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(a) .
(b)
(c)
(d)
Fig. 13. Op. 106 IV: rn. J7-21
<10 Sketches show that Beethoven initially planned this last descent as a third. The third apparently caused
unnecessary prohlerns and was subsequently rejected.
35
The only nonstandard feature of the subject is the prominence of its trill. Typicalty, in
Baroque and Classical fonns, the trill is purely decorative. In this fugue, Beethoven uses
it as a motivic element, as is apparent throughout.
Unlike the first three movements of the sonata, the fourth movement is not in any
orthodox form. Rather, it combines the fugue setting with rondo and variation forms.
41
Every recurrence of the complete subject uses a different contrapuntal device, each of
which forms a new variation. The episodes are largely formed from fragments of the
subject or from one of the two countersubjects. Two "independent episodes," longer than
most of the other episodes, and an individually introduced third subject take the aspect of
rondo-form digressions. The fonn of this movement can be summa.rized thus:
First statements (fugue exposition) (m. 16-40)
Episode (m. 4 I-51)
Subject with reversed accents in D-f1at major (m. 5\/52-60)
Episode (60/61-65)
Answer (65-70) in response to entry in m. 5\
Episode (7 1-84)
"Independent Episode" in G-f1at major (m. 85-93)
Subject in Augmentation in E-flat minor (m.94-129)
Return of "Independent Episode" in A-flat major (\30-152)
Subject in Retrograde in B minor with new subject (153- I95)
Re-entry of original subject in D major (154-207)
Subject in Inversion in G major (208-234)
Episode with move toward V of D major (235-249)
Exposition and Development of short third subject in D major (250-278)
First and Third Subjects in B-ftat Major (279-293)
Subject in Inversion and StretLo (294-317)
Formal Peroration (318-358)
Final Entry in Tonic (359-366)
Coda, beginning in E-flat major (367-400)
The organization of this movement, and the preceding movements, is impeccably
logical. However, the third and fourth movements sound conspicuously free and
41 The final movement of Beethoven's Symphony No.9 in D Minor (J 824) is in a similar hybrid form.
36
improvisational. This is a hallmark of the mastery found in Beethoven's final period: the
reconciliation of strict organization with improvisation.
Op.l10.
After Op. 106, Beethoven backed away from extreme experimentalism. Op. 110
is shorter and simpler, but continues the idea of unifying elements between movements,
despite the contrast of character from one movement to another. Each movement contains
at least one of two formative elements: ascending or descending fourths and ascending or
descending sixths filled in with passing tones.
The first movement is in A-flat major, marked Moderato cantabile molto
espressivo. The opening uses the distinctive parallel fourths motive (m. 5-8). The melody
that begins in measure 5 has a completely orthodox homophonic accompaniment that
could have been transferred from any of his earlier sonatas. The harmony is simple, not
straying far from the tonic as did some earlier works (notably, Op. 53). The transition (m.
12- I9) is non-thematic, simply serving as a graceful transition to the secondary thematic
group. The second group begins in the highest register of Beethoven's piano, tracing out
a two-bar theme that is repeated with syncopation. Transitioning to the next theme,
Beethoven uses descending trills in the bass, a technique that would not have been found
in his early works; the trills make it easier to create an effective crescendo and increase
tension by the introduction of non harmonic tones. The development (m. 40-55), starting
in the dominant, is quite smalJ-16 bars long-and simple, modulating only to F minor,
D-f1at major, and B-f1at minor; all of these are closely related to the original key. As was
Beethoven's tendency in middle and late works, he does not simply repeat the exposition
material in the recapitulation, but varies it. In measures 56-62 he uses a bass line
37
reminiscent of the transition from the exposition to accompany the opening melody in the
tonic key, similar to the overlapping techniques discussed in Op. 53 and Op. 57. There
are three bars added to the end of the opening motives to transition to the subdominant
key area in the second melody. After beginning in the subdominant, the theme begins a
smooth modulation to E major for the transition. The second group is approached from E
major by chromaticism that leads back to A-flat (G-sharp to G-natural in the treble, E-
sharp to E to E-flat in the bass). The movement continues to progress without surprises
until it closes gently on the tonic triad.
The second movement is a standard three-phrase minuet form in F minor. Its only
odd feature is that the metric accent between bars is uncertain and scholars continue to
disagree on where the emphasis lies within the first four bars. At the end of the scherzo
section, D-flat major is approached by a common-tone modulation from F minor,
beginning the trio. The trio is quite sparse, particularly when compared with works such
as the second movement of Op. 106 and even some earlier trio movements. Each bar
spans a fourth, with passing tones between; this is yet another example of the unity of
common motives between movements.
The third movement, like the finale in Op. 106, is a fugue. Again, this is not a
Bachian fugue, but one that begins with a recitative and arioso introduction in B-flat
minor (supertonic of the first movement). A distinguishing feature of the introduction is
the use of repeated notes. Most interesting among the repeated notes is the A in measure
5; in this case, the repeated note is a chord seventh. Rarely in Baroque and Classical
music does a chord seventh receive such emphasis. As in the opening to the fugue of Op.
106, there arc no bar lines in the recitative. There are few surprises within the fugue; the
38
recurrence of the arioso segment in G minor is, however, a point of interest, as it
eventually leads back to the fugue in inversion (and in G major), whereupon a new fugue
exposition occurs. The most exciting point in this segment is the E-flat major iteration of
tbe subject in double-diminution and stretto, where the note value is reduced to sixteenths
instead of dotted quarters and the voices continually interrupt one another. The normal
form of the subject returns in measure 174 in bass octaves. From there to the end, the
fugal texture is thickened by chord tones filling out the octaves that now form the subject.
The last eight measures pound out a tonic pedal fortissimo with sforzandi before ending
in arpeggiation
42
on the tonic, A-flat major.
Conclusion.
From this study of the sonatas, it is clear that there are specific tendencies in each
period. The earlier sonatas tend to be lighter, sounding more similar in texture to the
works of Mozart or Haydn.
43
This is not to say that they are in the bright, happy style so
often associated with Mozart and Haydn, but rather that they do not astonish the listener
with the quantity and thickness of sound. This sound is created by the use of light
articulations and short slurs. The middle sonatas have a much greater weight of sound,
often in great washes of forte arpeggios sustained con sordino. The phrase length
increases, often assisted by long slurs. The late sonatas have an astonishing fullness of
texture, accomplished both by means of doubling notes and by adding non-chord tones to
already thick chords. The importance of the coda also increased throughout the sonatas.
Initially there was either no coda, or only a brief confirmation of the tonic. In the middle
42 The arpeggios are highly reminiscent of the transition from the first movemenl.
43 This association is not necessarily accurate; both Haydn and Mozart wrote tragic-toned works.
39
recurrence of the arioso segment in G minor is, however, a point of interest, as it
eventually leads back to the fugue in inversion (and in G major), whereupon a new fugue
exposition occurs. The most exciting point in this segment is the E-flat major iteration of
the subject in double-diminution and stretto, where the note value is reduced to sixteenths
instead of dotted quarters and the voices continually interrupt one another. The normal
form of the subject returns in measure 174 in bass octaves. From there to the end, the
fugal texture is thickened by chord tones filling out the octaves that now form the subject.
The last eight measures pound out a tonic pedal fortissimo with sforzandi before ending
in arpeggiation
42
on the tonic, A-flat major.
Conclusion.
From this study of the sonatas, it is clear that there are specific tendencies in each
period. The earlier sonatas tend to be lighter, sounding more similar in texture to the
works of Mozart or Haydn.
43
This is not to say that they are in the bright, happy style so
often associated with Mozart and Haydn, but rather that they do not astonish the listener
with the quantity and thickness of sound. This sound is created by the use of light
articulations and short slurs. The middle sonatas have a much greater weight of sound,
often in great washes of forte arpeggios sustained con sardino. The phrase length
increases, often assisted by long slurs. The late sonatas have an astonishing fuJI ness of
texture, accomplished both by means of doubling notes and by adding non-chord tones to
already thick chords. The importance of the coda also increased throughout the sonatas.
Initially there was either no coda, or only a brief confirmation of the tonic. In the middle
,12 The arpeggios are highly reminiscent or the transition rrom the first movement.
43 This association is not necessarily accurate; both Haydn and Mozart wrote tragic-toned works.
39
and lale periods, the coda became a device for additional developmental material
preceding the final cadence.
Another important observable shift is the size of the ideas from which Beethoven
built sonata form movements. In the early period, Beethoven's themes tend to be longer,
more expansive, and less related to each other. In the middle period, we begin to see
Beethoven building lengthy movements from miniscule motives, all of which are related.
His great mastery in this area only increased in the later sonatas.
The complexity of Beethoven's harmony also increased, reaching a climax in Op.
106, where the classical circle-of-fifths progression is replaced by a reliance on third
relations. The forms in which harmony exists, however, did not undergo the same
changes that extended to most other aspects of Beethoven's writing. It is only in the
context of form that Beethoven's revolutions of texture, harmony, and phrasing can exist
and still be truly Classical.
40
Glossary of Terms
Arpeggio: a broken triad or seventh chord with notes played in succession.
Articulation: refers to different kinds of touch, such as staccato or legato.
Attacca: continue without break.
Augmentation: increase in note value (e.g. a quarter note to half note).
Bachian: in the style of J.S. Bach (1685-1750).
Bar: measure.
Baroque: the musical period lasting roughly from 1600-1750.
Cadenza: traditionally a freely improvised section in a concerto.
Chopinesque: in the style of Frederic Chopin (1810-1849).
Classical: a blanket term for all art music. The period from approximately 1750-1815.
Con sordino: with the damper, or sustain, pedal.
Diminution: the opposite of augmentation, where note values are decreased (e.g. quarter
note to eighth note).
Dominant: the fifth pitch (or chord) in a scale, usual1y progressing to tonic or
submediant.
Downbeat: the first beat in a measure.
Enharmonic: two notes with the same audible pitch, but different spelling (e.g., C and
B- sharp).
Episode: 1. Section in a rondo between statements of the rondo theme. 2. Non-thematic
section in a fugue between statements of the subject.
Fermata: a mark indicating that a note should be held longer than the note value.
Forte: loud, marked f on sheet music.
jp: forte-piano, indicating one note or chord to be played loudly, followed immediately
by soft notes.
Fugue: a form in which a musical phrase or idea, called the "subject," is introduced alone
in one voice. Subsequent voices state the subject while the previous voice(s) continue in
counterpoint (often including a second important line cal1ed the "countersubject"). The
subject is treated with various devices of counterpoint, possibly including inversion,
diminution, augmentation, or stretto. Statements of the subject are periodically
interrupted by "episodes" consisting of non-subject material.
Glissando: slide finger or thumb up or down the keyboard, playing each note in rapid
succession.
Grave: gravely.
Harmonic interval: two notes played simultaneously.
Homophonic: a style of melody in which the melody is distinct and the accompaniment
is less important; contrasts with counterpoint, where there are two or more important
melodic lines.
Inversion: an inversion in fugue is the subject with its intervals reversed, or upside-
down.
Key: the particular set of pitches from which a piece or section is derived.
Measure: a small organizing segment, delineated by vertical lines.
Melodic Interval: two pitches played in succession, as opposed to simultaneously (see:
harmonic interval).
41
Minuet: musical form, usuallyconsistingoftwo repeatedsectionsofthree-phraseseach.
Originally, the minuetwasadance, but in theclassicalerait becamehighlystylized.
aspecificsetof from which a pieceis written. In tonal music.(post-
Renaissanceand pre-20
11
century),there are two commonlyused modes, majorand
minor. Theseare madedistinct by theirpatternsofhalf-stepsandwhole-steps.
Modulate: to shiftfrom onekey to another.
Motive: a minisculemusical idea, usuallyonlya few noteslong.
Mozartean: in thestyleofW.A.Mozart(1756-1791).
Neapolitan:a majortriad builton theloweredsecondscaledegree, usuallyin first
inversion.
Opus:"Work."Thenumerical systemused to catalogueacomposer'sworksin theorder
in which they werepublished. It is notalwaysreflectiveofcompositiondate.
Abbreviated"op."In titles, it iscapitalized.
Piano: softly, marked p onsheetmusic.
Pizzicato: astylefor stringed instruments, wherein the stringsarepluckedinsteadof
bowed.
Poco: a little.
Portato:an articulationshown by slursoverstaccatos, indicatingthatthe notesshould be
detached butnot short.
Relativemajor: themajorkeysharingthe samekeysignatureas a minorkey(e.g. C
majorand A minor).
Retrograde: in fugue, the subjectplayed backward.
Ritardando:graduallyslowing.
Romantic: the period from roughl y 1800-1900.
Rondo: a musical form with a recurringsection,called the rondo theme. Therondo
theme(A)is interrupted bycontrastingsectionscalledepisodes(B,C,D,etc.). And
exampleofrondopattern is as follows: ABACA'BA".Theapostropheindicates"A
prime,"an alterationofthe theme.
Scherzo: literally, "ajoke."Musiccharacterizedby ajovialcharacter.
Sempre: always.
Seventh Chord:achord with four members, with the interval ofaseventh betweenthe
first and fourth chord members.
Slur:acurved line indicatingthatthe notesencompassedshould be played without
breaks in sound.
Sonatarorm: formconsistingofan exposition,development,recapitulation,and
sometimesacoda. An introduction may precedetheexposition.Theexpositionis thefirst
statementofthematicmaterials.These materialsareexplored using variousdevicesin the
development.Therecapitulation servesto reintroduce theexposition material,similarly
to the way it appeared in theexposition, releasing thetensionofthedevelopment.
Staccato: an articulation indicatingthat notesshould be played withdistinct breaks in
sound.
StreUo:one hand orvoice beginsa melodyorfigureand anotherhandorvoice interrupts
with the samematerial beforethe first entryis complete.
Subitopiano: suddenlysoft.
Tonic: thefirst pitchorchord in a key.
Tremolo: rapid repetition ofpitches.
42
Trill: rapid alternation between two neighboringpitches.
Trio: in asonata,the second partofa minuetand trio movement.
Voice: refers to an independent melodiclinein instrumentalmusic.
43
Bibliography
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Rosen,Charles,Beethoven'sPianoSonatas:AShortCompanion. New Haven: Yale
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Rosen,Charles,The ClassicalStyle: Haydn, Mozart, andBeethoven. New York: W.W.
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Sheppard,Craig,Beethoven:AJourney. The 32PianoSonatasPerformed
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Analyses). New York: AMSPress, 1931.
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