EARL Y BUDDHISM AND ITS ORIGINS by VlshwcJnath PrascJd Varma CONTEl'TTS PREFACE PART ONE THE PHILOSOPHY &

SOCIOLOGY OF EARLY BUDDHISM SECTION 1. INTRODUCTION Chapter 1. The Life, Personality dnd Prophecy of Page xvii &~a 5 1. The Life and Personality of Buddha 5 2. Buddha's Leadership 22 Chapter 2. The Origins of Religion and Early Buddhism 26 1. The Origins of Religion 2t 2. Philosophical and Sociological Analysis of Buddhism 3~ SECTION II. EVOLUTION OF INDIAN RELIGION AND BUDDHISM Chapter 3. The Vedic Religion and the Origins of Buddhism 41 1. Introduction: Vedic Roots of Spiritual Idealism 41 2. Some Aspects of the Origins of the Upani~adic Religion and Philosophy in the Vedas 43 3. Vedic Scepticism as one of the Roots of Buddhism 50 Chapter 4. The Post-Vedic Religion and the Origins of Buddhism 54 1. The Development of the Yajoa in the Brahmat;tas: Cult & Myth 54 2. Upani~adic Idealism and Pantheism 55 3. The Religion of the Upani~ads 57 4. Monism and the Origins of Monasticism 59 5. The Attitude of the Upani~ads and Buddhism towards.the Vedas 62 0. The Upanisadic and the Buddhistic Revolt against the Sacrificial system (800 BC-SOO BC) 66 Chapter S. The Philosophy of the Upani~ads and the Origins of Buddhism 78 1. The Fundamental Differences Between the Upani~adic and the Early Buddhistic Philosophy 78 2. The Influence of the Upani~ads upon Buddhism 92 3. Conclusion: The Decline of Vedic Religion and the Rise of Early Buddhism 100

SECTION Ill. EXPOSITION AND ANALYSIS OF EARLY BUDDHISM Chapter 6. Buddhist Pessimism 113 1. Introduction 113 2. Pessimism in Pre-Buddhist Indian Culture 114 3. The Truth of Suffering: Pessimism 121 4. The Origin and Extinction of Suffering: Optimism 123 5. The Sociological Study of Buddhist Dukkhavada 130 Chapter 7. Anfitmawida 138 1. Introduction 138 2. Views Regarding the Atman in the Upani~adic Literature 140 3. Buddha's Theory of Anatta 143 4. Textual References to Atta in the Pali Scriptures 148 S. Indirect Evidence and Implications in support of Buddhist Attavada 150 6. Western Interpreters of Buddhist Non-Soul Doctrine 154 7. Change in the View of C.A.F. Rhys Davids regarding the Interpretation of Anatman 155 8. Conclusion 157 Chapter 8. The Philosophy of Rebirth 159 1. Introduction 159 2. History of the Doctrine of Rebirth in India 160 3. Sociological Analysis of the Concept ~R~kfu l~ Chapter 9. Early Buddhist Ethics 168 l. Ethics in the Pre-Buddhistic Thought 168 2. Evolution of Buddhist Moral Ideas 172 3. The Sociology of Early Buddhist Ethics 179 4. Critical Reflections and Conclusion 195 5. The Gospel of Buddha as a Philosophy of Life 202 Chapter 10. Karman, Moral Determinism and Freedom 209 1. Theory of Determinism 209 2. The Concept of Karman in the Vedas, BrahmaQas and the Upani~ads 212 3. A Sociological Study of the Origin and Development of the Theory of Karman 216 4. Modifications of the Individualism of Karman in the Upani~ads 221 5. The Buddhist Philosophy of Moral Determinism (Karman) 224 6. Sociolo~ical Implications of Moral Determinism 231 7. Conclusiqn 236 Chapter 11. The Concept of Nirvii1;tQ 239 I. Conceptual Analysis of NirvaQa 239

2. Nirvana. as the Extinction of Pain 243 Contents Page (a) Implication of the Extinction of Pain 243 (b) Nirvat;la as Bliss 245 (c) NirvaQa and Mysticism 24f1 (d) Mara and Buddha's ParinirvaQa: An Anthropological Study of the Nature and Personality of Mara 248 (e) NirvaQa and a Philosophy of Life 250 3. NirvaQa as the Negation of Empiric Phenomena, 252 4. NirviiQa as Utter Extinction 25:S. NirvaQa as the Absolute 25~ 6. NirvaQa according to the Aphidhamma 25~ 7. Factors for the Silence Regarding NirvaQic Metaphysics 25~ 8. Sociology of NirvaIJa 261 Chapter 12. Early Buddhist Mysticism 26' SBCTION IV. YOGA, SAMKHYA AND BUDDHISM Chapter 13. Yoga and Early Buddhism 27S 1. Yogic Ideas in the Vedic Literature 28( 2. Yoga and the Upani~ads 28~ 3. Yoga and Early Buddhist Religion and Philosophy 28~ 4. Buddhism and Patafijala-Yoga 292 S. Sociological Approach to Yoga 293 Chapter 14. Siimkhya and Early Buddhism 295 A. Origins of Samkhya Thought and Philosophy 29~ 1. Introduction 295 2. The Vedic Roots of the Samkhya 299 (a) Materialism or Hy10zoism in the Nasadiya Siikta 299 (b) Origin of the Concept of Prakrti in the Vedas 301 (c) The Vedic Origins of GUQavada, Naturalism and Dualism 302 Contents 3. The Upani~ads and the SAmkhya (a) Refutation of the Views of Deussen, Dahlmann, Keith and Barua (b) Vedic, and not Upani~adic, Roots of the Siimkhya B. Buddhism and Samkhya 4. Summary and Conclusion PART TWO Xl Page 304 306 315 317

326 BUDDHISM AND THE SOCIAL SCIENCES Chapter 15. The Economic Foundations of barly Buddhism 329 1. Economic Causation ana Religion 329 2. The Economic Backgroun<. of Buddhism 331 (a) Trade and ( mmerce 332 (b) Economic I .;ition of the Brahmin Class 334 (c) Econorr.i Support to Buddhism 337 (d) The Ir luence of the Contemporary Ecor .:>my upon Buddhism 338 Chapter 16. The Pi. Wcal Foundations of Early Buddhism 345 1. Buddhism as an Eastern Indian Movement 345 2. The Political Background of Buddhism 34& Chapter 17. The Social Foundations of Early Buddhism 355 1. Introduction 355 2. Buddhism as a Social Movement: The Relation between the Vedicists and the Early Buddhists 357 3. The Social Foundations of the Buddhistic Movement 366 4. Buddha's Technics for Social Integration 375 5. The Sociology of Buddhist Monachism 377 Chapter 18. The Anthropological Foundations of Early Buddhism 383 1. Introduction 383 xii Contents Page 2. Anthropological Foundations of Early Buddhism 385 Chapter 19. Early Buddhism and the Methodology of Social and Political Research 390 PART THREE APPENDICES 1. Buddhist Nihilism 411 1. Philosophical Factors for the Emergence of Nihilism 411 2. Origins of Buddhist Nihilism and Nagarjuna 414 3. Criticism of the Positive Interpretation of Madhyamika Philosophy 417 4. Critique of Nihilism 420 2. Asoka and Buddhism 423 3. Buddha and Dayiinanda 434 1. Vedism and Anti-Vedism 434 2. Metaphysics and Mysticism 435 3. Psychology 436 4. Views Regarding the Universe 437 5. Ethical Idealism 438 6. The Social Philosophy of Buddha and DayanMda 4~ 7. The Political Philosophy of Buddha and Dayananda 440

8. Conclusion 442 4. Buddha and Sri Aurobindo 444 1. Introduction: Personality and Influence 444 2. Methodology of Superior Knowledge: Rationalism and Intuitionism 445 3. Ontological Speculations 446 4. Anatman and the Human Self 449 5. The Problem of Pain 450 6. Conclusion I A Plea for Increasing Synthesis 452 5. Sri Aurobindo's Interpretation of Buddhist Philosophy 453 Contents xii Pagl 6. Buddha and Marx 46( 1. Introduction 46( 2. Ontology and Dialectics 46i 3. Philosophy of Religion 47~ 4. Philosophy of History 473 5. Assessment of the Roles of Buddha and Marx in History 47~ 7. Narendra Deva's Interpretation of Buddhist Philosophy 477 Bibliography 481 Index 48S