

Weaknesses Lack of housing funding flexibility precludes adaptation to emerging circumstances Dependence on policy support (FiT) for maximum benefit of alternative energy

Vestiges of colonialism include enduring socioeconomic disadvantage that affects community resources for funding housing initiatives Insufficient funding, undermines renovation point system, creates bias in terms of types of projects undertaken Knowledge gaps re. housing market function, including role of mortgages, consequences if not paid Knowledge gap/ambiguity surrounding individual role relative to home building choices, relationships with contractors, tenant satisfaction Tenant sense of entitlement, lack of responsibility for maintenance Insufficient resources limit renovation/construction, drives rental arrears, undermines maintenance funding feedback loop, undermines point system Lack of rent enforcement leads to arrears Crowding, backlog, high rates of transition Large families challenge suitability High energy costs diminish limited resources Community developing mortgagebased plan Misperceptions, knowledge gaps re. energy demand of appliances HRVs unplugged, numerous other passive energy consumers plugged in

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Strengths Pilot project design process, objectives, strategies, outcomes MUP adhered to as basis for recognition, support of INAC/CEAP Conducted dialogue with INAC on problems experienced in CEAP application Improved community awareness, attitude, motivation related to future initiatives (Re-)enforced relationship between specifications, implementation and performance Provided comprehensive handson construction experience and employment opportunities to community members Modest, simple scope, prioritizes key issues (health, durability, reduced O&M, affordability) aligned with community capacity, resources Multi-unit approach reduces implementation and operating cost, service and land requirements All units 3-bedroom responds to need, demographics, optimizes occupancy Consultation communicated objectives, ensured absence of opposition, guided aesthetic considerations See above re. external partnerships Single demo unit allows testing, analysis prior to scaled up implementation; other units designed for easy retrofit Opening ceremony Multi-generational and acrossgender representation in local labour construction Resulted in high Energuide rating of 86/87 Interest from CMHC international in promoting in US exposure, additional support

Weaknesses Ambiguity of CEAP application resulted in shortened timeline, limited consultation and subsequent cultural considerations Multi-unit strategy goes against community preference, familiarity; ambiguity surrounding potential for inheritance/will of property No formal feedback mechanism for training and employment, no formal assessment/tracking of outcomes such as continued training/employment Increased maintenance requirements of some technologies Design poses limitations on user behavior, including requirement to keep windows closed for efficient system function Requires custom replacement parts such as CFL bulbs, seasonal HRV filters

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Saugeen First Nation: Case Study Conclusions As in the prior case, study of the Saugeen First Nation provides important insight into contemporary Aboriginal housing. The case confirms key issues, and direct and root causes as identified in the literature review. Substandard conditions and insufficient resources are amongst the primary concerns. Beyond these findings, the communitys sustainable housing pilot project indicates some of the challenges and opportunities specific to implementing green building methods and clean technologies in Aboriginal communities.

In terms of opportunities, the pilot project demonstrates the feasibility of delivering cost effective solutions that simultaneously prioritize occupant health, and reduced operating maintenance costs through durability and efficiency. Modesty and simplicity of objectives were combined with a successful approach to selfconstruction. This allowed rapid delivery, and increased sense of ownership, pride and interest in the project.

The project was not without challenges. Of particular interest are those surrounding the application process for funding, including ambiguity of criteria, tight timelines, and lack of flexibility. This in turn necessitated construction through winter, and minimized the degree to which the design could be refined, including through exploration of, and response to, cultural considerations.

Having overcome these, the Nation feels it is now in a position to offer guidance on similar initiatives beyond their community, and is proud that it did in four months what some communities take years to do. There is confidence that the methods and technologies can be re-implemented, and that these solutions have increased awareness of new possibilities. This positively contributes to the projects potential as a prototype for future initiatives, including the mentality of the Nations Council and the broader community towards innovation in residential design. From their perspective, the sustainable housing pilot project is viewed as a resounding success, seen as a vital first step towards community sustainability.

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Treaty 7 First Nations: Case Study Background on the U.S Department of Energys Solar Decathlon Competition In 2009, students from the University of Calgary applied for the U.S. Department of Energys Solar Decathlon 2011 competition, in partnership with the Treaty 7 First Nations of Southern Alberta. This collaborative 2-year initiative is the basis of the third case study.

The Solar Decathlon challenges international student teams to design, build and operate full-scale solar powered homes.
16

The mandate is to demonstrate the

viability of solar power in contemporary residential design, based on the capacity of solar related technologies to meet household demand. Competing entries must adhere to international building code and exhibit full functionality of mechanical systems, contemporary appliances, lighting, and interior and exterior spaces.
17

Identifying a specific target market and user group is an additional pre-requisite. The 2011 competition also saw the introduction of an affordability sub-contest, an important component in demonstrating the economic viability of proposed solutions.
18

Differences in the nature of this case necessarily impact the degree to which it can be compared to the previous two. For example, while Treaty 7 offered a functional definition of a target market for the purposes of the competition, it does not represent a well-defined community like those of the Seabird Island and Saugeen First Nations. Rather, significant diversity follows from the member Nations.
19

The

type of background research that was conducted in the previous cases on specific housing conditions and capacity was in this case precluded by the scope of research.

16

Since its inception in 2002, the Solar Decathlon has fostered innovation in green building and clean technologies. While 2011 competition rules prevented use of significant battery storage and limited energy use to that available through global solar radiation, previous competitions have been more flexible, allowing storage and other alternative energy sources such as wind and simulated geothermal systems. As such, the open source materials generated by competitors are a valuable source of data.
17 18

For a full breakdown of competition rules and sub-contests see www.SolarDecathlon.gov.

Unlike the MUP model, the Solar Decathlons 2011 affordability sub -contest did not impose a hard limit. Rather, prototypes were evaluated on total cost, with $250,000 representing a score of 100%, and costs beyond this leading to reduced points.
19

Signed in 1877, Treaty 7 was a peace agreement between these First Nations and the Queen of Great Britain and Ireland. Member Nations include the Blackfoot Confederacy (Kainaiwa/Blood Tribe, Piikani/Peigan, and Siksika/Blackfoot), as well as the Tsuu Tina and Stoney First Nations (the latter including the Chiniki, and Wesley/Goodstoney Tribes. While the members of the Blackfoot confederacy share traditions and protocols, these are distinct from those of Tsuu Tina and Stoney. Beyond diversity of culture, these nations also exhibit substantial differences including contemporary housing capacity, conditions and socioeconomic circumstance.

44

Nevertheless, the Treaty 7 First Nations / Solar Decathlon 2011 project is seen as an important precedent for consideration. The designs strategies were informed by similar housing issues, and demonstrate innovative approaches not only to green building and clean technologies, but also to cultural appropriateness. Furthermore, firsthand experience throughout design and implementation provided insight that did not follow from the other cases, including exposure to relationships between processes, objectives, and stakeholders across project phases.
20

Extended

consultation with Aboriginal community representatives was particularly valuable in establishing mutual trust, allowing for a more in depth exploration of the impact of root and direct causes of current housing conditions, and the potential of cultural design considerations to address these.

Treaty 7 First Nations TRTL Sustainable Housing Pilot Project: Description The rationale for selecting the Treaty 7 First Nations as a target market was based in part upon lessons learned in the 2009 competition. Founding students of the 2011 project wanted to improve upon this precedent, where they felt that outcomes of the event itself are limited, that the 2009 project did not achieve its potential impact beyond these limits, and subsequently that return on investment would be increased if the 2011 project were better aligned with real world needs and interests from its inception. As such, the project sought to explore:

Added value of solar power in Aboriginal contexts; Modular construction and temporary foundations, as a means to circumnavigate barriers to private home ownership on reserve lands; Culturally driven improvements to contemporary Aboriginal housing. Dubbed TRTL (pronounced turtle, short for Technological Residence Traditional Living), this project was the only proposal to be accepted from a Canadian institution in the 2011 competition.
22 21

and

In the first application phase, consultation within and beyond Treaty 7 First Nations identified key housing issues including mould, fire, flooding, crowding and disrepair. At this time, magnesium oxide structural insulated panels (SIPs) were selected as

20

As the primary researcher of this paper, I also acted as the TRTL project manager for 1 year, and the Aboriginal relations manager and chair of the Aboriginal Advisory Council for 1 year.
21 22

Key informants confirmed the potential of such methods to allow for home ownership. For more information on TRTL, including virtual tours and material specifications, see www.SolarDecathlon.ca.

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the building material strategy, where the product has the potential to address key issues (it is durable, resists both fire and mould, and allows for rapid assembly); it was seen as well-suited to modular construction; and product sponsorship was available. A preliminary version of the mechanical systems was also drafted at this time. Key objectives were to provide reduced operating and maintenance costs. A purely electric strategy resulted (without solar thermal components), based on an air source heat pump, a bi-directional hydronic fan coil, and a heat recovery ventilator (HRV). While the absence of solar thermal decreases cost effectiveness, this was also seen to reduce maintenance needs and risk of mould from waterrelated circulation components.

During the second application phase, the pool for community consultation was expanded to include local Elders, Chiefs, and professionals such as architects, and housing and infrastructure managers.
23

These consultations identified the Tipi as a

precedent for traditional form and function. An architectural studio was used to develop concepts, resulting in an overarching strategy to push conventions of both modular and contemporary Aboriginal housing. The design that emerged paid homage to Treaty 7 spirituality, referencing the Tipis rounded form and east -facing entrance, which relate to the sun as a traditional source of energy and life.
24

Following the studio, representatives from within and beyond Treaty 7 were invited to form an Aboriginal Advisory Council (AAC) to the student team, in order to achieve more consistent and in-depth input from the community. At the AACs recommendation, a Spiritual-Cultural Advisor was also sought out, to mentor the team and validate the project according to protocols of knowledge transfer and ceremony.
25

Design progressed through exploration of additional cultural considerations, transportation strategies, engineering of mechanical and electrical systems, and
23

The teams initial vision also included community capacity building as an outcome, to be achieved through partnership with one or more Treaty 7 trades institutions. This vision was not realized however, due to challenges of funding, logistics, and administrative barriers to inter-institutional relationships.
24

Although alternative designs on the same concept received preferential feedback from some informants, this chosen iteration concept was preferred by academics and building industry professionals its perceived systematic nature was thought to be more readily modified and built in a student context, and would also provide consequent flexibility to adapt to different contexts beyond the competition.24 Appendix D illustrates the initial TRTL design concept, as well as the other primary design concept produced at this time.
25

The term Spiritual-Cultural Advisor was put forward by the AAC as a more politically correct and accurate version of the term Elder. The latter can be misleading, as it denotes specialized experience in a certain area of knowledge rather than indicating age; a person can become an Elder at a very young age, and may be much younger than those upon whom he or she is responsible for providing guidance or imparting knowledge. The role of Spiritual-Cultural Advisor was viewed by the AAC as a critical one, where specific traditional knowledge surrounding the home must be conveyed by individuals with transferred rights to do so. This knowledge is treated as highly sensitive, and cannot be conveyed with explicit permission from such an individual. Also, note that previous reference in the text to an Elder is intentional, based upon that individuals own use of the term.

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design of interior space. Results include a flexible floor plan resembling the Tipi, centered on the kitchen as a space for family and community gathering. Interior finishing features natural materials, and a color palette that references the four elements and the medicine wheel. Decorative elements include cultural items, and a traditional winter count a pictographic account of the project participants, and the homes creation painted on a canvas liner that covers the vaulted ceiling. Structural engineering is based on the magnesium oxide SIPs mounted to a galvanized steel sub-frame. While recognized as lacking cultural appropriateness relative to a wood frame, steel was selected to avoid warping from humidity changes between Alberta and Washington D.C. It was also sourced more affordably than glue laminate wood. The homes electrical needs are met by a grid tied 8.7kW photovoltaic array, connected to a series of micro-inverters. Microinverters were chosen to increase efficiency, and prevent system disruption in the event of individually shaded or damaged panels. These also allow per panel monitoring, and reduce voltages for safer installation.

In terms of resources, every successful applicant to the Solar Decathlon is awarded $100,000 by the U.S. Department of Energy, conditional upon completion of specific competition tasks and deliverables. Beyond this, it is up to individual teams to determine requirements and sources for project funding. All resources for TRTL were raised by students, staff and community members of the team. The private sector was the primary source of donations for both funds and in-kind materials. The home was displayed publicly on the West Potomac Park in Washington D.C., from September 23 October 2
rd nd th

2011, placing 10 out of 19

teams. Relationships between goals, objectives and strategies specific to this case are summarized in Table 5.

47

Figure 6: Treaty 7 First Nations TRTL Sustainable Housing Pilot Project a) Photo render of home

Images by Johann Kyser

b) Steel sub-frame and SIPs during construction

Images by Johann Kyser

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c) Plan: interior spatial function

Images by Johann Kyser

d) Design inspiration: the Tipi (Treaty 7 Management Corporation Tipi here)

Images by Johann Kyser

49

e) Open social space centered on kitchen, dining room

Images by Johann Kyser

Table 5: Summary of Goals, Objectives and Strategies Goal Ensure occupant health & safety Objective Prevent mould Prevent fire Provide high IAQ Ensure structural and interior durability Strategy Magnesium oxide SIPs: resist fire and mould, complemented by sprinkler system Simple, efficient, purely electric mechanical system based on HRV, air source heat pump, bi-directional hydronic fan coil; PV microinverters reduce voltage for safe installation Ventilate key areas: kitchen range and bathroom fan Durable hygienic finishes: cork flooring, vinyl counters, glass tile; low VOCs Durable structure: magnesium oxide SIPs and steel subframe, extended lifecycle estimated at 75-100 years Purely electric highly efficient mechanical system to simplify operating and maintenance (including HRV, air source heat pump, hydronic fan coil, forced air ventilation) Photovoltaic (PV) power 8.7kW net zero system, free up financial resources to contribute to rent/mortgage payments, potential FiT 50

Establish economic viability

Reduce O&M and replacement costs Provide legal ownership on reserve lands as means to build equity

Goal

Objective

Strategy revenue; micro-inverters improve efficiency, allow perpanel monitoring Durability, lifespan (see health and safety) Modular structure and screw pile foundations result in temporary structure as means to foster legal ownership (see project description) Solar power: sun viewed as traditional source of energy and life Tipi inspired form: round, east facing entrance relate home to sun, foster positive spiritual and spatial energy Natural materials, colors: cedar, cork; colors of 4 elements, ochres Connection to landscape: south facing patio and bay windows, rounded form minimizes visual impact Oral culture: canvas interior with winter count references tipi liner, pictographic story connects home to traditions of family, community, and homes creation Four ceremonies held to validate the home through blessing and naming in the Blackfoot language SpoPi 2-bedroom design in response to demographics of young families maximize occupancy within 1000ft2 competition limit Flexible, open living space: centered on kitchen, fosters gathering, cooking eating according to community values Non-load bearing wall between bedrooms allows for conversion to single bedroom or studio/office to accommodate changes in household structure.

Provide cultural appropriateness

Explore potential for home to reflect worldviews, lifestyles, traditions, protocols, values, needs and interests Determine whether this would increase sense of ownership, responsibility for the home

51

Treaty 7 First Nations TRTL Sustainable Housing Pilot Project: Analysis The monitoring and judgment of TRTL in the Solar Decathlon 2011 offers important data for consideration. Simultaneously, acknowledging the projects initial intent is integral to a more comprehensive assessment, based on response to real world issues and partnership with actual community stakeholders. Findings from both areas are synthesized, and organized according to consideration of the initial rationale, the design process, objectives and strategies, and lessons learned through implementation.

The location of the University of Calgary within traditional Treaty 7 territory provided an important foundation for working with the community. This allowed for more frequent access to individuals and organizations, and contributed to their willingness to participate. Despite this access and willingness, relationships between community representatives and other parts of the team were often strained. The short and demanding project schedule challenged community participation, and the student teams capacity to respond to input. Had timelines allowed, it would have been preferable to bring the AAC and Spiritual-Cultural Advisor on board prior to initiating the design process, in order to better establish roles, responsibilities, and a more unified strategic vision between the competition requirements and the communitys values, needs, interests. Timelines, and vested interests within the institution, also undermined integration across disciplines, particularly between architecture and engineering. The student teams relative inexperience in Aboriginal initiatives presented additional challenges surrounding cultural protocols, sensitivities, inclusiveness and appropriateness of language. Contribution by most participants was also voluntary. Subsequent turnover within the student team undermined knowledge transfer and consistency of objectives and strategies. This necessitated repetition of numerous design processes, and in some cases prevented response to community input. Had resources and institutional decision-making allowed, it would have been preferable to compensate individuals for their work, to foster accountability and commitment and improve efficacy. Of particular importance to the teams organization, function, and to overall project outcomes was the insistence by Treaty 7 representatives that their input exceed that found in a more conventional designer-client relationship. Their occupation of a central role in project decision-making was viewed as a critical part of authentic 52

orientation towards Treaty 7 First Nations identity. At times this challenged other team members sense of ownership and control. Patient and respectful dialog was integral to resolving conflict, bridging cultural gaps and achieving consensus. Ultimately these challenges were overcome, with results consistently viewed by participants as a true and meaningful partnership. This eventually came to define the project itself, and was critical to developing a better understanding of challenges and opportunities in this context.

Community input was also particularly valuable in confirming root causes of contemporary housing issues, and identifying opportunities to address these through project design. Long-term relationships allowed sufficient trust to develop. Community participants were then willing to share personal experiences of attempted cultural assimilation, malignant policy, substandard housing, and the influence of these forces on Aboriginal peoples current struggles with ident ity and dispossession. The projects Spiritual-Cultural Advisor emphasized a significant gap, where contemporary housing methods and technologies have not been adequately translated or interpreted into Aboriginal ways of thinking and living. His teachings point to identification of parallels between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal cultures as an important means to bridge this gap, and to improve broader crosscultural relations. Ceremonies at specific locations and times throughout the TRTL project followed this guidance, and became an integral part not only of validating the project according to community protocols, but also of facilitating learning and appreciation for different perspectives. Examining the projects rationale, the value of solar power in Ab original contexts, was initially acknowledged as ambiguous. Expectations of benefit centered on the potential of distributed energy as an important but ill-defined area for exploration. The primary challenge anticipated was the high cost associated with photovoltaic technologies. A critical finding that was not anticipated was the substantial amount of support for solar power that was expressed by Treaty 7 participants as a result of synergy with their own spirituality, which holds the sun as the creator of all energy and life on earth. This synergy emerged through the course of the project, as local traditional values and beliefs were revealed. Although it is impossible to quantify the benefit of such a connection, it clearly influenced community interest and buy-in in this case, and could prove significant in other contexts where similar beliefs are held.

53

Community representatives and public observers of the competition also expressed interest in the potential of solar power to provide independence from conventional energy sources, especially in remote communities. The degree to which the TRTL design pursues this was determined in part by the competition rules, which prohibit significant battery storage and dictate that all prototypes be tied to a micro-grid. The grid tie model is based on real world applications, wherein conventional energy sources are used to counter the intermittency of alternative ones. Thus TRTL does not represent a fully independent or off-grid design (which would incur additional costs of battery storage and related systems). Rather, the home was engineered for annual net-zero performance generating as much or more energy than it consumes over the course of a year. Specifically, excess energy is produced during peak times (daytime, especially during summer), to be fed onto a conventional grid and sold to the existing service provider, and repurchased during non-peak times (night, and short winter days).
26

While not fully independent, TRTL does have the potential to offset operating costs through reduced demand for conventional energy sources. As indicated, initial cost of PV technology itself was anticipated as a key challenge to the viability of solar power in Aboriginal contexts, where funding is already an issue, and where PV panels remain more expensive than conventional methods of generation. Here, viability must be considered not only in the context of the grid tie model, but also relative to the homes overall cost, outcomes of the design, and broader industry trends.
27

The official competition cost estimate for TRTL was $294,000USD, including labour and transportation. While this price point exceeds the resources of many Aboriginal communities (and likely all regional MUPs), several factors must be considered before ruling out the prototypes economic viability. Firstly, this estimate represents the cost of a one-time build. Intent for the prototypes real world application is based on mass production, which would reduce costs of material
28

26

Preliminary net metering of TRTL occurred in Washington D.C. for the 10 days of competition. The home consumed more energy than it produced at this location and time. These results are not sufficient to determine likely outcomes of annual performance however, where there was substantial cloud cover and rain, and where performance was modeled for a 12-month balance in Alberta. Further testing is required to determine if the system captures energy as intended.
27

A comprehensive evaluation of the grid tie models applicability in Treaty 7 First Nations and other Aboriginal contexts is beyond the scope of this research. Viability depends upon a number of complex and interrelated factors including but not limited to: current energy sources, pricing, and infrastructure; provincial energy policy, including feedin-tariffs; willingness of local service providers to implement feed-in technology; quantity and quality alternative resources; and the cost, efficiency and scale of technologies deployed.
28

Internal estimates by the team are outstanding. Where TRTL is approximately 1000ft2, this works out to $294USD per square foot. See competition rules for detailed information on how transportation was estimated and normalized between teams.

54

fabrication and labour. Secondly, TRTLs structural lifecycle is estimated at 75-100 years or more, a dramatic improvement relative to current Aboriginal housing in many communities. TRTLs PV system represents approximately 20% of the total initial cost, or $59,000CDN, including installation.
29

During the anticipated structural

lifecycle, the PV system will need to be replaced approximately three times. Even if PV prices remain constant over this period, the cost of the TRTL including this replacement is competitive with current reserve housing in the long-term. To generalize for purposes of comparison:
30

Poor quality of contemporary Aboriginal housing necessitates recurring investment of approximately $100,000 every 10 years for 100 years. Total = $1,000,000 TRTL represents an initial investment of $300,000, plus PV replacement costs of $60,000 every 25 years. Total = $480,000

This preliminary estimate suggests that TRTL is economically viable in the longterm. A comprehensive assessment relies on numerous other factors beyond the scope of this research, including but not limited to: potential cost reduction from mass production; reductions in PV pricing over this period;
31

increased pricing of

conventional sources over this period; broader economic and environmental implications of reduced demand for conventional energy sources; potential for FiTbased revenue, and numerous areas of added value discussed below. Quantification of these benefits is thus an important area for future research. Unfortunately, the initial capital requirements present a barrier to many Aboriginal communities regardless of long-term potential, with MUP representing an additional impasse.

Here it is important to note that removal of the PV system puts the one-time build cost at $234,000, which is only marginally higher than the cost of R2000 homes being built in some Treaty 7 communities at $225,000 per unit. This suggests that TRTLs construction costs are competitive, especially if mass production leads to further price reduction.

29

Within the grid tie model, the PV could also be complemented or substituted for more cost-effective alternatives such as solar thermal, wind, or geothermal systems.
30

The actual frequency and cost of replacement will depend heavily upon on industry trends, which have recently seen significant reduction in prices and increases in efficiency. Replacement need is cited here as once every 25 years based on manufacturer warranty, and specifications of efficiency decrease below 80% after this period.
31

Prices for PV have dropped significantly in recent years. See: http://eetd.lbl.gov/ea/emp/reports/lbnl-5047e.pdf

55

Considering the second rationale for selecting Treaty 7 as the projects target market, key informants support modularity and temporary foundations as a viable strategy for allowing private home ownership on reserve lands.
32

The objective of

this strategy would be to provide a mechanism for individuals to mortgage the actual unit without possessing land title. This would in turn allow individuals and families to build equity and finance improvements, for example through renovations, upgrading, and/or starting a small business or farm.

Feasibility of this approach depends in part upon the capacity of enforcement bodies to seize mortgaged assets. In the case of a modular structure, this in turn depends upon ease and cost of (dis)assembly and transportation.
33

TRTLs

complex and costly requirements including a large crane and 6 flatbed trucks indicate that a much simpler structure must be developed in order to realize this objective. Entries in the 2011 and previous Solar Decathlon competitions offer superior precedents. In particular, the 2011 Illinois teams pre-fabricated prototype can be shipped on a single truck and (re)assembled in less than 24 hours. Looking forward, a key challenge to achieving this objective is the merging of easy transport and (dis)assembly with a culturally responsive design.
34

Indeed, simplification is a critical next step to commercial viability of TRTL overall. The initial design approach to push formal boundaries of modular and Aboriginal housing can be viewed as a key driver of both the projects greatest strengths and its greatest weaknesses. The design broke numerous conventions of architectural and industry practice, resulting in a uniquely appropriate form that resonated with Treaty 7 spirituality and values. Community representatives supported the idea that such a design could foster a sense of identity in the home, which could in turn lead to increased sense of ownership and responsibility for it. This (re)connection between Aboriginal peoples and their homes represents a vital step to improving housing conditions both on and beyond reserve lands.

32

TRTL is intended to rest on screw piles, which must be evaluated according to local conditions. One key informant did express doubt in the soundness of this approach, citing connectivity of modules as source of building envelope failure in existing modular projects. It was not however the legal underpinnings of the approach that were questioned.
33

Capacity for seizure of assets is further complicated by location on reserve lands, requiring enforcement by local agencies. This dependency might deter external institutions from entering into the necessary mortgaging agreements in the first place, unless sufficient trust can be established between stakeholders.
34

The competitions rules also include size restrictions, which encourage creative approaches towards spatial efficiency and flexibility. Innovation in this area may prove valuable in addressing overcrowding in Aboriginal contexts. Measures to expand sleeping capacity are of particular import, but must be evaluated according to contextual criteria, including the need for durability.

56

Simultaneously, the complexity of TRTLs form results in challenges not only to the strategy of legal ownership through modularity, but also to other factors within and beyond Aboriginal contexts. The buildings shape is ill-suited to the original manufactured form and structural characteristics of the SIPs, necessitating significant modification, and inclusion of a custom built sub-frame, with associated increases in material and labour costs.
35

The large number and unusual nature of

connections increase risk of leakage and therefore of mould. The homes rounded roof and floor plan present additional challenges to PV efficiency, as well as mechanical systems design and cost. The disassembly strategy that follows from this shape further results in recurring damage to the SIPs, limiting the number of times that the structure can feasibly be moved. Beyond impacting cost, durability, and systems, the complexity of the design challenges buildability and replicability, and thereby fails to respond to issues of capacity and overall demand in Aboriginal contexts.
36

Analysis of this case is summarized in Table 6.

Table 6: Treaty 7 First Nations Strengths and Weaknesses

Note: Table 6 summarizes the analysis of the Treaty 7 First Nations case according to the strengths and weaknesses exhibited within the communities and by the sustainable housing pilot project. It is critical to note that these are determined by the case context, and may result in different outcomes under different circumstances. Accurate interpretation of this table therefore also relies upon due consideration of the case description.

Strength Design Process Partnership between local community, student body and industry professionals fostered willingness of, and access to, participants Patient and respectful dialog aided conflict resolution, informed consensus Length, extent of partnership fostered trust necessary to broach sensitive topics Adherence to community protocols of knowledge transfer greatly increased two-way cross-cultural learning Validation according to local tradition increased community

Weaknesses Sort and demanding schedule challenged degree of, and capacity to respond to, community input, resulting in increased tension Formal consultative board established after (not prior to) initiation of design process undermined clarity and consistency of roles, responsibilities, objectives, strategies Team inexperience in Aboriginal contexts: ignorance of protocols, sensitivities, significance of inclusiveness Inability to compensate for participation undermined commitment, accountability, drove

35

For the competition, steel was sourced more readily and affordably than glue laminate wood. Timber framing was ruled out due to potential warping from humidity changes between Alberta and Washington D.C. (as experienced in the 2009 post and beam construction). In exploring substitution, all options would need to be compared relative to objectives of affordability, durability, health and safety.
36

As an emerging technology, SIPs themselves are subject to unfamiliarity relative to conventional methods such as stick frame. Beyond their benefits to health and safety, they do offer advantage of prefabrication in controlled conditions. Their availability may be limited however, and the custom sub-frame required by the design likely presents additional supply chain challenges.

57

Strength buy-in, support

Weaknesses high turnover Institutional prioritization of architecture, exclusion of other disciplines undermined holistic vision, interdisciplinary integration Initial capital cost exceeds community economic resources, and likely MUP Economic viability depends partly on grid tie, FiT Architectural form increased cost and complexity of construction, systems design, (dis)assembly and house transport; ill-suited to materials and community capacity Complexity and cost of TRTL transportation and (dis)assembly hinders ability to seize mortgaged asset, undermining ownership goal Absence of solar thermal reduces cost effectiveness Viability depends on increase in available Band funding, policy support for increased capital expenditure, and support of grid tie Viability, higher initial capital required for innovations in durability, alternative energy Complexity, competition within socio-political organization of Treaty 7 Technologies best suited to address current housing issues are still relatively new and emerging resulting in higher costs. Grid tie model dependent on extensive and expensive support infrastructure and services, delaying its adoption as a feasible alternative in most First Nations contexts. Grid tie model depends on existence of conventional energy sources, infrastructure, additional support of policy, service providers, technology

Objectives, Strategies

Prioritization of health, safety, durability, cultural considerations Synergy between PV and worldview increased community buy-in, support Long-term view of economic viability through reduced O&M, replacement costs Facilitate legal ownership through modular construction, temporary foundations Potential for reduced cost via mass production Reduced environmental impact through alternative energy, energy efficiency

58

Treaty 7 First Nations: Case Study Conclusions The Treaty 7 First Nations case offers important insight into the implementation of green building methods and clean technologies in Aboriginal communities. The pilot project was also particularly valuable in confirming the significance of cultural design considerations in this context. The partnership with Treaty 7 First Nations was essential to learning in both of these areas, illuminating relationships between community values, needs and interests and strategies such as solar power and architectural form.

Project successes include the creation of a durable structure that promotes occupant health and safety, and reduced dependence on conventional energy sources. Further study is needed to confirm benefits such as indoor air quality, or the economic competitiveness of solar power relative to conventional energy sources in Treaty 7 communities. Here, the academic nature of the project represents both weakness and strength. The home will not actually be lived in, so evaluation will rely on simulation rather than results of real occupancy. Simultaneously, there will be no occupants to disturb when accessing, monitoring and modifying systems and features.

In terms of process and strategies, TRTL is not dissimilar from the Seabird Island First Nation pilot project: complexity undermined success in both cases, including achievement of affordability and alignment with community capacity. In this case, these objectives were not sufficiently prioritized relative to others, such as the decision to push formal boundaries of contemporary modular and Aboriginal housing. Consequently, the TRTL design must be simplified and its cost reduced before commercialization can be pursued. These remain realistic goals however, and define important areas for future research. One of the projects most important outcomes, TRTL fostered a unique exploration of cultural appropriateness in Aboriginal housing design. The home provides numerous reference points for future initiatives from synergies between energy sources and Aboriginal worldviews, to significance of spatial function and materials selection. Integration of the communitys values, needs and interests was essential to achieving their support for the project. They further confirmed that such measures may help to foster a sense of ownership and pride in the home, a challenge for many individuals and families today, especially the younger generations. 59

The prohibitive cost of TRTL should not necessarily be viewed as an outcome of exploring cultural appropriateness. As indicated, removal of the homes PV system places it in competitive range with existing R2000 developments in Treaty 7 communities. That said, cost was influenced by the projects exploratory nature. To avoid similar risk in future projects, relationships between variables must be carefully considered for example those between form, material selection, modular (dis)assembly and/or transportation strategy. It is difficult to determine whether a less ambitious approach to design would have achieved the same degree of appropriateness. While this certainly increased complexity, cost, and overall risk , it also fostered innovation, and resulted in a strong foundation for future research.
37

37

Perceived risk from the exploratory approach included potential failure to complete the project. Such failure could have had serious consequences, impacting perception towards initiatives of this nature, disappointing expectations set within the community, and decreasing likelihood of future collaborations.

60

Table 7: Case Study Comparison Summary of Strategies with Multiple Objectives Objectives Cases Increased energy/material/water efficiency Reduced dependence on conventional energy sources Reduced O&M, replacement costs*

Cultural appropriateness

Flexibility of spatial function

Reduced Env. Impact

Seabird Island First Nation

Inhibit mould, provide IAQ

Strategy Paperless drywall Magnesium oxide SIPs Insulated concrete forms Radiant slab, thermal battery Efficient mechanical, electrical, appliances Rough-in for mechanical retrofit Durable, efficient envelope Healthy finishing Hard flooring Alternative Energy Local natural materials Repurposed materials Physical orientation Function of interior space Modular structure, temporary foundations

Treaty 7 First Nations 61

Saugeen First Nation

Durability

Table 8: Pilot Project Comparative Summary Performance Improvements and Strengths Cases Seabird Island First Nation Performance Improvements Occupant health, safety Cultural appropriateness Reduced O&M and replacement costs Energy/water/material efficiency Durability, extended lifecycle Reduced dependence on fossil fuels Reduced environmental impact Flexibility of interior spatial function, unit size Potential to retrofit additional features, systems Unit size responds to community needs Reduced land/service costs, requirements Modular structure and temporary foundations facilitate private on-reserve ownership Project Strengths Community consultation, participation in design Self-construction increased capacity, awareness External partnerships shared knowledge, reduced costs, connections for future initiatives Integration of emerging standards, ratings into project assessment Leveraged policy, infrastructure support for alternative energy Financial support included new opportunities specific to Aboriginal initiatives NA unknown NA (hydro) expected Saugeen First Nation Treaty 7 First Nations

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Table 9: Pilot Project Comparative Summary Difficulties, Failures and Weaknesses

Cases Seabird Island First Nation Difficulties, Failures Unfamiliarity with methods and/or technologies led to cost overruns Ambiguity, complexity of process led to shortened timeline, limited amount of consultation Methods, technologies failed to perform as expected Onerous systemic requirements of technologies prevented realization of intended benefits Project Weaknesses Cost, complexity mis-aligned with community capacity, resources Absence of comprehensive auditing undermined sense of project cost, effectiveness vs. conventional approach Lack of follow-up from and bankruptcy of external stakeholders undermined knowledge transfer Absence of feedback, formal tracking of outcomes from self-construction Multi-unit approach contrary to community preference Partial dependency on policy support for alt. energy benefits Saugeen First Nation Treaty 7 First Nations

63

Conclusions and Recommendations

This report confirms the existence of key housing issues and problematic housing conditions in Aboriginal communities, which undermine the health and well-being of these peoples in different regions throughout Canada. Housing failures emerge from inadequacies of design, insufficient resources, and numerous other direct causes that are complex and interrelated. Research has also confirmed origins root causes, manifest in broader systemic issues. These include problematic policy, legislation, and history of cultural oppression. Intervention at the project level has the potential to address key issues, conditions, and direct causes. For example, contemporary green building methods offer superior performance in terms of occupant health and safety, and durability relative to housing in many Aboriginal communities. Simultaneously, strategies that have been explored also demonstrate potential to counter root causes at the systemic level. Cultural design considerations foster a sense of ownership and pride in the home, which may translate into increased responsibility for maintenance; and modular structures and temporary foundations may provide legal bases for private ownership on reserve lands.

Beyond confirming issues, conditions, and their direct and root causes, research has also identified challenges and opportunities that accompany emerging green building methods and clean technologies. The case studies and pilot projects provide insight of how these may be further affected by implementation in Aboriginal contexts. Where insufficient resources are a key challenge, their conservation and effective use is essential. Beyond integration in the design process, efficacy relies upon clear understanding and communication of objectives and strategies. Incremental deployment of advanced methods and technologies may be the best way for communities to explore and capitalize on emerging sectors without overexposure to cost and risk.

A critical issue that did not stand out in the literature review, but which was clearly relevant in all cases, was community capacity. While not unique to Aboriginal communities, capacity challenges have been exacerbated by historical events and problematic policies in these contexts. Relationships between different stakeholders are an important part of building and transferring knowledge and capacity. When these relationships occur between Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal

64

peoples, awareness of Aboriginal perspectives are a critical component of respect, inclusion, trust and productivity.

It is evident that capacity (or lack thereof) may influence project outcomes through all phases, from inception to implementation, and on to inspection, maintenance, post-occupancy evaluation and monitoring. Models for self-construction provide a viable means to gain relevant skills and knowledge, and foster awareness of methods, technologies and policies. Occupant education and training is also integral to improving conditions and fostering responsibility. Successful selfconstruction and education initiatives are thus potential foundations for selfdetermination in Aboriginal communities, leading to positive feedbacks through housing-related socioeconomic outcomes such as employment (CMHC 2010). Progress in this direction is highly desirable from the community perspective, with the potential to improve individual and community health and well-being. Capacity building is therefore one of the most crucial considerations that should inform future initiatives.

The Saugeen First Nation case highlights the potential of individual housing projects to contribute to capacity building, as a foundation for sense of ownership, pride, receptivity and community momentum. One informant from the Treaty 7 First Nations case also cited the Habitat for Humanity model as having demonstrated similar success. Simultaneously, the Seabird Island First Nation case is illustrative of challenges to capacity building that may emerge from complexity, unanticipated requirements, unproven technologies, or dependence on external stakeholders. Success in capacity building therefore depends upon careful coordination of objectives, strategies, assessment of current and potential community resources, and lasting stakeholder relations.

Within the case studies, the pilot projects in sustainable housing provide a broad spectrum of green building methods and clean technologies to consider. Tables 1-6 provide a summary of the relationship between goals, objectives and strategies found within each case. Unfortunately, while many of the strategies presented by the cases demonstrate potential, their success cannot be comprehensively assessed herein. Rather, a detailed assessment of their effectiveness depends upon further research in numerous areas. For example, mould prevention strategies can only be adequately assessed through post-occupancy evaluation of physical assets and monitoring of indoor air quality over extended periods of time.

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Similarly, viability of alternative energy systems requires careful performance monitoring, and analysis of economic and environmental outcomes relative to conventional systems. That said, many of the methods and technologies examined demonstrate potential, even in cases where their success may have been undermined by contextual factors.

Identification of design processes, objectives, strategies, outcomes, and subsequent analysis of strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats is therefore central to the value of this research. Subsequent understanding of contextual influence will ideally inform future initiatives, allowing individuals, organizations and communities to avoid pitfalls, mitigate risk, and capitalize on emerging trends in industry and policy. Consistent with the findings from the literature review, some of the challenges and opportunities that accompany emerging sectors are universal, while others are more prevalent in or even unique to Aboriginal contexts. For example, while unfamiliarity and capacity are not uniquely Aboriginal challenges, they may be exacerbated by historic factors specific to this context. Again, Tables 1-6 provide summaries of each case, and findings are compared in Tables 7-8.

Several important areas have been identified for future research specific to Aboriginal contexts. As noted in two of the case studies, economies of scale have an important role to play in improving Aboriginal housing. The Saugeen First Nation pilot project demonstrates affordable implementation of sustainable technologies, including reduced operating costs, and potential improvements in durability and occupant health. Success of this project was based in part on a multi-unit strategy, which in turn facilitated reduced cost through bulk purchasing agreements. In the absence of a multi-unit strategy however, the amount of construction occurring in many Aboriginal communities should still provide ample foundation for similar arrangements. In the Treaty 7 First Nations case, mass production would likely offer reduced costs, thereby increasing viability, with the potential to generate a large number of homes that could be rapidly deployed. Economies of scale also play an important role in determining the viability of alternative energy initiatives, influencing their significance relative to conventional sources, their overall efficiency, and their capacity to meet demand. This may in turn influence willingness of local governments and service providers to facilitate grid connections and provide FiTs.

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In Aboriginal contexts, pre-existing models for communal ownership represent opportunity related to economy of scale. For example, as the owner of all reserve homes and infrastructure, a given Band can elect to implement technologies at the community scale rather than depending on individual uptake. This may be true not only of alternative energy sources, but also of innovations in water-related technologies such as capture, filtration, and reuse. Whether the degree of control held by Band management allows for more rapid implementation of innovation than that of non-Aboriginal communities is an important question. Two precedents have been identified in this area. First, the community-scale solar thermal installation in Drakes Landing, Okotoks, Alberta has garnered international attention, met initial targets, and is now the subject of feasibility studies for larger scale application. Secondly, solar power installations in the TSou-ke First Nation in British Columbia have contributed to capacity building, and generated revenue not only from alternative energy, but also from related spinoffs such as tourism.

As identified in the literature review, private home ownership on reserve lands is perhaps the most uniquely Aboriginal housing challenge. Currently, debate gravitates towards the related issue of land ownership, which remains highly contentious between different communities and external stakeholders. This report has identified another opportunity: further investigation into modular construction and temporary foundations is warranted, as means to circumnavigate legal barriers.

Legal barriers aside, the historical absence of cultural considerations in Aboriginal housing design has thoroughly undermined actual sense of ownership, with implications for the relationships between Aboriginals people(s), their homes, their communities, and themselves. While the cases studied here offer insight into cultural appropriateness, far more research is needed to adequately understand the implications of improvement in this area, and to establish best practices for research and design processes. In short, Aboriginal peoples must be afforded the same opportunity which is often taken for granted outside this context to design, build and live in homes that reflect their identity, values, needs and interests. Anything less is socially unsustainable, and will perpetuate housing failures that have persisted for decades. There is marked potential for emerging green building methods and clean technologies to contribute such a reality. Simultaneously, culture must play a central role in defining the Aboriginal housing of the future.

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Recommendations for Aboriginal Housing Design Establish a formal body of community representatives prior to initiating design, to provide meaningful input in project decision-making; Foster relationship-building between stakeholders, with consideration for historical and cultural factors specific to the community in question (sensitivities, traditions, protocols surrounding knowledge transfer, validation, interpretation, and organizational and sociopolitical structures); Assess local demographics, needs, and logistical considerations (e.g. supply chains, climatic conditions); Clearly communicate objectives and options between all stakeholders, including perceived benefits, risks, and special considerations (such as labour, scheduling and maintenance requirements); Align solutions with existing or potential community capacity (where this is a challenge, alignment may be fostered through modest objectives and/or grounding strategies in proven methods and technologies); Adhere to contemporary building performance standards and material specifications; Explore strategies to promote a sense of, and actual, legal home ownership; Foster self-construction models in order to build capacity, formally track and assess related outcomes; Allocate resources and plan for follow-up between stakeholders, including post-occupancy evaluation, comprehensive auditing; and Engage 3 parties to assess success relative to initial objectives, use to inform dialog on best practices.
rd

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Recommendations for Aboriginal Housing Policy

Provide clear criteria and guidelines for competitiveness and qualification; Allow for flexibility of timelines to improve design processes and outcomes, and avoid logistical challenges associated with seasons/climate; Allow for modification of objectives and strategies during design and implementation phases, where sufficient need can be demonstrated; Allow increases in initial capital investment specific to key issues such as health, safety, durability, flexibility and appropriateness; Allow increases in initial capital investment where long-term benefits can be quantified; Avoid bias towards specific housing occupancy rates, and respond to actual needs; Dedicate funding for capacity building in housing management and home inspections, incentivize attendance, commitment to employment, and third-party tracking of outcomes; Dedicate funding for different levels and types of initiatives, including both minor and major renovations and new construction; Shift responsibility for assessing adequacy away from occupants; Develop measures for affordability on reserve lands and improve these in rural contexts; Dedicate funding for proven ownership models such as rent-to-own programs and revolving loan funds; Dedicate infrastructure and site development funding independent of housing; Identify synergies between outcomes of green building, clean technologies and mandates in other sectors such as climate change and environmental protection, and use these to leverage increased funding; Provide special measures to alleviate and avoid housing related debt, including but not limited to reduced interest rates;

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Support strategies for keeping economic resources within the community; and Promote housing related education in Aboriginal communities, explore different methods for cultural appropriateness and effectiveness; address general and specific maintenance issues, and broader housing market function (mortgages, rent, impact of arrears on Band capacity to service); track and assess outcomes, and develop best practices.

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Acknowledgements
Firstly I would like to extend thanks to the Seabird Island First Nation, the Saugeen First Nation, and the Treaty 7 First Nations, and specifically to all of the individuals from within these communities who made this research possible. I sincerely hope that the research herein is of benefit to you, and to other Aboriginal communities who face similar challenges. Secondly I would like to thank my wife Jessica, and my family and friends for their patience and support. I would also like to acknowledge the support of Dr. Michael Buzzelli of the Canadian Policy Network at the University of Western Ontario, my field mentor Keir Brownstone, and my thesis research supervisor Dr. Larissa Muller in the Faculty of Environmental Design, at the University of Calgary. Last but not least, thanks to Margie Carlson and the Housing Services Corporation for providing the resources needed to pursue research in this important area.

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