Methodological Considerations in Contemporary Sociology

I. Defining Science Science requires empirical evidence as a basis for knowledge; that is, it requires evidence that can be confirmed by the normal human senses. We must be able to see, hear, smell, or feel it. Before a social scientist would agree that he knew religious differences increased the likelihood of divorce, for example, he would want to see statistical evidence.

Relationship between Observation and Theory

Science has two major goals: accurate description and accurate explanation. In sociology and anthropology, we are concerned with the accurate patterns of human interaction. The twin goals are obviously closely related: Accurate explanations depend on accurate descriptions. The process of building of the explanations is explain below:

1. Data The first requirement for good description or good explanation is empirical data that have been systematically and critically evaluated. This demands careful sampling and good study design to ensure that no biases creep into data gathering process. 2. Generalizations this means finding patterns in the data. Generalizations are statements of correlation; they note an empirical relationship between two variables. 3. Theories is usually embodied in the theory, an interrelated set of assumptions that explains observed patterns. 4. Hypotheses statements about relationships we expect to find if our theory is correct. These hypotheses lead us for more data. In the language of science, the process of moving from the data to theory is called induction, and the process of moving from theory to data is called deduction.

General Principles of Research At each stage of the scientific process, certain conventional procedures are use dto make sure that a researchers finding will be accepted as scientific knowledge. These procedures are cobered in classes on reseatcj methodology, statstics, and theory consrtucuion. At this point, we introduce four principles that underlie almost all reseatch variables, operational definitions, sampling, and notions of causality, and describe the normal reseac process.

1. Variables - measured characteristics that vary from one individual or group to the next. When hypothesize a cause and effect relationship between two variables, the cause is called the independent variable and the effect is called dependent variable. Like for example, poverty is independent variable and alcoholism is the depended variable; that us, we have hypothesized that alcoholism is dependent on poverty. 2. Operational Definitions - is a result of the process of operationalization and is used to define something (e.g. a variable, term, or object) in terms of a process (or set of validation tests) needed to determine its existence, duration, and quantity. Since the degree of operationalization can vary itself, it can result in more or less operational definitions. 3. Sampling a systematic selection of representative cases from the larger population. The objective of sampling is to get accurate empirical data at a fraction of the cost that it would take to examine all possible cases. 4. Notions of Causality - is the relation between an event (the cause) and a second event (the effect), where the second event is understood as a consequence of the first.

Research Process
1. Choosing a topic this is the first step of research process, choosing a topic is the stage of research where your own values and interests are allowed free rein. This is the only stage where researcher is not expected to be value-free. 2. Reviewing the literature After choosing a topic, you may begin a review of previous work in the area, to avoid rediscovering the wheel, you must find out what is already established. 3. Defining the problem After you discover what is already known, you are in a position to design your own research project. It may be deductive or inductive depending on the research purpose. 4. Choosing a Research Design The questions you specify will determine the research design you will use. At this point, you need to consider operational definitions, sampling, and choice of gathering strategy. 5. Gathering data is the most expensive and time consuming step. Depending on the research design you have specified, it may include setting up a lab, recruiting subjects, choosing locations for observation or making up questions and choosing a sample. 6. Analyzing the data once the data is processed, you must begin making sense of them, what generalizations are supported? What hypotheses are supported? Analysis is a complex task.

7. Presenting Conclusions The final step of the research process is to present your findings to others. If your research design is judged as insufficient to support your findings, then your study will not be published.

Three Strategies for Gathering Data

1. The Experiment It is a research method which the researcher manipulates the independent variable to test theories of cause and effect. In the classic experiment, a group that experiences the independent variable, an experimental group, is compared with a control group that does not. 2. The Survey/Questionnaire the investigator asks a relatively large number of people the same set of standardized questions. This question may be ask through telephone, or in a paper and-pencil format. Incidence is the frequency with which an attitude or behavior occur, trends are changes in a variable over time; and differentials are differences in the incidence and phenomenon across subcategories of the population. 3. Participant Observation - under this label, there are three varieties of research strategies participating, interviewing, and observing. In participating, the investigator or researcher will examine and participate in the experiment. In interviewing, instead of sending a interviewer.

Format in making Research Paper

Title page the title page of the research paper should include the title of the page, the students name, the course and section, the professors name, and the date. Outline Page presents a topic or sentence outline and sometimes include the thesis statement. Text (Body) and Documentation Each fact or opinion obtained from a source, whether quoted directly or summarized, must be documented with parenthetical reference or with a note. The body of your research paper contains the majority of the information and facts. It should be the longest section of your paper. Bibliography The type of bibliography most often requested for an undergraduate reseach paper is a list of the works that are referred to in the paper.

Euthanasia

Euthanasia is the deliberate advancement of a person's death for the benefit of that person. In most cases euthanasia is carried out because the person asks to die, but there are cases where a person can't make such a request. A person who undergoes euthanasia is usually terminally ill.Euthanasia can be carried out either by doing something, such as administering a lethal injection, or by not doing something necessary to keep the person alive (for example failing to keep their feeding tube going or stopping the life support.)