Pottery, cultures, people?

The European Baden material re-examined

Martin Furholt
The Baden culture, like others in central Europe, has long been assumed to be the material indication of a people. In a searing analytical deconstruction, the author shows that Baden pottery has no equivalence with other cultural practices, and is itself an amalgam of a number of different pottery fabrics and styles, many of them regionally diverse. Singled out among them is the early Borel az ne ware which is actively spread in central Europe, perhaps accompanied by a knowledge of the rst wheeled vehicles. Keywords: Central Europe, Neolithic, culture concept, Baden culture, pottery, Borel az ware, wheeled vehicles

Introduction
Baden culture is a term well established in the archaeological literature, being of exceptional importance since it is associated with inuential models of supra-regional perspective: Nandor Kalicz sees Baden culture as connected to the Anatolian-Aegean Bronze Age (Kalicz 1963); Baden culture plays a major role in Sherratts Secondary Products Revolution (Sherratt 1981: 264f.; 1997) and more recently, Maran (2001; 2004) has stressed the connections between Baden culture and the earliest wheeled vehicles. The inuences of Baden culture on central European pottery styles have been postulated in several cases, for example the Cham culture (Matuschik 2001) or the Salzm unde culture (Behrens 1973). Considering the important role Baden culture plays in our understanding of Late Neolithic Europe it is alarming how poorly dened the concept still is. One problem lies in the assumption of block-like cultural coherence, but this critique could be directed towards many Neolithic cultures. The aim of this paper is to show an alternative to the culture-historical framework by applying a polythetic classication and relating the material culture to different spheres of cultural communication. To this end, I have re-examined the components of the Baden culture and assigned different roles to them, isolating the special supra-regional role of one of them Borel az ware.

The traditional concept of Baden culture

Although there has been much discussion on the problems of the traditional concept of culture since it was formulated by Childe (e.g. M uller 2001: 38ff.; Shennan 1989; Wotzka 1993), the concept of Baden culture has remained more or less unquestioned in central

Institut f ur Ur- und Fr uhgeschichte, Christian Albrechts-Universit at, D-24098 Kiel, Germany (Email: martin.furholt@ufg.uni-kiel.de)

Received: 24 May 2007; Accepted: 14 September 2007; Revised: 18 October 2007 antiquity 82 (2008): 617628

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European archaeology. It is generally assumed that this pottery style equates to a distinct social group with a more or less homogenous culture, having a certain set of stone tools, burial rites, clay gurines, a common economic basis, settlement structure etc. Where congruence between different spheres of the material culture a premise for the application of Childes concept is lacking, this is either explained by the scarcity of the archaeological remains or even constructed through a research practice that actively seeks out the cultures burial ritual, economy or settlement structure. Recent research on Baden culture has seldom questioned whether the archaeological phenomenon is to be classied as an archaeological culture. Instead, the discussion has centred around problems of dating and its relation to other archaeological cultures (see N emejcov a-Pav ukov a 1998 for a summary). A challenge to that approach was the discovery of the close links between an early Baden pottery, the so-called Boler az, and the neighbouring Cernavod a III culture (Roman & Diamandi 2001). In the early period, pottery of one style was in use along the whole course of the Danube, while the later Baden subgroups have a much more limited distribution. The result of these observations was to question whether the early Boler az-Cernavod a III pottery and the later Baden pottery represented two separate cultures or one.

Critique of the concept of a culture

Such a question is misleading, since it is built on a number of assumptions that have never been validated. The rst of these is that Baden culture pottery has a discrete distribution and a sharp boundary with other pottery styles, a proposition maintained despite its obvious disagreement with the archaeological evidence: namely that a great amount of settlement assemblages contain a mixture of types. One response is to create new composite cultures, such as the Cernavod a III-Boler az, or the mixture of Funnel Beaker and Baden pottery in parts of Lesser Poland (Zastawny 1999). But the regular appearance of Boler az pottery in settlements dominated by Funnel Beaker pottery in Moravia (Proch azkov a & Vitula 2001), Bohemia (Z apotock y 2000), Upper Silesia (Bukowska-Gedigowa 1980) and Lesser Poland (Kruk & Milisauskas 1990) cannot be explained by labelling such nds as imports or as the result of cultural contacts. Neither does the creation of yet another culture, called Funnel Beaker-Baden solve the problem. A second assumption is that the distribution of Baden culture pottery corresponds to the distribution of other types of material culture. This too is unsupported by the archaeological record. Flint industries, for example as dened by Balcer (1988) show no congruence to the boundaries given by the Baden style pottery. Investigations directed towards the int industries of the Baden culture reveal their lack of uniformity (Kaczanowska 1982/1983; Pelisiak 1991). The so-called human gurines with mobile head are usually described as a common type of idol associated with Baden pottery (Kalicz 2002; Novotn y 1981). The fact, that these gurines are found in the Carpathian Basin and south-western Slovakia, whereas animal gurines dominate in Austria and Moravia (Pavel c k 1982; 1992; Ruttkay 1995: 154), strongly indicates that the clay gurines denote a cultural sphere with boundaries cutting right through the area of the Baden culture.
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Neither do cultural practices equate to the cultural region of the pottery. Burial customs associated with Baden style pottery show a high degree of regionality (Sache 2005). The ratios of animal bones from the settlements reveal the dominance of sheep and goat in a number of settlements with Baden style pottery in the Carpathian Basin, while in the regions to the north, cattle is dominant (Benecke 1994: 89ff.). Again, a boundary is cutting right through the area of the Baden culture, forming two areas that tie in with their respective surroundings. It is impossible to nd any sphere of material culture that shows a distribution corresponding to that of the pottery style. Lastly, it is necessary for the argument for a cultural zone to assume that Baden culture pottery has itself a uniform style. This third assumption seems to be the most forced of all. In the literature there are so many names for subgroups or related groups of the Baden culture that it seems strange that it has been possible to preserve the concept of one uniform culture for so long. In fact, during the last decades some of the subgroups were separated from the Baden culture, such as the Kostolac- or the Bo sa emejcov a-Pav ukov a ca group (N ac cultures are obvious. The 1998), while close links between Baden, Jevi sovice and Rivn remaining Baden culture is further divided into very different groups, such as Viss, Ossarn, Ozd, Uny, Fony od, Mogia, Zesawice-Plesz ow etc. (N emejcov a-Pav ukov a 1998). In 1973 Neustupn y wrote that in no single region were all the phases of the Baden culture documented by unambiguously phased assemblages (1973: 328). The Baden culture, as a homogenous entity was obviously already in doubt 35 years ago, but nevertheless the concept has remained largely unquestioned. The three premises stated above, which might qualify Baden culture as an archaeological culture in the traditional sense, have clearly to be rejected. The concept of the Baden culture as a homogenous cultural unit cannot be sustained.

Towards a new concept: the Baden pottery styles

Since Baden culture was dened by the stylistic traits of pottery, it should be made clear that this is the basic meaning of the term. The problems listed above indicate the necessity of a denition of the Baden pottery style that ignores traditional terminological boundaries. Secondly, a polythetic classication of the material, following Clarke (Clarke 1968: 246ff.), should replace the premise of congruent distributions of the different spheres of material culture. Thirdly, a uniformity of the Baden pottery style should not be presupposed, but the search for subgroups should be part of the investigation. Such an investigation has been carried out on material from the regions of Moravia, Upper Silesia and Lesser Poland. Here, 120 assemblages from settlements were sampled in order to cover the spatial and temporal reach of the so-called Baden culture as it appears in the literature. In a second step, the investigation was extended into the surrounding areas, thus covering the northern area of the distribution of Baden style pottery (Figure 1). The pottery in the assemblages was then classied scientically. Figure 2 shows a correspondence analysis of the decorative motifs of 389 settlement nds from the study area. The graph seems quite blurry at rst, because it contains a broad regional scale, but is in fact quite well structured, as the grey shading indicates. It draws on a set of regional analyses
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Figure 1. The settlement nds forming the basis for the analysis.

(see key) and reveals a number of more general style groupings (for details of the method, see Furholt 2008). Style 1, to the left, is the so-called Boler az style (N emejcov a-Pav ukov a m & B arta 1977), Style 2 could be called Funnel Beaker with Boler az inuences (cf. S d 2003). Style 3 is a variant of post-Boler az, while Style 4 is referring to the Late Baden and Bo sa c k 1973), Style 5 to Jevi sovice B (Medunov a-Bene sov a 1977), encompassing ca (Pavel also variants of Kostolac and Rivn ac (Ehrich & Pleslov a-Stikov a 1968), whereas Style 3/4 is referring to the different variants of Classical Baden and Ossarn (Mayer 1995). Style 7 is denoting Funnel Beaker complexes with Baden style inuences in Lesser Poland, Greater Poland and Kuyavia (Burchard 1973). One principle variant (along the x-axis) is clearly dominated by time, demonstrated by the 15 new radiocarbon dates (Table 1) included in the analysis. The diagram covers the period from 3650-2900 BC. Styles 1 and 2 are distinguished by the strength of Funnel Beaker inuence, as the units in the upper part of the graph show a dominant inuence of the Funnel Beaker pottery style. A second variant (along the y-axis) seems therefore to be determined to a great deal by the difference in composition between a southern cultural inuence, that I will call Baden and a northern cultural inuence, denoted as Funnel Beaker. So, the phenomenon that is usually called Baden culture in the literature, is actually to be described as a number of distinct pottery styles, sharing a number of common features, but still differentiable. They are largely differentiated by period of manufacture and by the Funnel Beaker-Baden dichotomy.
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Figure 2. Correspondence analysis of the decoration motifs for 389 settlement assemblages.

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Table 1. List of 15 radiocarbon dates obtained for settlement nds with Baden style pottery (after Furholt 2008). Note that the date from Jevi sovice B seems too old. Feature Jevisovice C2 Jevisovice C1 Jevisovice B Brno Lisen III Brno Lisen II Wojnowice 3 Zeslawice 97 Zeslawice 140a Wyciaze 50 Iwanowice Babia Gora I, 1 Iwanowice Babia Gora I, 18 Iwanowice Babia Gora I, 21 Iwanowice Babia Gora I, 38b Iwanowice Babia Gora I, 62 Hlinsko 1/69 Context cultural layer cultural layer cultural layer cultural layer cultural layer settlement pit settlement pit settlement pit Lab No. Erl-6430 Erl-6431 Erl-6432 Erl-6433 Erl-6434 UtC-13259 UtC-13260 UtC-13261 Date Dev. 4821 4670 4745 4710 4748 4356 4387 4420 50 50 49 49 51 46 45 43 43 43 44 50 44 43 60
13

BCcal (1 ) 3660-3520 3520-3360 3640-3380 3630-3370 3640-3380 3020-2900 3090-2910 3260-2920

Sample

21,5 21,5 19,7 20,3 21,0 23,8 24,4 21,4

settlement pit UtC-13263 4542 settlement pit UtC-13264 4365 settlement pit UtC-13265 4336 settlement pit UtC-13266 4380 settlement pit UtC-13267 4300 settlement pit UtC-13268 4362 settlement pit UtC-13773 4620

animal bone animal bone animal bone animal bone animal bone animal bone, cattle animal bone, cattle animal bone, domestic pig 20,3 3370-3100 animal bone, domestic pig 20,8 3020-2910 animal bone, cattle 22,0 3020-2890 animal bone, cattle 21,3 3090-2910 animal bone, cattle 24,8 3010-2870 animal bone, cattle 22,8 3020-2910 animal bone, dom. sheep 20,0 3500-3140 animal bone, wild boar

The (early Baden) Boler az style

For a long time, the Boler az style (Figure 3) has been known as the earliest subgroup of the Baden culture (Neustupn y 1959), and the increasing number of radiocarbon dates allows a more precise dating (mapped in Figure 2). Schwechat 14 (Austria), positioned at the very beginning of Style 1, has yielded the oldest date (see Wild et al. 2001), being earlier than 3650 BC, while Jevi sovice C1, positioned in the later part of the cluster, dates into the period 3520-3350 BC. Arbon Bleiche 3 (Lake Constance), at the end of that cluster, was dated by dendrochronology to 3384-3370 BC (de Capitani 2002) and conrms an overall duration from 3650 BC to 3350 BC. The stratigraphy of Jevi sovice (Medunov a-Bene sov a 1981) indicates that in the region of southern Moravia, the Boler az style is not present long before 3520 BC. The lowest layer, C2, dated to 3650-3520 BC, shows very little Boler az inuence, whereas the next layer, C1, dated to 3520-3350 BC is a key site for the denition of that style. Boler az inuences in Lesser Poland cannot be dated earlier than the phase Bronocice III, starting somewhat around or after 3500 BC. Although most dates for Boler az lie between 3650 and 3350 BC (Wild et al. 2001), there are two series indicating a survival of the Boler az style after 3350 BC, one from Balaton osz od (Horv ath et al. in press) and one from Gy or-Szabadr etdomb (Figler et al. 1997).
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Figure 3. A typical inventory of the Boler az style, selected from Jevi sovice C1 (after Medunov a-Bene sov a 1981).

The overall picture provided by the radiocarbon dates seems to indicate the presence of a core area of the Boler az style in Lower Austria and a subsequent spread to the north and west after 3500 BC, maybe also to the south and east, where we presently lack dates. In Figure 2, we dened the Styles 1 (Boler az) and 2 (Funnel Beaker with Boler az). The difference between them is obviously a gradual one that can be described by the values of the y-axis of the correspondence analysis. Mapping these values for each nd in the early period (3650-3500 BC) and interpolating them (see contours), illustrates the character of the spread of the Boler az style (Figure 4). The boundary between settlements dominated by Funnel Beaker style (positive values) and settlements dominated by Boler az style (negative values) is stretching somewhere north of the Danube. Additionally, the spread of Boler az seems to be concentrated to the big river valleys of Moravia, up to the Moravian Gate in the east, and to Bohemia, in the west. In the following period (3500-3350 BC), the Boler az style spreads further to the north and dominates most of Moravia and Bohemia, reaching Lake Constance in the west.

Regional and supra-regional fabrics

In order to understand the systems of pottery distribution better, fabric analysis was applied to 8000 vessels from Moravia, Upper Silesia and Lesser Poland. A number of attributes including the material of the temper, the surface treatment, wall thickness, colour and
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Figure 4. Interpolation of the values of the second axis of the analysis (Figure 2), using triangulation with smoothing (Vertical Mapper, ver. 3.1) for the earliest period of the Boler az style (3650-3500 BC).

structure were assembled and the resulting data set subjected to correspondence analysis in its turn (Furholt 2008). The analysis (Figure 5) grouped the vessels into three clusters, the differentiation between them being an expression of the fabric coarseness, from thick walled, richly tempered vessels on the right side, to smoothed or polished, thin walled vessels on the left side of the graph. Thus, the three clusters are interpreted as the reection of three technical standards for the production of three types of fabric (technical groups, TG) of different quality ne wares (TG1 and 2) and coarse wares (TG3). Examining the occurrence of ne and coarse fabrics within the style groups offers some important results. Fine ware fabrics do not vary as between Style 1 and 2. Style 2 tends to contain Boler az ne ware vessels with Funnel Beaker coarse wares, a trend illustrated in the m hilltop settlement site of Rm z (Figure 6; S d 1994) and at the settlement site of P ra slavice m (Proch azkov a & Vitula 2001). S ds (2003) study of Moravian grave mounds also reveals the repeated combination of a set of Funnel Beaker vessels with one or two Boler az vessels, the latter clearly restricted to jugs and cups of ne ware. At Arbon Bleiche 3 (de Capitani 2002) the dominant fabric (at 80-90 per cent) is a coarse ware with local regional forms, while the minority fabric, a ne ware includes most of the Boler az vessels (de Capitani 2002). Within the pottery assemblages we can therefore identify at least two spheres of cultural interaction. Among coarse ware styles, local traditions are utilised, like the Moravian Funnel Beaker or the Pfyn-Horgen style at Lake Constance, while in the sphere of ne wares,
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Figure 5. Correspondence analysis of the technical parameters of 8000 pots from the regions of Moravia, Upper Silesia and Lesser Poland. The units (triangles) are grouped in three distinctive clusters. The variables position are indicated by the dots.

Figure 6. Ratio of pots sampled from the site of Rm z, illustrating the relationship between style and technical group.

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Figure 7. Model of the pottery assemblage containing elements representing different cultural spheres related to diverse social realms.

supra-regional styles seem to play a much greater role, like the pottery of the Boler az style.

Discussion
With these results in mind we can replace a culture with a composite model, in which different kinds of material belong to different sub-systems and play different roles in society (Figure 7). In this case the coarse-ware-vessels seem to refer to local networks and social interactions, while the ne ware vessels would represent a supra-regional system in which the material is used more actively, in contrast to the supposedly more habitual role of the coarse ware. The ne ware in the Boler az style shows no restriction to, or preference for, any kind of settlement type, environment or type of economy. There is an association with the custom of cremation (Sache 2005), indicating that the style bears ideological connotations, whose content remains unclear. The connection of the Boler az style with the appearance of the earliest evidence for wheeled vehicles has long been noted (Maran 2001; 2004; Sherratt 1981; 1997; 2004). And this association has been strengthened by the recent dates. Though there are dates for the earliest evidence of wheeled vehicles lying between 3600 and 3300 BC, wherever more precise dates are available, we nd a quite clear restriction to the time span of 3500-3350 BC (see Bakker et al. 1999). The earliest dates for Boler az in its supposed core area (Lower Austria, south-west Slovakia) indicate a start of that style before or around 3650 BC. But it also seems clear that the spread of this style cannot be xed before the year 3520 BC moreover, it seems to have taken place exactly in the time-window (3520-3350 BC), as the dendrochronology dates from Arbon Bleiche 3 seem to prove.
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Conclusion
The so-called Baden culture does not embrace a consistent cultural package, and even if expressed by pottery alone has been shown here to be a coarse approximation of a number of ceramic subsystems. What is more, ne and coarse ware pottery show different developments. In the early phase (3650-3350 BC) coarse fabrics are regionally diverse and local in their context and meaning. The earliest ne wares, the Boler az wares, have their rst use in Austria (and the adjacent region), but then spread over a short time span to north and west mixing with other cultural attributes. This expansion, dated by new radiocarbon dates to 3520-3350 BC coincides closely to the spread of wheeled vehicles as currently known. Acknowledgements
Research in the Czech Republic and in Poland was funded by the DAAD and Studienstiftung des Deutschen Volkes. I wish to thank a lot of people, especially Cornelia Becker, Maria Guagnin, Volker Heyd, Sawomir Kadrow, ebela and Piotr Wodarczak Johannes M uller, Jaroslav Pe ska, Constanze Rassmann, Knut Rassmann, Lubomir S for discussions and aid.

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