6.1 Digestion 6.1.

1 Explain why digestion of large food molecules is essential Most food is solid and in the form of large complex molecules which are insoluble and chemically inert (not readily usable)

As food was synthesised by other organisms, it contains materials not suitable for human tissue - these need to be separated and removed Large molecules need to be broken down into smaller molecules that can be readily absorbed across membranes and into cells Small molecules can be reassembled into new products (e.g. amino acids can be reassembled to make new proteins)

6.1.2 Explain the need for enzymes in digestion

Enzymes are biological catalysts which speed up the rate of a chemical reaction (e.g. digestion) by lowering the activation energy Enzymes allow digestive processes to occur at body temperature and at sufficient speed to meet the organism's survival requirements Enzymes are specific for a given substrate and so can allow digestion of certain molecules to occur independently of others

6.1.3 State the source, substrate, product and optimal pH conditions for one amylase, one protease and one lipase

6.1.4 Draw and label a diagram of the human digestive system There are two major groups of organs that comprise the human digestive system:

Alimentary Canal: Contains organs through which the food actually passes (esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, etc.) Accessory Organs: Organs that assist in digestion but no food passes through them (liver, pancreas, gall bladder, salivary glands, etc.) Alimentary canal Accessory Organs

6.1.5 Outline the function of the stomach, small intestine and large intestine Stomach

The stomach acts as a temporary storage tank and is where protein digestion begins The stomach contains gastric glands which secrete digestive juices for chemical digestion Acids create a low pH environment (pH~1-2) that denatures proteins, while proteases like pepsin hydrolyse large proteins The stomach also releases a hormone (gastrin) that regulates stomach secretions The mechanical action of the stomach (churning) also promotes digestion by mixing the food The stomach turns food into a creamy paste called chime

Small Intestine

The small intestine is where usuable food substances (e.g. nutrients) are absorbed into the bloodstream The pancreas and gall bladder (via the bile duct) both secrete substances into the small intestine to aid in digestion The small intestine is lined with smooth muscle to allow for the mixing and moving of digested food products (via segmentation and peristalsis) It also contains small pits (crypts of lieberkuhn) that secrete intestinal juices The small intestine contain infoldings called villi, to increase surface area and optimise the rate of absorption

Large Intestine

The large intestine absorbs water and dissolved minerals from the indigestible food residues, and by doing so converts what remains from a fluid state into a semi-solid faeces The faeces is stored in the rectum and eliminated out the anus

6.1.6 Distinguish between absorption and assimilation

Absorption: The movement of a fluid or dissolved substances across a membrane Assimilation: The conversion of nutrients into fluid or solid parts of an organism Hint: Absorption is taking it into something, assimilation is making it a part of something

6.1.7 Explain how the structure of the villus is related to its role in absorption and transport of products of digestion Microvilli: Greatly increase the surface area of the villus, allowing for a greater rate of absorption Rich capillary networks: Help to maintain a concentration gradient for absorption by rapidly transporting absorbed products away Single epithelial layer: Ensures minimal diffusion distance between the intestinal lumen and capillary network

Lacteals: Absorb lipids from the intestine into the lymphatic system (which are later reabsorbed back into normal circulation) Intestinal crypts: Located between villi and release juices that act as a carrier fluid for nutrients Membrane proteins / mitochondria: High amounts to enable active transport into cells (contents then passively diffuse into bloodstream)

Features of a Villus

6.2 The Transport System 6.2.1 Draw and label a diagram of the heart showing the four chambers, associated blood vessels, valves and the route of the blood through the heart Valves and Direction of Blood Flow Heart Chambers and Vessels

6.2.2 State that coronary arteries supply heart muscle with oxygen and nutrients

The heart is a muscle that must continually contract in order to pump blood around the body Coronary arteries form a network of vessels around the heart and supply the cardiac tissue with oxygen and nutrients (i.e. glucose) These are required to produce the necessary energy via aerobic respiration - if a coronary artery is blocked, a heart attack may occur

6.2.3 Explain the action of the heart in terms of collecting blood, pumping blood and opening and closing valves Blood returning from all parts of the body (except lungs) enter the right atrium via the vena cava this blood is relatively deoxygenated The blood passes from the right atrium to the right ventricle and then via the pulmonary artery to the lungs (where blood is reoxygenated) The blood returns to the left atrium via the pulmonary vein and passes through the left ventricle to the aorta, where it is pumped around the body

The heart valves maintain the one-way flow of blood:

When the atria contract, atrioventricular (AV) valves open Blood flows from the atria and into the ventricles When the ventricles contract, the AV valves close and semilunar valves open This forces blood out of the ventricles and into the arteries As arterial pressure rises, the semilunar valves close, ensuring the one-way flow of blood

6.2.4 Outline the control of the heartbeat in terms of myogenic muscle contraction, the role of the pacemaker, nerves, the medulla of the brain and epinephrine (adrenaline)

The contraction of the heart tissue (myocardium) is myogenic, meaning the signal for cardial contraction arises within the heart muscle itself Within the wall of the right atrium are a specialised plexus of nerves called the sinoatrial node (SAN) The sinoatrial node initiates contraction of the cardiace muscle and acts as a pacemaker, regulating normal sinus rhythm It stimulates atria to contract and, when excitation reaches the junction between atria and ventricles, stimulates another node (atrioventicular node) The atrioventricular node (AVN) sends signals via the Bundle of His to Purkinje fibres, which cause ventricular contraction This sequence always ensures their is a delay between atrial and ventricular contractions, resulting in two heart sounds ('lub dub')

Myogenic Control of the Heart Beat

The pacemaker is under autonomic control from the brain, specifically the medulla oblongata (brain stem)

Sympathetic nerves speed up heart rate by releasing a neurotransmitter (noradrenaline) to increase the rate of myocardial contraction Parasympathetic nerves splow down heart rate by releasing a neurotransmitter (acetylcholine) to decrease the rate of myocardial contraction Additionally, the heart rate may be increased by the chemical release of the hormone adrenaline into the blood (from the adrenal gland)

6.2.5 Explain the relationship between the structure and function of arteries, capillaries and veins Arteries

Arteries carry blood at high pressure (80 - 120 mm Hg) They have a narrower lumen (to maintain high pressure) surround by a thick wall made of two layers The middle layer (tunica media) contains muscle and elastin to help maintain pulse flow (it can contract and stretch) The outer layer (tunica adventitia) contains collagen prevents the artery rupturing due to the high pressure blood flow

Veins

Veins carry blood under low pressure (<10 mm Hg) They have a very wide lumen (keeps pressure low and allows greater flow of blood) The walls of tissue surrounding the vein are thin (blood is not travelling in rhythmic pulses) They have valves to prevent blood pooling at extremities (arteries do not have valves)

Capillaries

Capillaries are involved with material and gas exchange with the surrounding body tissue Blood pressure in the capillaries is relatively low (~15 mm Hg) and they have a very small diameter (~5 micrometers wide) Their wall is made up a a single layer of cells to allow for ease of diffusion Capillaries may contain pores to aid the transport of material

Structure of Blood Vessels

6.2.6 State that blood is composed of plasma, erythrocytes, leukocytes (phagocytes and lymphocytes) and platelets There are four main components to blood:

Plasma - the fluid medium of the blood Erythrocytes - red blood cells (involved in oxygen transport)

Leukocytes - white blood cells, such as phagocytes (non-specific immunity) and lymphocytes (specific immunity) Platelets - responsible for blood clotting (haemostasis)

6.2.7 State that the following are transported by blood: nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones, antibodies, urea and heat The following things are transported by blood:

Nutrients (e.g. glucose) Antibodies Carbon dioxide Hormones Oxygen Urea Heat (not a molecules, unlike all the others)

6.3 Defence Against Infectious Disease 6.3.1 Define pathogen A pathogen is a disease-causing micro-organism, virus or prion

6.3.2 Explain why antibiotics are effective against bacteria but not against viruses

Antibiotics are substances or compounds that kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria by targeting the metabolic pathways of prokaryotes Specific prokaryotic features that may be targeted by antibiotics include key enzymes, 70S ribosomes and the bacterial cell wall Because eukaryotic cells do not have these features, antibiotic can kill bacterial cells without harming humans (or viruses) Virus do not carry out metabolic reactions themselves but instead infect host cells and take over their cellular machinery Viruses need to be treated with specific antiviral agents that target features specific to viruses (e.g. reverse transcriptase in retroviruses)

The first line of defence against infection are the surface barriers that prevent the entry of pathogenic substances These surface barriers include the skin and mucous membranes Summary of Surface Barriers

6.3.3 Outline the role of skin and mucous membranes in defence against pathogens Skin

Protects external structures (outer body areas) A dry, thick and tough region made of predominantly dead surface cells

Contains biochemical defence agents (sebaceous glands secrete chemicals which inhibit the growth of some bacteria) The skin also releases acidic secretions to lower pH and prevent bacteria from growing

Mucous membranes

Protect internal structures (externally accessable cavities and tubes, such as trachea, vagina and urethra) A thin region containing living surface cells that release fluids to wash away pathogens (mucus, tears, saliva, etc.) Contains biochemical defence agents (secretions contain lysozyme, which can destroy cell walls and cause cell lysis) Mucous membranes may be ciliated to aid in the removal of pathogens (along with physical actions such as coughing or sneezing)

The second line of defence against pathogenic invasion are the non-specific defence mechanisms Non-specific mechanisms do not differentiate between types of microorganisms and always invoke the same response Examples of non-specific defence mechanisms include phagocytic leucocytes, inflammation, fever and anti-microbial proteins Non-specific Immunity

6.3.4 Outline how phagocytic leucocytes ingest pathogens in the blood and in body tissue

Phagocytic leucocytes (macrophages) circulate in the blood but may move into body tissue (extravasation) in response to infection They concentrate at sites of infection due to the release of chemicals (such as histamine) from damaged body cells Pathogens are engulfed when cellular extensions (pseudopodia) surround the pathogen and then fuse, sequestering it in an internal vesicle

The vesicle may then fuse with the lysosome to digest the pathogen Some of the pathogens antigenic fragments may be presented on the surface of the macrophage, in order to help stimulate antibody production This mechanism of endocytosis is called phagocytosis ('cell-eating')

Overview of Phagocytosis by a Leucocyte

The third line of defence are the specific defences, coordinated by a type of leucocyte called lymphocytes These can recognise and respond specifically to different types of micro-organism and have memory (can respond more effectively upon reinfection) Specific Immunity

6.3.5 Distinguish between antigens and antibodies Antigen: A substance that the body recognises as foreign and that can evoke an immune response

Antibody: A protein produced by certain white blood cells (B lymphocytes, plasma cells) in response to an antigen

Antibodies are made up of 4 polypeptide chains (2 light and 2 heavy chains) joined together by disulphide bonds to form a Y-shaped molecule The ends of the arms are where the antigens bind and these areas are called the variable regions, as these will differ between antibodies Each type of antibody will recognise a unique antigenic fragment, making this interaction specific (like enzyme-substrate interactions)

Structure of a Generalised Antibody

6.3.6 Explain antibody production

B lymphocytes (B cells) are antibody-producing cells that develop in the bone marrow to produce a highly specific antibody that recognises one type of antigen When wandering macrophages encounter a pathogen, they digest it and present the antigenic fragments on their surface to helper T lymphocytes (THcells) These cells activate the appropriate B cell which divides and differentiates into short-lived plasma cells that produce massive quantities of antibody (~2,000 molecules per second for ~4 - 5 days) A small proportion of B cell clones develop into memory cells, which may survive for years providing long-term immunity

6.3.7 Outline the effect of HIV on the immune system

The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) is a retrovirus that infects helper T lymphcytes (TH cells) Reverse transciptase allows viral DNA to be produced from its RNA code, which is integrated into the host cells genome After a number of years of inactivity (during which infected TH cells have continually reproduced), the virus becomes active and begins to spread, destroying the TH cells in the process (known as the lysogenic cycle) This results in lower immunity as antibody production is compromised - the individual is now susceptible to opportunistic infections

Timeline of HIV Infection

6.3.8 Discuss the cause, transmission and social implications of AIDS Cause

Acquired Immunodeficieny Syndrome (AIDS) is a collection of symptoms and infections caused by the destruction of the immune system by HIV While HIV infection results in a lowering in immunity over a number of years, AIDS describes the final stages when observable symptoms develop

Transmission

HIV is transmitted through the exchange of bodily fluids (including unprotected sex, blood transfusions, breast feeding, child birth, etc.) The risk of exposure to HIV through sexual contact can be reduced by using latex protection (condoms) A minority of people are immune to HIV infection (they do not have the CD4+ T cell receptor that HIV needs to infect the cell)

Social Implications

People with HIV may be stigmatised and discriminated against, potentially leading to unemployment and poverty

Majority of people who die from AIDS are at a productive age, which may cripple a country's workforce and economic growth It can result in an increased number of orphans, taxing a country's welfare resources Poverty may increase transmission of AIDS (due to poor education and high cost of treatments), creating a moral obligation for assistance from wealthier countries

11.1 Defence Against Infectious Disease 11.1.1 Describe the process of blood clotting

Clotting (haemostasis) is a mechanism that prevents the loss of blood from broken vessels Damaged cells and platelets release chemical signals called clotting factors which trigger a coagulation cascade:

Clotting factors convert the inactive zymogen prothrombin into the activated enzyme thrombin Thrombin catalyses the conversion of the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into an insoluble form (fibrin) Fibrin forms an insoluble mesh of fibres that trap blood cells at the site of damage

Clotting factors also cause platelets to become sticky, which then adhere to the damaged region to form a solid plug called a clot The clot prevents further blood loss and blocks entry to foreign pathogens

11.1.2 Outline the principle of challenge and response, clonal selection and memory cells as the basis of immunity Challenge and Response

When the body is challenged by a foreign pathogen it will respond with both a non-specific and specific immune reaction The body is capable of recognising invaders as they do not possess the molecular markers that designated all body cells as 'self' (MHC class I) Non-specific immune cells (macrophages) present the foreign antigens to lymphocytes as examples of 'non-self' (on MHC class II) These lymphocytes can then respond with the production of antibodies to destroy the foreign invaders

Clonal Selection

Each B lymphocyte has a specific antibody on its surface that is capable of recognising a specific antigen When antigens are presented to B cells (and TH cells) by macrophages, only the B cell with the appropriate antibody will become activated and clone The majority of B cell clones will differentiate into antibody-producing plasma cells, a minority will become memory B cells (BM cells) Because pathogens may contain several antigenic determinants, several B cell clones may become activated (polyclonal activation)

Clonal Selection

Memory Cells

Because the adaptive immune response is dependent on clonal expansion to create sufficiently large amounts of antibodies, there is a delay between initial exposure and the production of antibodies When a B cell does divide and differentiate into antibody-secreting plasma cells, a small proportion of clones will differentiate into memory cells Memory cells remain in the body for years (or even a lifetime) If a second infection with the same antigen occurs, the memory cells react faster and more vigorously than the initial immune response, such that the symptoms of the infection do not normally appear Because the individual no longer presents with the symptoms of infection upon exposure, the individual is thus said to be immune

11.1.3 Define active and passive immunity Active immunity: Immunity due to the production of antibodies by the organism itself after the body's defence mechanisms are stimulated by antigens Passive immunity: Immunity due to the acquisition of antibodies from another organism in which active immunity has been stimulated

This passive acquisition of antibodies can be achieved via the placenta, colostrum or by injection (e.g. blood transfusions)

11.1.4 Explain antibody production

Antigens stimulate an immune response via the production of antibodies When a pathogen invades the body, it is engulfed by wandering macrophages which present the antigenic fragments on its surface This macrophage becomes an antigen-presenting cell, and presents the antigen to helper T cells (TH cells) The TH cells bind to the antigen and become activated, and in turn activate the B cell with the specific antibody for the antigen This B cell clones and differentiates into plasma cells and memory cells The plasma cells produce high quantities of specific antibody to the antigen, whereas memory cells survive in the bloodstream for years Upon re-exposure to the antigen, memory cells initiate a faster and stronger response and thus confer long-term immunity

Antibody Production

11.1.5 Describe the production of monoclonal antibodies and their use in diagnosis and treatment

Monoclonal antibodies (mAb) are antibodies derived from a single B cell clone An animal (typically a mouse) is injected with an antigen and produces specific plasma cells The plasma cells are removed and fused (hybridised) with tumor cells capable of endless divisions (immortal cell line) The resulting hybridoma is capable of synthesising large quantities of specific antigen, for use in diagnosis and treatment

Production of Monoclonal Antibodies

Diagnostic Use:

Monoclonal antibodies can be used to test for pregnancy via the presence of human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) An antibody specific to hCG is made and is tagged to an indicator molecule (e.g. chromatophore or pigment molecule)

When hCG is present in the urine it binds to the anti-hCG monoclonal antibody and this complex will move with the fluid until it reaches a second group of fixed antibodies When the complex binds to the fixed antibodies, they will appear as a blue line (positive result) due to the presence of the indicator molecule

Treatment Use:

Monoclonal antibodies can be used for the emergency treatment of rabies Because the rabies virus is potentially fatal in non-vaccinated individuals, injecting purified quantities of antibody is an effective emergency treatment for a very serious viral infection

11.1.6 Explain the principle of vaccination

Vaccinations induce artificial active immunity by stimulating the production of memory cells A vaccine contains weakened or attenuated forms of the pathogen and is (usually) injected into the bloodstream Because a modified form of the pathogen is injected, the individual should not develop disease symptoms The body responds to the vaccine by initiating a primary immune response, resulting in the production of memory cells When exposed to the actual pathogen, the memory cells trigger a secondary immune response that is much faster and stronger Vaccines confer long-term immunity, however because memory cells may not survive a life time, booster shots may be required

11.1.7 Discuss the benefits and dangers of vaccination Benefits:

Vaccination results in active immunity It can limit the spread of infectious diseases (pandemics / epidemics) Diseases may be eradicated entirely (e.g. smallpox) Vaccination programs may reduce the mortality rate of a disease as well as protect vulnerable groups (e.g. youth, elderly) Vaccinations will decrease the crippling effects of certain diseases (e.g. polio) It will decrease health care costs associated with treating disease conditions

Risks:

Vaccinated individuals may produce (mild) symptoms of the disease There may be human error in the preparation, storage or administration of the vaccine Individuals may react badly to vaccines (e.g. hypersensitive / allergic reactions) Immunity may not be life long - booster shots may be required There may be possible toxic effects of mercury-based preservatives used in vaccines

6.4 Gas Exchange 6.4.1 Distinguish between ventilation, gas exchange and cell respiration Respiration is the transport of oxygen to cells where energy production takes place, and involves three key processes:

Ventilation: The exchange of air between the lungs and the atmosphere; it is achieved by the physical act of breathing Gas exchange: The exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the alveoli and the bloodstream; it occurs passively via diffusion Cell Respiration: The release of ATP from organic molecules; it is greatly enhanced by the presence of oxygen (aerobic respiration)

6.4.2 Explain the need for a ventilation system

Because gas exchange is a passive process, a ventilation system is needed to maintain a concentration gradient within the alveoli Oxygen is needed by cells to make ATP via aerobic respiration, while carbon dioxide is a waste product of this process and must be removed Therefore, oxygen must diffuse from the lungs into the blood, while carbon dioxide must diffuse from the blood into the lungs This requires a high concentration of oxygen - and a low concentration of carbon dioxide - in the lungs A ventilation system maintains this concentration gradient by continually cycling the air in the lungs with the atmosphere

6.4.3 Describe the features of alveoli that adapt them to gas exchange Thin wall: Made of a single layer of flattened cells so that diffusion distance is small Rich capillary network: Alveoli are covered by a dense network of capillaries that help to maintain a concentration gradient Increased SA:Vol ratio: High numbers of spherically-shaped alveoli optimise surface area for gas exchange (600 million alveoli = 80 m2) Moist: Some cells in the lining secrete fluid to allow gases to dissolve and to prevent alveoli from collapsing (through cohesion)

6.4.4 Draw an label a diagram of the ventilation system, including trachea, lungs, bronchi, bronchioles and alveoli The Human Ventilation System

6.4.5 Explain the mechanism of ventilation of the lungs in terms of volume and pressure changes caused by the internal and external intercostal muscles, the diaphragm and abdominal muscles

Breathing is the active movement of respiratory muscles that enable the passage of air to and from the lungs The mechanism of breathing is described as negative pressure breathing as it is driven by the creation of a negative pressure vacuum within the lungs, according to Boyle's Law (pressure is inversely proportional to volume)

Inspiration

Diaphragm muscles contract and flatten downwards External intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs upwards and outwards This increases the volume of the thoracic cavity (and therefore lung volume) The pressure of air in the lungs is decreased below atmospheric pressure Air flows into the lungs to equalise the pressure

Expiration

Diaphragm muscles relax and diphragm curves upwards Abdominal muscles contract, pushing diaphragm upwards External intercostal muscles relax, allowing the ribs to fall Internal intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs downwards This decreases the volume of the thoracic cavity (and therefore lung volume) The pressure of air in the lungs is increased above atmospheric pressure Air flows out of the lungs to equalise the pressure

6.5 Nerves, Hormones and Homeostasis 6.5.1 State that the nervous system consists of the central nervous system (CNS) and peripheral nerves, and is composed of cells called neurons that carry rapid electrical impulses Neurons are cells that are specialised for the conduction of nerve impulses and serve as the fundamental unit of the nervous system The nervous system can be divided into two main parts:

Central Nervous System (CNS): Made up of the brain and the spinal cord Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Made of peripheral nerves which link the CNS with the body's receptors and effectors

6.5.2 Draw and label a diagram of the structure of the motor neuron

6.5.3 State that nerve impulses are conducted from receptors to the CNS by sensory neurons, within the CNS by relay neurons, and from the CNS to effectors by motor neurons There are three main types of neurons in the nervous system:

Sensory Neurons: Conduct nerve impulses from receptors to the CNS (afferent pathway) Relay Neurons: Conduct nerve impulses within the CNS (also called interneurons or connector neurons) Motor Neurons: Conduct nerve impulses from the CNS to effectors (efferent pathway)

The Stimulus-Response Pathway

6.5.4 Define resting potential and action potential (depolarisation and repolarisation) Resting Potential: The charge difference across the membrane when a neuron is not firing (-70 mV), as maintained by the sodium-potassium pump Action Potential: The charge difference across the membrane when a neuron is firing (about 30 mV) Depolarisation: The change from a negative resting potential to a positive action potential (caused by opening of sodium channels) Repolarisation: The change from a positive action potential back to a negative resting potential (caused by opening of potassium channels)

6.5.5 Explain how a nerve impulse passes along a non-myelinated neuron Generation of a Resting Potential

The sodium-potassium pump (Na+/K+ pump) maintains the electrochemical gradient of the resting potential (-70 mV) It is a transmembrane protein that uses active transport to exchange Na+ and K+ ions across the membrane (antiport mechanism) It expels 3 Na+ ions for every 2 K+ ions admitted (in addition, some of the K+ ions will leak back out of the cell) This makes the inside of the membrane relatively negative when compared to the outside (70 mV = resting potential)

Transmission of an Action Potential

Sodium and potassium channels in nerve cells are voltage-gated, meaning they can open and close depending on the voltage across the membrane In response to a signal at a sensory receptor or dendrite, sodium channels open and sodium enters the neuron passively The influx of sodium (Na+ in) causes the membrane potential to become positive (depolarisation) If a sufficient change in membrane potential is achieved (threshold potential), adjacent voltage-gated sodium channels open, generating a wave of depolarisation (action potential) that spreads down the axon The change in membrane potential also activates voltage-gated potassium channels, causing potassium to exit the neuron passively The efflux of potassium (K+ out) causes the membrane potential to become negative again (repolarisation) Before the neuron can fire again, the original distribution of ions (Na+ out, K+ in) must be reestablished by the Na+/K+ pump The inability to propagate another action potential during this time (refractory period) ensures nerve impulses only travel in one direction

Saltatory Conduction

Generation of an Action Potential

6.5.6 Explain the principles of synaptic transfer

The junction between two neurons is called a synapse, it forms a physical gap between the pre-synaptic and post-synaptic neurons An action potential (electrical signal) cannot cross the synaptic gap, so it triggers the release of chemicals (neurotransmitters) to continue the signal

Chemical Transfer Across Synapses

When an action potential reaches the axon terminal, it triggers the opening of voltage-gated calcium channels Calcium ions (Ca2+) diffuse into the cell and promote the fusion of vesicles (containing neurotransmitters) with the plasma membrane The neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal by exocytosis and cross the synaptic cleft Neurotransmitters bind to appropriate neuroreceptors on the post-synaptic membrane, opening ligand-gated channels

Excitatory neurotransmitters (e.g. noradrenaline) open ligand-gated sodium channels (depolarisation) Inhibitory neurotransmitters (e.g. GABA) open ligand-gated potassium or chlorine channels (hyperpolarisation)

The combination of chemical messengers received by dendrites determines whether the threshold is reached for an action potential in the post-synaptic neuron Neurotransmitter molecules released into the synapse are either recycled (by reuptake pumps) or degraded (by enzymatic activity)

Overview of Synaptic Transfer

6.5.7 State that the endocrine system consists of glands that release hormones that are transported in the blood An endocrine gland is a ductless gland in the body that manufactures chemical messengers called hormones and secretes them directly into the blood Hormones act on distant sites (target cells) and tend to control slow, long-term activities such as growth and sexual development

Endocrine System

6.5.8 State that homeostasis involves maintaining the internal environment between limits, including blood pH, carbon dioxide concentration, blood glucose concentration, body temperature and water balance Homeostasis is the tendency of an organism or cell to maintain a constant internal environment within tolerance limits Internal equilibrium is maintained by adjusting physiological processes, including:

Body temperature (normally 36 - 38C)

Blood pH (normally 7.35 - 7.45) Carbon dioxide concentration (normally 35 - 45 mmHg) Blood glucose concentration (normally 75 - 95 mg / dL) Water balance (varies with individual body size)

6.5.9 Explain that homeostasis involves monitoring levels of variables and correcting changes in levels by negative feedback mechanisms

Most homeostatic control mechanisms operate through a negative feedback loop When specialised receptors detect a change in an internal condition, the response generated will be the opposite of the change that occurred When levels have returned to equilibrium, the effector ceases to generate a response If levels go too far in the opposite direction, antagonistic pathways will be activated to restore the internal balance

Negative Feedback Loop

6.5.10 Explain the control of body temperature, including the transfer of heat in blood, and the roles of the hypothalamus, sweat glands, skin arterioles and shivering Animals capable of temperature regulation within a given range are called homeotherms and maintain a constant body temperature through a negative feedback loop

The hypothalalmus acts as a control centre in thermoregulation by detecting fluctuations in body temperature The skin also possesses thermoreceptors and relays this information to the hypothalamus, which coordinates corrective measures

When body temperature rises, the following cooling mechanisms may occur:

Vasodilation: The skin arterioles dilate, bringing blood into closer proximity to the body surface and allowing for heat transfer (convective cooling) Sweating: Sweat glands release sweat, which which is evaporated at the cost of latent heat in the air, thus cooling the body (evaporative cooling)

When body temperature falls, the following heating mechanisms may occur:

Vasoconstriction: The skin arterioles constrict, moving blood away from the surface of the body, thus retaining the heat carried within the blood Shivering: Muscles begin to shake in small movements, expending energy through cell respiration (which produces heat as a by-product)

Other mechanisms through which homeotherms may regulate their body temperature include:

Piloerection: Animals with furry coats can make their hair stand on end (piloerection), trapping pockets of warm air close to the body surface Behavioural responses: Animals may physically respond to environmental conditions in a bid to regulate temperature (e.g. bathing, burrowing, etc.)

Thermoregulation by the Nervous System

6.5.11 Explain the control of blood glucose concentration, including the roles of glucagon, insulin and the alpha and beta cells in the pancreatic islets The body requires volumes of glucose in order to make ATP, however the amount of ATP demand will fluctuate according to need and thus the body regulates its release of glucose into the bloodstream as high levels of glucose in the bloodstream can damage cells (creates hypertonicity)

Two hormones, insulin and glucagon, are responsible for controlling blood glucose concentration (they have antagonistic functions) These hormones are released from different groups of cells with pancreatic pits (called the islets of Langerhans) and act principally on the liver

When blood glucose levels are high (e.g. after feeding):

Insulin is released from beta cells in the pancreas and causes a decrease in blood glucose concentration This may involve stimulating glycogen synthesis in the liver (glycogenesis), promoting glucose uptake into the liver and adipose tissue or increasing the rate of glucose breakdown (increase cell respiration)

When blood glucose levels are low (e.g. after strenuous exercise):

Glucagon is released from alpha cells in the pancreas and cause an increase in blood glucose concentration This may involve stimulating glycogen breakdown in the liver (glycogenolysis), promoting glucose release from the liver and adipose tissue or decreasing the rate of glucose breakdown (decrease cell respiration)

Blood Glucose Regulation by the Endocrine System

6.5.12 Distinguish between type I and type II diabetes

11.2 Muscles and Movement 11.2.1 State the role of bones, ligaments, muscles, tendons and nerves in human movement Bones: Provide a hard framework for stability and acts as levers (3rd class) to facilitate movement Ligaments: Holds bones together Muscles: Provide the force required for movement by moving one bone (point of insertion) in relation to another (point of origin) Tendons: Connect muscles to bones Nerves: Motor neurons provides the stimulus for muscle movement and co-ordinates sets of antagonistic muscles

11.2.2 Label a diagram of the human elbow joint, including cartilage, synovial fluid, joint capsule, named bones and antagonistic muscles (biceps and triceps) Structure of the Human Elbow Joint

11.2.3 Outline the function of the structures in the human elbow joint named in 11.2.2 Biceps: Bends the arm (flexor) Triceps: Straightens the arm (extensor)

Humerus: Anchors muscle (muscle origin) Radius / Ulna: Acts as forearm levers (muscle insertion) - radius acts as a lever for the biceps, ulna acts as a lever for the triceps Cartilage: Allows easy movement (smooth surface), absorbs shock and distributes load Synovial Fluid: Provides food, oxygen and lubrication to the cartilage Joint Capsule: Seals the joint space and provides passive stability by limiting range of movement

11.2.4 Compare the movement of the hip joint and knee joint Similarities:

Both are synovial joints Both are involved in the movement of the leg

Differences:

Comparison of Hip Joint and Knee Joint

11.2.5 Describe the structure of striated muscle fibres, including the myofibrils with light and dark bands, mitochondria, the sarcoplasmic reticulum, nuclei and the sarcolemma Each muscle fibre has the following specialised features designed to facilitate muscular contraction

Many nuclei (fibres are long and were formed from many muscle cells fusing together, hence the fibres are multinucleated) Large number of mitochondria (muscle contraction requires a lot of ATP) Tubular myofibrils, divided into sections called sarcomeres, and made of two different myofilaments (proteins responsible for contraction)

Where thin (actin) and thick (myosin) filaments overlap, a dark band occurs, and this is flanked by light regions containing thin filament only

The membrane surrounding a muscle fibre is called the sarcolemma The internal membranous network is called the sacroplasmic reticulum, it is analogous to endoplasmic reticulum but is specialised for muscle contraction (it contains high levels of Ca2+ ions)

Structure of a Striated Muscle Fibre

11.2.6 Draw and label a diagram to show the structure of the sarcomere, including Z lines, actin filaments, myosin filaments with heads, and the resultant light and dark bands

The H zone is the area only occupied by the thick filaments (myosin) The I bands (light) are the regions occupied by only thin filaments (actin) The A bands (dark) are the regions occupied by both filaments (overlap) The Z lines represent the extremities of a single sarcomere

11.2.7 Explain how skeletal muscles contract, including the release of calcium ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum, the formation of cross-bridges, the sliding of actin and myosin filaments, and the use of ATP to break cross-bridges and reset myosin heads

An action potential from a motor neuron triggers the release of Ca2+ ions from the sarcoplasmic reticulum Calcium ions expose the myosin heads by binding to a blocking molecule (troponin complexed with tropomyosin) and causing it to move The myosin heads form a cross-bridge with actin binding sites ATP binds to the myosin heads and breaks the cross-bridge The hydrolysis of ATP causes the myosin heads to change shape and swivel - this moves them towards the next actin binding site The movement of the myosin heads cause the actin filaments to slide over the myosin filaments, shortening the length of the sarcomere Via the repeated hydrolysis of ATP, the skeletal muscle will contract

Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle

11.2.8 Analyse electron micrographs to find the state of contraction of muscle fibres Muscle fibres can be fully relaxed, slightly contracted, moderately contracted and fully contracted

The sarcomere gets shorter when the muscle contracts, however the A band does not, showing that the filaments are not themselves contracting Instead, the filaments are sliding over each other and increasing their overlap, which can be seen as the gradual reduction in the H zone

Electron Micrographs of Relaxed and Contracted Muscle Fibres

11.3 The Kidney 11.3.1 Define excretion Excretion is the removal from the body of the waste products of metabolic activities

11.3.2 Draw and label a diagram of the kidney The Human Kidney

11.3.3 Annotate a diagram of a glomerulus and associated nephron to show the function of each part

The nephron is the functional unit of the kidney and includes: Afferent arteriole: Brings blood to the nephron to be filtered Efferent arteriole: Removes blood from nephron (minus filtered components) Glomerulus: Capillary tuft where filtration occurs Bowman's Capsule: First part of nephron where filtrate is collected Proximal Convoluted Tubule: Where selective reabsorption occurs Loop of Henle: Important for establishing a salt gradient in the medulla Distal Convoluted Tubule: Final site of selective reabsorption Collecting Duct: Feeds into ureter and is where osmoregulation occurs Vasa Recta: Blood network that reabsorbs components from the filtrate

11.3.4 Explain the process of ultrafiltration, including blood pressure, fenestrated blood capillaries and basement membrane

Ultrafiltration occurs when hydrostatic pressure forces blood through a semi-permeable membrane, separating blood cells and large proteins from the remainder of the serum

Ultrafiltration occurs between the glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule and requires two things to form the filtrate:

Hydrostatic Pressure

The glomerulus increases blood pressure by forming narrow branches (which also increases surface area for filtration) This pressure is maintained by a narrow efferent arteriole (relative to the afferent arteriole), which restricts the outflow of blood, keeping pressure high The net pressure gradient in the glomerulus forces blood into the capsule space

Basement Membrane

The basement membrane is a fine mesh that restricts the passage of blood cells and proteins - it is the sole filtration barrier Blood can exit the glomerulus directly through pores as the capillaries are fenestrated The filtrate can enter the Bowman's capsule directly because the podocytes that surround the glomerulus contain filtration slits between their pedicels The basement membrane lies between the glomerulus and Bowman's capsule

Ultrafiltration

11.3.5 Define osmoregulation Osmoregulation is the control of the water balance of the blood, tissue or cytoplasm of a living organism 11.3.6 Explain the reabsorption of glucose, water and salts in the proximal convoluted tubule, including the roles of microvilli, osmosis and active transport

The proximal convoluted tubule extends from the Bowman's capsule and is where most selective reabsorption in the nephron occurs All glucose, amino acids, vitamins and hormones are reabsorbed here, along with most (~80%) of the mineral ions and water The proximal convoluted tubule has a microvilli cell lining to increase the surface area for the absorption of materials from the filtrate There are also a large number of mitochondria in these cells, as reabsorption from the filtrate involves active transport Once materials have been activly reabsorbed into the tubule cells, they can passively diffuse into the bloodstream (along the concentration gradient) Mineral ions and vitamins are actively transported via protein pumps or carrier proteins Glucose is actively transported across the membrane in symport with sodium Water follows the movement of the ions passively (via osmosis)

Selective Reabsorption in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule

11.3.7 Explain the roles of the loop of Henle, medulla, collecting duct and ADH (vasopressin) in maintaining the water balance of the blood Creating a Salt Gradient in the Medulla

The function of the loop of Henle is to create a salt bath concentration in the fluid surrounding the tubule The descending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to water, but impermeable to salts The ascending limb of the loop of Henle is permeable to salts, but impermeable to water This means that as the loop descends into the medulla, the interstitial fluid becomes more salty (and less salty as it ascends into the cortex) As the vasa recta blood network that surrounds the loop flows in the opposite direction (counter-current exchange), this further multiplies the effect

Osmoregulation

As the collecting duct passes through the medulla as it drains into the ureter, the hypertonic solution of the deep medulla will draw water by osmosis Antidiuretic hormone (ADH or vasopressin) is a hormone released from the posterior pituitary in response to dehydration (detected by hypothalamus) ADH increases the permeability of the collecting duct to water, allowing more water to be reabsorbed by osmosis (via the production of aquaporins) This means less water remains in the filtrate and the urine becomes more concentrated When the individual is suitably rehydrated, ADH levels will decrease and less water will be reabsorbed from the collecting ducts

Osmoregulation in the Medulla

11.3.8 Explain the difference in the concentration of proteins, glucose and urea between blood plasma, glomerular filtrate and urine Proteins:

Proteins will be present in blood plasma, but not present in glomerular filtrate or urine This is because proteins cannot pass across the basement membrane during ultrafiltration and thus cannot form part of the filtrate

Glucose:

Glucose will be present in blood plasma and glomerular filtrate, but not present in urine (normally) This is because the glucose is selectively reabsorbed in the proximal convoluted tubule It is reabsorbed from the filtrate into the blood by active transport (symport with Na+ ions)

Urea:

Urea will be present in blood plasma, glomerular filtrate and urine

Only about 50% of urea is reabsorbed (some urea is reabsorbed to help regulate the medullary osmolarity gradient) Because water is reabsorbed from the filtrate (by osmosis, due to the hypertonicity of the medulla), urea becomes more concentrated in urine The concentration of urea in the urine will depend on the amount of water in the urine

11.3.9 Explain the presence of glucose in the urine of untreated diabetic patients

The urine of non-diabetic patients should contain no glucose as it is selectively reabsorbed from the filtrate in the proximal convoluted tubule Diabetics have higher levels of blood glucose due to either a lack of insulin secretion (type I) or insensitivity to insulin secretions (type II) Because of this, not all of the glucose in diabetics is reabsorbed into the blood (protein pumps in tubule wall become saturated) This results in the presence of glucose in the urine of untreated diabetics, which can be detected using test strips

6.6 Reproduction 6.6.1 Draw and label diagrams of the adult male and female reproductive systems Male Reproductive System

Side View

Front View

Female Reproductive System

Side View

Front View

6.6.2 Outline the role of hormones in the menstrual cycle, including FSH (follicle stimulating hormone), LH (luteinising hormone), estrogen and progesterone

6.6.3 Annotate a graph showing hormone levels in the menstrual cycle, illustrating the relationship between changes in hormone levels and ovulation, menstruation and the thickening of the endometrium

Follicular Phase:

FSH stimulates growth of several follicles Dominant follicle secretes estrogen Estrogen inhibits growth of other follicles (and FSH)

Estrogen stimulates development of endometrium

Ovulation:

A surge in LH causes ovulation (egg release) Rupturing of follicle creates a corpus luteum

Luteal Phase:

Corpus luteum secretes progesterone (and estrogen) Progesterone stimulates development of endometrium Estrogen and progesterone inhibit FSH and LH Corpus luteum degrades over time When corpus luteum degrades, progesterone levels drop Without progesterone, endometrium cannot be maintained Endometrium is sloughed away (menstruation) No longer inhibited, FSH can start menstrual cycle again

If fertilisation of egg occurs, the zygote releases a hormone (hCG) which maintains the corpus luteum

6.6.4 List three roles of testosterone in males

Pre-natal development of male genitalia Development of secondary sex characteristics Maintenance of sex drive (libido)

6.6.5 Outline the process of in vitro fertilisation In vitro fertilisation refers to fertilisation that occurs outside the body ('in vitro' = 'in glass')

Stop normal menstrual cycle (with drugs) Hormone treatments to develop follicles (FSH to stimulate follicle growth ; hCG for follicle maturation)

Extract multiple eggs from ovaries Sperm selected, prepared (capacitation) and then injected into egg via intra-cytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) Fertilisation occurs under controlled conditions (in vitro) Implantation of multiple embryos into uterus Test for pregnancy is conducted to see if implantation was successful

In Vitro Fertilisation

6.6.6 Discuss the ethical issues associated with IVF Advantages of IVF

Chance for infertile couples to have children Genetic screening of embryos could decrease suffering from genetic diseases Spare embryos can be stored for future pregnancies or used for stem cell research

Disadvantages of IVF

IVF is expensive and might not be equally accessible to all Success rate is low (~15%) and therefore stressful for couples It could lead to eugenics (e.g. gender choice) Often leads to multiple pregnancies which may be unwanted, unable to be budgeted for and involves extra birth risks Issues concerning storage and disposal of unused embryos (right to life concerns) There are cultural and religious objections to embryo creation by such means Inherited forms of infertility may be passed on to children

11.4 Reproduction 11.4.1 Annotate a light micrograph of testis tissue to show the location and function of interstitial cells (Leydig cells), germline epithelium cells, developing spermatozoa and Sertoli cells Testis Tissue

The testes are composed of seminiferous tubules which produce sperm Each tubule is surrounded by a basement membrane which is lined by germline epithelium cells The germline epithelium will divide by mitosis to make spermatogonia (which divide by meiosis to make spermatozoa)

The developing spermatozoa are nourished by Sertoli cells Outside of the tubules are blood capillaries and interstitial cells (Leydig cells), which produce the male sex hormone, testosterone

11.4.2 Outline the processes involved in spermatogenesis within the testes, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of meiosis and cell differentiation

Spermatogenesis describes the production of spermatozoa (sperm) in the seminiferous tubules of the testes The first stage of sperm production requires the division of germline epithelium by mitosis These cells (spermatogonia) then undergo a period of growth This is followed by two meiotic divisions that result in four haploid daughter cells These haploid cells then differentiate to form sperm cells The developing sperm cells are nourished throughout by the Sertoli cells

Overview of Spermatogenesis

11.4.3 State the role of LH, testosterone and FSH in spermatogenesis LH: Stimulates the interstitial cells (Leydig cells) to produce testosterone FSH: Stimulates the (first) meiotic division of spermatogonia Testosterone: Stimulates the (second) meiotic division of spermatogonia and the maturation of spermatozoa through differentiation 11.4.4 Annotate a diagram of the ovary to show the location and function of germline epithelium, primordial follicles, mature follicles and secondary oocyte Structure of the Ovary

The ovary contains follicles in various stages of development Egg cells within primordial follicles have been arrested in prophase I and have yet to undergo meiotic division Egg cells within mature follicles have begun meiotic division and are released from the ovary as secondary oocytes (arrested in prophase II) The ruptured follicle develops into a corpus luteum that will, in time, degenerate into a corpus albicans

The germline epithelium functions as an epithelial layer separating ovarian tissue from the rest of the body - it is not involved in oocyte development

11.4.5 Outline the processes involved in oogenesis within the ovary, including mitosis, cell growth, the two divisions of meiosis, the unequal division of cytoplasm and the degeneration of polar body

Oogenesis describes the production of female gametes (ova) within the ovary The process begins during foetal development, when a large number of cells (oogonia) are formed by mitosis before undergoing a period of growth These cells begin meiosis but are arrested in prophase I until puberty At puberty, some follicles continue to develop each month is response to FSH secretion These follicles complete the first meiotic division to form two cells of unequal size The cell with less cytoplasm is a polar body (which degenerates), while the larger cell forms a secondary oocyte The secondary oocyte begins the second meiotic division but is arrested in prophase II (until fertilisation) It is released from the ovary (ruptured follicle develops into corpus luteum) and, if fertilisation occurs, will complete meiosis The second meiotic division will produce an ovum and a second polar body

Overview of Oogenesis

11.4.6 Draw and label a diagram of a mature sperm and egg

11.4.7 Outline the role of the epididymis, seminal vesicle and prostate gland in the production of semen Epididymis

Testicular fluids are removed, concentrating the sperm Sperm mature and develop the ability to swim

Seminal Vesicle

Adds nutrients (including fructose) for respiration Secretes prostaglandins, causing contractions to the female system and helping sperm move towards the egg

Prostate Gland

Secretes alkaline fluid which neutralises vaginal acids (changes pH from 4 to 6 which aids sperm motility)

11.4.8 Compare the processes of spermatogenesis and oogenesis, including the number of gametes and the timing of formation and release of gametes Similarities:

Both processes result in the formation of haploid gametes Both processes involve mitosis, growth and meiosis

Differences:

11.4.9 Describe the process of fertilisation, including the acrosome reaction, penetration of the egg membrane by a sperm and the cortical reaction

When the sperm enters the female reproductive tract, biochemical changes to the sperm occur in the final part of its maturation (capacitation) The sperm is attracted to the egg due to the release of chemical signals from the secondary oocyte (chemotaxis) Fertilisation generally occurs in the oviduct (fallopian tube) To enter the egg membrane, the sperm must penetrate the protective jelly coat (zona pellucida) surrounding the egg via the acrosome reaction

The acrosome vesicle fuses with the jelly coat and releases digestive enzymes which soften the glycoprotein matrix

The membrane of the egg and sperm then fuse and the sperm nucleus (and centriole) enters the egg To prevent other sperm from penetrating the fertilised egg (polyspermy), the jelly coat undergoes biochemical changes via the cortical reaction

The cortical granules release enzymes that destroy the sperm-binding proteins on the jelly coat

Now fertilised, the nucleus of the secondary oocyte completes meiosis II and then the egg and sperm nuclei fuse to form a diploid zygote

11.4.10 Outline the role of hCG in early pregnancy

The endometrium is a blood-rich environment in which an implanted zygote can grow and it is sustained by the hormone progesterone If progesterone levels aren't maintained (i.e. the corpus luteum degenerates), then the endometrium will be sloughed away (menstruation) A fertilised zygote develops into a blastocyst that secretes human chorionic gonadotrophin (hCG) hCG maintains the corpus luteum post-ovulation so that the blastocyst can remain embedded in the endometrium and continue to develop Gradually the placenta develops and produces progesterone (at around 8 - 10 weeks), at which point the corpus luteum is no longer needed

Role of hCG in Early Pregnancy

11.4.11 Outline early embryo development up to the implantation of the blastocyst

After fertilisation, the zygote undergoes several mitotic divisions to create a solid ball of cells called a morula (at around 4 days)

Unequal divisions beyond this stage cause a fluid-filled cavity to form in the middle - this makes a blastocyst (at around 5 days) The blastocyst consists of:

An inner mass of cells (this will develop into the embryo) An outer layer called the trophoblast (this will develop into the placenta) A fluid filled cavity (called the blastocoele)

These developments all occur as the developing embryo is moving from the oviduct to the uterus When the blastocyst reaches the uterus, it will embed in the endometrium (implantation)

Early Embryo Development

11.4.12 Explain how the structure and function of the placenta, including its hormonal role in secretion of estrogen and progesterone, maintain pregnancy Structure and Function

The placenta is a disc-shaped structure that nourishes the developing embryo It is formed from the development of the trophoblast upon implantation and eventually invades the uterine wall The umbilical cord connects the fetus to the placenta and maternal blood pools via open ended arterioles into intervillous spaces (lacunae)

Chorionic villi extend into these spaces and facilitate the exchange of materials between the maternal blood and fetal capillaries Nutrients, oxygen and antibodies will be taken up by the fetus, while carbon dioxide and waste products will be removed The placenta is expelled from the uterus after childbirth

Hormonal Role

The placenta also takes over the hormonal role of the ovary (at around 12 weeks) Estrogen stimulates growth of the muscles of the uterus (myometrium) and the development of the mammary glands Progesterone maintains the endometrium, as well as reduces uterine contractions and maternal immune response (no antibodies against fetus) Both estrogen and progesterone levels drop near time of birth

Structure of the Placenta

11.4.13 State that the fetus is supported and protected by the amniotic sac and amniotic fluid

The fetus develops in a fluid-filled space called the amniotic sac Amniotic fluid is largely incompressible and good at absorbing pressure, and so protects the child from impacts to the uterine wall The fluid also creates buoyancy so that the fetus does not have to support its own body weight while the skeletal system develops Finally, amniotic fluid prevents dehydration of the tissues, while the amniotic sac provides an effective barrier against infection

11.4.14 State that materials are exchanged between the maternal and fetal blood in the placenta The fetus relies on the exchange of materials across the placental wall to grow and develop:

11.4.15 Outline the process of birth and its hormonal control, including the changes in progesterone and oxytocin levels and positive feedback

The process of childbirth is called parturition and is controlled by the hormone oxytocin After nine months, the fetus is fully grown and takes up all available space in the uterus, stretching the walls of the uterus This causes a signal to be sent to the brain, releasing oxytocin from the posterior pituitary Oxytocin inhibits progesterone, which was inhibiting uterine contractions Oxytocin also directly stimulates the smooth muscle of the uterine wall to contract, initiating the birthing process The contraction of the uterine wall causes further stretching, which triggers more oxytocin to be released (causing even more contraction) Additionally, the fetus responds to the cramped conditions by releasing prostaglandins which cause further myometrial contractions As the stimulus causing oxytocin release is increased by the effects of oxytocin, this creates a positive feedback pathway Contractions will stop when labour is complete and the baby is birthed (no more stretching of the uterine wall)

The Hormonal Control of Child Birth