Introduction to Artificial Intelligence

Eugene Charniak
Brown University

Drew McDermott
Yale University

Techniscb Kochschufe Oarmstadt FACHBEREICH INFORMATIK

11_LU_O_I_H e K '!:
fsventar-Nr.j.

ADDISON-WESLEY PUBLISHING COMPANY Reading, Massachusetts Menlo Park, California Don Mills, Ontario Wokingham, England Amsterdam Bonn Sydney Singapore Tokyo Madrid Bogota Santiago San Juan

Contents
1 AI and Internal Representation 1.1 Artificial Intelligence and the World 1.2 What Is Artificial Intelligence? 1.3 Representation in AI 1.4 Properties of Internal Representation 1.5 The Predicate Calculus 1.5.1 Predicates and Arguments 1.5.2 Connectives 1.5.3 Variables and Quantification 1.5.4 How to Use the Predicate Calculus 1.6 Other Kinds of Inference 1.7 Indexing, Pointers, and Alternative Notations 1.7.1 Indexing 1.7.2 The Isa Hierarchy 1.7.3 Slot-Assertion Notation 1.7.4 Frame Notation 1.8 References and Further Reading Exercises 2 Lisp 2.1 Why Lisp? 2.2 Lisps 1 1 6 8 11 14 15 16 18 18 21 22 24 25 27 28 28 29 33 33 34

xii

Contents

2.3 Typing at Lisp 2.4 Denning Programs 2.5 Basic Flow of Control in Lisp 2.6 Lisp Style 2.7 Atoms and Lists 2.8 Basic Debugging 2.9 Building Up List Structure 2.10 More on Predicates 2.11 Properties 2.12 Pointers, Cell Notation, and the Internals (Almost) of Lisp 2.13 Destructive Modification of Lists 2.14 The for Function 2.15 Recursion 2.16 Scope of Variables 2.17 Input/Output 2.18 Macros 2.19 References and Further Reading Exercises 3 Vision 3.1 Introduction 3.2 Defining the Problem 3.3 Overview of the Solution 3.4 Early Processing 3.4.1 Gray-Level Image to Primal Sketch 3.4.2 Convolution with Gaussians (Optional) 3.4.3 Virtual Lines 3.4.4 Stereo Disparity 3.4.5 Texture 3.4.6 Intrinsic Image 3.4.7 Cooperative Algorithms 3.4.8 Vertex Analysis and Line Labeling 3.5 Representing and Recognizing Scenes 3.5.1 Shape Description 3.5.2 Matching Shape Descriptions 3.5.3 Finding a Known Shape to Match Against 3.5.4 Describing a Seen Shape

34 37 39 42 44 48 53 56 58 59 65 70 72 73 76 78 80 80 87 87 89 93 97 99 101 Ill 113 120 126 131 137 143 144 150 153 155

Contents

X1U

3.6 References and Further Reading Exercises 4 Parsing Language 4.1 Levels of Language 4.2 Expressing the Rules of Syntax 4.2.1 Why We Need Rules of Syntax 4.2.2 Diagraming Sentences 4.2.3 Why Do We Care about Sentence Structure? 4.2.4 Context-Free Grammars 4.2.5 Dictionaries and Features 4.2.6 Transformational Grammar (Optional) 4.3 Syntactic Parsing 4.3.1 Top-Down and Bottom-Up Parsing 4.3.2 Transition Network Parsers 4.3.3 Augmented Transition Networks (Optional) 4.3.4 Movement Rules in ATN Grammars (Optional) 4.4 Building an ATN Interpreter (Optional) 4.4.1 A Non-Backtracking ATN Interpreter 4.4.2 A Backtracking ATN Interpreter 4.4.3 Alternative Search Strategies 4.5 From Syntax to Semantics 4.5.1 The Interpretation of Definite Noun Phrases 4.5.2 Case Grammar and the Meaning of Verbs 4.6 When Semantics, When Syntax? 4.6.1 The Syntactic Use of Semantic Knowledge 4.6.2 The Organization of Parsing 4.7 References and Further Reading Exercises 5 Search 5.1 Introduction 5.1.1 The Need for Guesswork 5.1.2 Search Problems 5.2 A Search Algorithm 5.3 Goal Trees 5.3.1 Formal Definition 5.3.2 Searching Goal Trees

159 160 169 169 174 174 175 177 179 183 188 194 194 197 206 210 214 215 218 222 223 223 230 238 238 241 245 246 255 255 255 257 259 270 271 274

XIV

Contents

5.3.3 Formalism Revisited 5.3.4 ATN Parsing as a Search Problem (Optional) 5.4 Game Trees (Optional) 5.4.1 Game Trees as Goal Trees 5.4.2 Minimax Search 5.4.3 Actual Game Playing 5.5 Avoiding Repeated States 5.6 Transition-oriented State Representations (Optional) 5.7 GPS 5.8 Continuous Optimization (Optional) 5.9 Summary 5.10 References and Further Reading Exercises 6 Logic and Deduction 6.1 Introduction 6.2 Using Predicate Calculus 6.2.1 Syntax and Semantics 6.2.2 Some Abstract Representations 6.2.3 Quantifiers and Axioms 6.2.4 Encoding Facts as Predicate Calculus 6.2.5 Discussion 6.3 Deduction as Search 6.3.1 Forward Chaining and Unification 6.3.2 Skolemization 6.3.3 Backward Chaining 6.3.4 Goal Trees for Backward Chaining 6.4 Applications of Theorem Proving 6.4.1 Mathematical Theorem Proving 6.4.2 Deductive Retrieval and Logic Programming 6.5 Advanced Topics in Representation 6.5.1 Nonmonotonic Reasoning 6.5.2 Using X-Expressions as Descriptions (Optional) 6.5.3 Modal and Intensional Logics (Optional) 6.6 Complete Resolution (Optional) 6.6.1 The General Resolution Rule 6.6.2 Search Algorithms for Resolution

275 278 281 281 286 290 294 297 300 306 309 310 311 319 319 321 321 323 333 337 343 344 345 349 351 353 360 361 365 369 369 371 375 378 379 382

Contents

XV

6.7 References and Further Reading Exercises 7 Memory Organization and Deduction 7.1 The Importance of Memory Organization 7.2 Approaches to Memory Organization 7.2.1 Indexing Predicate-Calculus Assertions 7.2.2 Associative Networks 7.2.3 Property Inheritance 7.3 Data Dependencies 7.4 Reasoning Involving Time 7.4.1 The Situation Calculus 7.4.2 Temporal System Analysis 7.4.3 Time-Map Management 7.5 Spatial Reasoning 7.6 Rule-Based Programming 7.7 References and Further Reading Exercises 8 Abduction, Uncertainty and Expert Systems 8.1 What Is Abduction? 8.1.1 Abduction and Causation 8.1.2 Abduction and Evidence 8.1.3 Expert Systems 8.2 Statistics in Abduction 8.2.1 Basic Definitions 8.2.2 Bayes's Theorem 8.2.3 The Problem of Multiple Symptoms 8.3 The Mycin Program for Infectious Diseases 8.4 Search Considerations in Abduction 8.4.1 Search Strategy in Mycin 8.4.2 Bottom-Up Abduction 8.4.3 Search in Caduceus 8.5 Multiple Diseases 8.5.1 Multiple Diseases According to Bayes 8.5.2 Heuristic Techniques 8.6 Caduceus 8.7 Bayesian Inference Networks

385 386 393 393 396 396 400 405 411 416 417 420 429 433 437 440 442 453 453 453 454 455 457 457 460 461 465 468 468 469 471 471 471 472 474 477

XVI

Contents

8.8 Still More Complicated Cases 8.9 References and Further Reading Exercises 9 Managing Plans of Action 9.1 Introduction 9.2 A Basic Plan Interpreter 9.3 Planning Decisions 9.3.1 Anticipating Protection Violations 9.3.2 Choosing Objects to Use 9.3.3 Temporally Restricted Goals 9.3.4 Planning by Searching through Situations 9.3.5 Shallow Reasoning about Plans 9.3.6 Decision Theory 9.4 Execution Monitoring and Replanning 9.5 Domains of Application 9.5.1 Robot Motion Planning 9.5.2 Game Playing 9.6 References and Further Reading Exercises 10 Language Comprehension 10.1 Story Comprehension as Abduction 10.2 Determining Motivation 10.2.1 Motivation Analysis = Plan Synthesis in Reverse 10.2.2 Deciding Between Motivations 10.2.3 When to Stop 10.3 Generalizing the Model 10.3.1 Abductive Projection 10.3.2 Understanding Obstacles to Plans 10.3.3 Subsumption Goals and repeat-until 10.4 Details of Motivation Analysis (Optional) 10.4.1 Abductive Matching 10.4.2 Finding Possible Motivations 10.5 Speech Acts and Conversation 10.5.1 Speech Acts in Problem Solving 10.5.2 The Recognition of Speech Acts 10.5.3 Conversations

480 482 482 485 485 489 499 499 511 512 514 518 519 524 527 527 535 542 543 555 555 557 557 560 566 567 567 569 572 573 573 578 581 584 586 589

Contents

XV11

10.6 Disambiguation of Language 10.6.1 Referential Ambiguity and Context 10.6.2 Conversation and Reference 10.6.3 Word Sense Disambiguation 10.7 Where We Have Been, and Where We Are Going 10.8 References and Further Reading Exercises 11 Learning 11.1 Introduction 11.2 Learning as Induction 11.2.1 The Empiricist Algorithm 11.2.2 Generalization and Specialization 11.2.3 Matching 11.2.4 A Matching Algorithm (Optional) 11.2.5 Analogy 11.2.6 Indexing for Learning 11.2.7 Assessment 11.3 Failure-driven Learning 11.4 Learning by Being Told 11.5 Learning by Exploration 11.6 Learning Language 11.6.1 An Outline of the Problem 11.6.2 Determining the Internal Representation 11.6.3 Learning Phrase-structure Rules 11.6.4 Learning Transformational Rules 11.7 References and Further Reading Exercises References Index

591 592 597 598 601 603 604 609 609 610 611 614 621 624 626 629 633 635 638 642 650 650 651 652 654 659 660 663 687