Exploring The Pig Waste

EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL OF WASTE AS A RENEWABLE SOURCE OF ENERGY IN THE PACIFIC ISLANDS
April 2007
SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 626
Community Lifelines Programme Energy Team

SOPAC Secretariat
Copies of this report can be obtained from the: SOPAC Secretariat Private Mail Bag GPO, Suva Fiji Islands Phone: (679) 338 1377 Fax: (679) 337 0040 Website: http://www.sopac.org
Cover page photo: Logs/Forestry waste for use in a steam boiler (Source: SOPAC)
Exploring the Potential of Waste as a Renewable Source of Energy in the Pacific Islands SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 626
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EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL OF WASTE AS A RENEWABLE SOURCE OF ENERGY IN THE PACIFIC ISLANDS
April 2007
SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 626
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACRONYMS ................................................................................................................................................ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ............................................................................................................................ EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................................. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ...................................................................................................... WASTE-TO-ENERGY TECHNOLOGY Anaerobic Digestion..................................................................................................................................... Alcohol Fermentation ................................................................................................................................... Pyrolysis ...................................................................................................................................................... Gasification .................................................................................................................................................. Direct Combustion ....................................................................................................................................... ADVANTAGES & DISADVANTAGES OF WASTE-TO-ENERGY FACILITIES Advantages.................................................................................................................................................. Disadvantages ............................................................................................................................................. USABLE WASTE RESOURCES IN THE PACIFIC Forestry, Logging, and Timber Industry ....................................................................................................... 1. Logging Residues ............................................................................................................................. 2. Saw Milling Residues........................................................................................................................ 3. Plywood and Veneer Residues......................................................................................................... 4. Secondary Processing Residues...................................................................................................... Coconut Cultivation ....................................................................................................................... Cocoa Cultivation .......................................................................................................................... Sugar cane Cultivation .................................................................................................................. Animal Waste ............................................................................................................................. ... Other Waste .................................................................................................................................. WASTE-TO-ENERGY TECHNOLOGY POTENTIAL IN THE PACIFIC Waste and Processes .................................................................................................................................. Past and Recent Experiences...................................................................................................................... 1. Alcoholic Fermentation ..................................................................................................................... 2. Biomass Gasification ........................................................................................................................ 3. Anaerobic Digestion.......................................................................................................................... 4. Direct Combustion ............................................................................................................................ Prospects..................................................................................................................................................... Concerns and Appropriateness ................................................................................................................... CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS .............................................................................................. BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................................................................................................... GLOSSARY ................................................................................................................................................. Page 5 6 8 9
10 11 13 14 15
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17 17 17 18 18 19 19 19 20 20
21 22 22 22 22 23 23 23 24 25 26
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ACRONYMS BECE CDM CHP CO CO2 CH4 C2H5OH C6H1206 C12H22O11 EPC EU FEA FSC GHG H2 H2S IPCC IPP KP MW MSW N2 pH PICs REEP STP UNFCCC Biomass Energy Consultants and Engineers Clean Development Mechanism Combined Heat and Power Carbon Monoxide Carbon Dioxide Methane Ethanol Glucose Sucrose Electric Power Corporation (Samoa) European Union Fiji Electricity Authority Fiji Sugar Corporation Greenhouse Gases Hydrogen Hydrogen Sulphide International Panel on Climate Change Independent Power Producers Kyoto Protocol mega-watt Municipal Solid Waste Nitrogen The power or potential of hydrogen and related to how acidic or alkaline a solution is Pacific Island Countries Renewable energy and energy efficiency programme Standard Temperature and Pressure United Nations Framework on Climate Change Convention
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The Waste-to-Energy technical publication is one of a series of publications put together to increase awareness on renewable energy technology for the Pacific region. It is primarily intended for use by people who are interested in waste-to-energy technologies and policy makers. Contributions from Kirti Mala, who initially started research on this publication and Koin Etuati, Project Officer Energy, who did additional research and compilation of this publication, are acknowledged. SOPAC Energy staff members are acknowledged for their invaluable inputs and contributions to this publication. Special thanks to Mr Paul Fairbairn, Manager Community Lifelines Programme for his invaluable review and comments and to Mrs Mereseini (Lala) Bukarau for final editing on this publication.
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Figure 1: Map of the Pacific region. Source: SOPAC.

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
In the past, waste streams in the Pacific Island Countries (PICs) have been regarded as nonreusable until concern for environment forced a new way of looking at waste as a resource to be reused and recycled. Various types of waste material that exist in relatively sufficient volume range from agricultural to forestry residues, cash crop waste, animal waste and municipal solid waste. On their own, each category can be used in varying degrees to generate heat and power. The increasing cost of fossil fuel imports has become a major inhibiting factor to the economic development aspirations of most PICs. Retrieving energy from waste is an option among many that may reduce dependence on fossil fuel imports with viable flow-on economic, social and environmental benefits to both government and people alike. Waste-to-energy technologies were first introduced in the region during the 1970s to produce heat mostly for food crop drying such as copra and cocoa. However, through insufficient local technical capacity and change in priorities, the use of these facilities has been discontinued. As the logging industry gained increasing importance and wider application and exploitation in the Pacific region, it is now appropriate to introduce technologies to enable sawmills to run on their own waste using state of the art co-generation for both heat and power. Bio-chemical processes are available to turn organic waste streams into biogas that can be used for lighting and cooking. Various designs are available for different circumstances. The experience in a number of countries in the Pacific shows that this technology option is widely applicable in the region. Alcohol fermentation can be used to create fuels like ethanol for petrol substitution, which is already applied in the sugar industry but could be more widely applied on starchy crops. Gasification technology, in which both heat and a combustible gas are produced, will enable the use of biomass with more efficiency as opposed to direct combustion. Waste-to-energy facilities can assist PICs by reducing waste streams that one disposed of in land-fills thus providing opportunities to reduce the cost of energy generation. A drawback of waste-to-energy technologies is due the higher water and low energy content of many of the available materials (wood/biomass, etc); conversion efficiencies may be low thus requiring significant attention in terms of maintenance. In addition, atmospheric emissions can be above acceptable limits and the disposal of highly toxic residuals from direct burning of plastics and incineration of medical waste can become an environmental problem and concern. Experience with the management and disposal of various waste streams from logging, agroindustries and municipal solid waste in the Pacific indicate that many more opportunities exist to utilise and apply state-of-the-art technology for efficient generation of sustainable heat and power.
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INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Energy plays a crucial role in improving the life style of people across the world. Lack of access to adequate, affordable, reliable, safe and environmentally benign energy is a severe constraint on development. The Pacific island countries (PICs) are made up of a group of small island states scattered across a very large ocean, the Pacific Ocean, and often large distance exists between numerous islands that make up a single State. The Pacific region spans a huge area from about 1270E to 1300W, between the latitudes 300S and 200N (Figure 1).
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It is estimated that more than a billion people in rural areas of the Asia-Pacific region lack access to modern energy services, leading to a dependence on non-commercial energy supplies to meet basic needs. The importance of energy in its various forms to social and economic progress cannot be understated. Energy is needed in increasing amounts for a whole range of purposes including the provision of a comfortable environment for living, lighting, cooking, heating and cooling, communication and transportation, manufacturing, commercial purposes and entertainment. At the household level, access to different energy sources is a key indicator of the standard of living. Most of the energy used globally comes from fossil fuels (coal, oil and gas). The emissions from burning fossil fuels affect the environment. The International Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) 2001 Report states that about three quarters of the anthropogenic emissions of CO2 to the atmosphere over the past 20 years is due to the burning of fossil fuels.
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The impacts of increasing fossil fuel demand of the global community is already affecting the developing and least developed nations of the Pacific region. The fluctuating increase in global oil prices have resulted in increased costs for necessary services such as electricity, transportation and consumer products across the region. Climate change to a degree has been held responsible for the changing weather patterns in the Pacific. The PICs face a unique and challenging task in responding to energy issues and sustainable development due to their varying natural resource endowment, energy use patterns and geographical dimensions and locations. For most of the PICs, being devoid of indigenous fossil fuels, there is always heavy and in many cases, total reliance on imported fossil fuels for transportation, industrial, commercial and domestic energy needs. New and renewable as well as cleaner and more efficient energy technologies have been introduced into the region, yet the strain caused by the rise in energy demand and consumption seemingly belittle the benefits brought by these improvements. The challenge continues to lie in finding a way to reconcile the necessity and demand for energy supply with its impact on the natural resource base in order to ensure a sustainable path for development now and in the future. Renewable energy such as solar, hydropower, biomass and, to a lesser extent, wind have already been introduced in a number of PICs and significant opportunities and potential remain to further develop them. There are interests in using waste to produce energy. Such technologies are considered an effective method to manage the waste and a probable solution to waste management and disposal issues in the Pacific region. It is therefore essential that ways be found to reduce fossil fuel consumption and look at alternative resources such as utilising waste material as an energy resource.
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WASTE-TO-ENERGY TECHNOLOGY
Various technologies are available for recovering useful energy from waste. Some of the common processes used in waste-to-energy technologies are: anaerobic digestion, alcoholic fermentation, pyrolysis, gasification and direct combustion.
Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion is a bio-chemical process where bacteria break down plant and animal (organic) matter in the absence of air to produce biogas. Biogas is mainly composed of 50-70% methane (CH4), 30-40% CO2 and low amount of other gases such as Hydrogen (H2), Nitrogen (N2), Water Vapour (H20) and Hydrogen Sulphide (H2S). The gas is valued for its use as a source of energy and the slurry for its fertilising properties (soil nutrients). Energy content of biogas can also be transformed into various other forms such as mechanical energy and heat energy (for cooking and lighting) depending on the need and availability of the technology. Some common uses of biogas are for cooking, lighting, refrigeration and running internal combustion engines.
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The breakdown of the organic matter is favoured by warm, dark and wet conditions but temperature is the major contributing factor essential for the survival of the bacteria in the digestion process. The chemical process that ultimately culminates in the end product is created by the breaking down of organic matter by bacteria into sugars and then into various acids which are decomposed to produce gas. The desired constituent in the biogas is methane. Nutrients such as soluble nitrogen compound remain available in solution and can be used as fertiliser and humus. The biochemical process occurs in the following three stages each favoured by distinctive set of anaerobic bacteria: 1) Insoluble biodegradable materials (cellulose, polysaccharides, and fats) are broken down to soluble carbohydrates and fatty acids. This process takes about a day at 250C; 2) Acid forming bacteria produce mainly acetic and propionic acid. This process takes about a day at 250C; and 3) CH4 forming bacteria complete the digestion forming approximately 70% CH4 and 30% CO2 with trace amounts of hydrogen (H2) and hydrogen sulphide (H2S).
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Examples of places where anaerobic digestion is applicable include sewage systems, piggery washings and cattle shed slurries, abattoir waste, food processing residues and municipal refuse landfill dumps.
Figure 2: An illustration of a Fixed-Domed Carmatec Digester.

Source: http://www.energy.gov.zw/renewable
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There are two common man-made technologies for obtaining biogas; the first (which is more widespread) is the fermentation of human and/or animal waste in specially designed digesters. The second is a more recently developed technology for capturing methane from municipal waste landfill sites. A Fixed Domed Carmatec Digester (Figures 2 & 3) is widely used in China and India and a few projects are available in the Pacific region, in the Fiji Islands and Vanuatu. The scale of this simple biogas plant can vary from a small household system to large commercial plants of several thousand cubic meters.
Figure 3: Picture of Biogas Installation.

Source: Biofuels Fundamentals (2005 REEP Workshop/SOPAC)
Alcohol Fermentation
Alcohol fermentation is the production of ethanol through an enzymatic biochemical process that breaks down the structural polysaccharides (starch), such as cellulose and sucrose. This alcoholic fermentation process is used in the production of alcoholic drinks for example beer and wine. Sugars and starch are naturally produced in energy crops e.g. sugar cane, beet fruit, cassava (roots). The biochemical conversion of biomass to ethanol, Figure 4, currently involves three basic steps: 1) Thermochemical treatments of raw biomass to make the complex polymers (cellulose molecules) more accessible to enzymatic breakdown; 2) Production and application of special enzyme preparations (invertase) that hydrolyse plant cell-wall polysaccharides to a mixture of simple sugars; and 3) Fermentation, mediated yeast (zymase) to convert these sugars to ethanol and carbon dioxide.
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The application of special enzymes is restricted to an acidic condition of between pH 4-5.

Steps 1 & 2: C 12 H 22 O 11
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Sucrose
Water
H2O
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Invertase Catalyst
C 6 H 12 O 6 +
B B B B B B
Fructose
C 6 H 12 O 6
B B B B B
Glucose
Step 3:
Fructose/Glucose
C 6 H 12 O 6
B B B B B
Zymase Catalyst
2C 2 H 5 OH
B B B B
Ethanol
2CO 2
B
Figure 4: Alcohol Fermentation Chemical Reaction.
The fermentation process takes around three days to complete and is carried out at temperatures between 250-300oC. However, a more complete understanding of enzymes and microbes involved in biomass conversion to ethanol is needed to overcome much current inefficiency in the production process.
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Liquid fuels such as ethanol have two basic attributes that are of extreme importance; one being their ease of handling and secondly, their controllable combustion in engines. Ethanol (C2H5OH) can be a direct substitute or additive for petrol (gasoline) in the following three ways: 1) E85 a blend of 85% fuel ethanol and 15% gasoline is used in spark ignitions engines ( i.e gasoline engines); 2) E95 a blend of 95% fuel ethanol and 5% gasoline is used in compression ignition engines ( i.e diesel engines); and 3) E10 sometimes called gasohol is a fuel mixture of 10% ethanol and 90% gasoline that can be used in the internal combustion of engines. E10 is more commonly used in developed countries along with E85.
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Figure 5: Workers check turbines that power the sugar cane crushers inside an ethanol plant in Sao Paulo, Brazil.
Source: http:/ /msnbc.msn.com/id/14185606/
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Pyrolysis
Pyrolysis is a process by which organic matter is heated rapidly at 450o-600oC in the absence of air. Under this condition, vapour, gases, liquids, tars and solid residue such as charcoal and ash are produced. The predominant application of pyrolysis is to produce bio-oil, which is produced by condensing the vapours. However, charcoal, on the other hand has much higher energy content per unit mass than the original fuel and burns at much higher temperatures. Bio-oil can substitute for fuel oil or diesel in many static applications including boilers, furnaces, generators and turbines used for the purposes of electricity generation. Noteworthy, the bio-oil are more convenient, clean and easily transportable than the original biomass. The other chemical products are stand-alone important chemical feedstock for further processes, or as directly marketable goods. The air-fuel ratio during combustion is a critical parameter affecting both the temperature and the type of product. Pyrolysis units (Figure 6) are most easily operated below 600oC but typically at 300-500oC. Higher temperatures of between 600-1000oC need more sophistication, but more hydrogen will be produced in the gas. At below 600oC, these are the four stages in the distillation process:
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1) 100-120oC the input material dries with moisture passing up through the bed;
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2) 275 C the output gasses are mainly N2, CO and CO2. Acetic acid and methanol distil off;
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3) 280 to 350oC exothermic reactions occur giving off complex mixtures of chemicals (ketones, aldehydes, phenols, esters), CO2, CO, CH4, C2H6 and H2. Certain catalysts e.g. ZnCl enable these reactions to occur at lower temperatures; and
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4) All volatiles are driven off, a higher proportion of H2 is formed with CO and carbon remains as charcoal with ash residues. This process has been used for centuries to produce charcoal, in more modern times the additional products such as combustible gases and oily like outputs are also used.
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Figure 6: A 5 ton/day Pyrolysis Plant in the Netherlands.

Source: http://www.btgworld.com/
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Gasification
Gasification is simply pyrolysis, adapted to maximise the amount of combustible gases released (and then captured) rather than the amount of char or volatile compounds. Organic material that can be gasified include wood, charcoal, rice husks, coconut shells and husks and a variety of other dry biomass materials. In the gasification process where air (as opposed to pure oxygen) is used, a mixture of combustible gases is produced: primarily methane, complex hydrocarbons, hydrogen and carbon monoxide. This producer gas, after cleaning is suitable for use in an internal combustion machine, boilers or kiln, engine use, and turbine to produce combined heat and power (CHP), but is too dilute for economic transport in pipelines over long distances. The gasification process is either self-sustaining once the operating temperature is reached or it can be maintained by recycling a small proportion of the energy produced from the combustion of the fuel gases.
Figure 7: A Combined Heat and Power Gasification Plant, Denmark.

Source: Assens Fjv_eng-pdf.pdf
Figure 8: A Biomass to Electricity Gasifier, Indonesia.

Source: 2005 REEP workshop/SOPAC
An advanced biomass gasification system (Figure 7) would have very high capital costs. However, more relevant biomass gasification (Figure 8) would be appropriate for a small-scaleself-sustained gasification plant. A biomass gasification system generally consists of four principal components as shown in Figure 9. These components include:
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1) Fuel preparation, handling and feed system; 2) Gasification reactor vessel; 3) Gas cleaning, cooling and mixing system; and 4) Energy conversion system (e.g. internal combustion engine with generator or pump set, or gas burner coupled to a boiler and kiln.
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Figure 9: An illustration of Power/Heat Gasification Process.
Direct Combustion
This involves the direct burning of biomass waste such as wood, agricultural crop waste or domestic waste to produce heat for cooking, space and water heating, crop drying, some industrial processes and steam to drive a turbine to produce electricity. Figure 10 shows a direct combustion plant for producing heat for crop drying. Like many other biomass-to-energy conversion processes, direct combustion installations are often adapted to combine or alternate between the use of biomass and fossil-fuels to provide electricity. Such technology is referred to as co-generation. The three most widely used combustion technologies are modular incinerator systems, mass-burn systems and refusederived fuel systems.
Figure 10: A Direct Combustion Plant fuelled with forestry waste in the Fiji Islands.
Source: R. Mario/SOPAC
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ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WASTE-TO-ENERGY FACILITIES Advantages

Some of the environmental benefits of using waste to produce energy are listed below. It is an alternative to fossil fuels therefore a cleaner source of energy comparatively. A way of recycling waste: waste-to-energy facilities are complementary to solid waste management programmes. The amount of waste is reduced which saves landfill space and therefore significantly reduces landfill mass. Land reclamation existing landfill can be better used for other purposes such as agriculture than for waste storage. Reduced sanitation and health problems as in the anaerobic digester, the slurry/sludge obtained from animal waste reduces pungent smells. Also breeding sites for flies, gnats and mosquitoes, which transmit diseases, are eliminated. Most of the pathogens are killed during fermentation as in the anaerobic digestion. Some of the economic benefits of using waste to produce energy are listed below. Increased application of eco-tourism due to clean environment. Spin-off services are created waste collection creates jobs. Reduction in cost of electricity long term. Reduction in waste disposal costs. Financial benefits include the following: Sale of electricity and steam. Savings in tipping fees are made. Waste materials such as bagasse, sawdust, shavings and off-cuts are available at zero cost apart from their transportation costs. Displace substantial percentage of imported fuels therefore import costs are reduced which in turn translates into consumers savings.
Disadvantages
Some of the disadvantages of using waste to produce energy are as follows: Some waste materials have high moisture content and therefore require drying before gasification which requires some form of energy and time. Combusting wet materials for energy production can be very inefficient. Biomass waste has a relatively low energy density. The energy content per kilogram is well below that of coal or petroleum products thus transporting over longer distances is uneconomical. Biomass can be carbonised, or partially carbonised to increase its energy density, the costs of transforming such may lead to considerable losses. Atmospheric emissions are another issue associated with using waste to produce energy. For industrial-scale combustion it is usually necessary to include some form of particulate collection in the fuel system. If the fuel is very uniform in size and moisture it may be possible to design the combustion system so that emission limits are met without such add-on control equipment. The construction of a waste-to-energy plant can be very expensive and proper maintenance and servicing will have to be carried out frequently. The environmentally safe disposal of ash from waste-to-energy facilities can be problematic.
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USABLE WASTE RESOURCES IN THE PACIFIC

Biomass forms a major proportion of waste resources in the PICs. These biomass resources include waste from forestry, logging and timber industries, copra industry (husk and shells), cocoa and sugar cultivation and animal waste.
Forestry, Logging and Timber Industries

Forestry, logging and timber industries in some bigger PICs have potential to generate heat and power from waste products. Theoretically under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol, there are four types of bio-energy project which are grouped together according to the modalities and procedures of the CDM, residues, non-residues, and annual, multi-annual cultures. Wood residues use in power generation does not constitute an eligible CDM activity that could be combined with afforestation and reforestation but can be categorised as fuel switching measure. Listed below are some examples of the different residues generated in the timber or logging industries.
1. Logging Residues
The residues are generated during the various phases of the logging operations. They come in various forms bark, stumps, tops, branches and logs (Figure 11).
Figure 11: Logging Residues (bark, shavings, and stumps) discarded in the Fiji Islands.
Source: A. Matakiviti/SOPAC
2. Saw Milling Residues

Processing in a sawmill produces residues. The mills recover only about 50%. The rest of the residues in the form of sawdust, shavings and bark are discarded (Figure 12).
Figure 12: Sawmill Residues (shavings) disposed and burnt in the Fiji Islands.
Source: A. Matakiviti/SOPAC Exploring the Potential of Waste as a Renewable Source of Energy in the Pacific Islands SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 626
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3. Plywood and Veneer Residues

Plywood mills produce residues in form of veneer core, defective ends and irregular pieces of veneer sheets (Figure 13).
Figure 13: Veneer Cuttings disposed in one of a plywood mills in the Fiji Island.
4. Secondary Processing Residues

These residues are generated by the planing mills, moulding plants, flooring mills, furniture factories, and others in form of sawdust, plane shavings, small pieces of lumber trimming, edging bark and fragments (Figure 14).
Figure 14: Secondary Processing Residues (sawdust shavings and fragments) in the Fiji Islands.
There are a large number of sawmills in the region, ranging from very small to large, particularly in the larger countries such as the Fiji Islands, Papua New Guinea and the Solomon Islands. The Fiji Islands, for example, has sufficient biomass waste generated through sawmill operations that could be used to generate electricity. According to a recent assessment report by SOPAC in July 2006, an average amount of waste produced by five (5) sawmills surveyed in the Fiji Islands was around 85,680 m3 per year. The breakdown of these logging wastes is summarised in Table 1.
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Table 1: Average Annual Log Input and Waste Materials.
Sawmills
Volume of Logs Processed(m 3 )

P P
Potential waste 50% recovery (m 3 )

P P
Waiqele Sawmill Valebasoga Tropikboard Fiji Forest Industries Taiwan Timbers Fiji Hard Wood Corporation Total
11,000 14,000 43,000 3,360 90,000 171,360
5,500 12,000 21,500 1,680 45,000 85,680
Tropik Woods through its Power Purchase Agreement(s) with the Fiji Electricity Authority (FEA) is enhancing a 9.3 MW co-generation plant at their mill in Drasa, Lautoka, to replace the existing 3MW facility. FEA is also investigating biomass options for four sites in Savusavu to develop between 1 and 2 MW capacity of biomass power. Some sawmills use waste product residues on site to produce steam for boilers mainly for drying processed timbers. This is the process adopted by the Fiji Forest Industries and the Valebasoga Tropikboards. Several factories that produce coconut oil and soap use wood waste to generate some of the required process steam and electricity. Examples include the coconut cil factory in Savusavu and the oil and soap factory in Lautoka that are owned by Punjas Limited.
Coconut Cultivation
Waste such as coconut shells and husks produced by copra smallholders are used as a source of energy for cooking and heating. Energy can be extracted from the leaves and trunk of coconut trees that are cut down from time to time or during replanting. In the copra industry, coconut husks and shells are the predominant forms of biomass used for copra drying which are used rather inefficiently, resulting in large amounts being required to achieve the desired able reduction in moisture content. However, with proper technological application as in biomass gasification and direct combustion, greater and more efficient energy outputs could be achieved. Coconut shell also can be utilised to produce high quality activated carbon and charcoal by pyrolysis process, for used also in cooking and heating.
Cocoa Cultivation
Production and rehabilitation of cash crops such as cocoa is important as export of these products earn valuable foreign exchange for the country. The Cocoa Development Project and the Support to the Cocoa Industry in Vanuatu and Papua New Guinea (PNG) respectively, are examples of projects that promote and support the cocoa industry. However with appropriate waste to energy management, integrated as part of the development, can provide greater opportunity to increase the communities access to energy. Biomass out of a cocoa plantation comes from the pruning process. Waste is generated from cocoa fruit and leaf while woody biomass is also generated during replanting. Grid connected electricity from crop residues such as cocoa could be an option in remote areas where electricity grid extension are not economically viable and an isolated mini grid connection would be applicable.
Sugar cane Cultivation

In terms of biomass energy, sugar cane cultivation produces bagasse that can potentially be converted into usable energy. During replanting and harvesting, sugar cane waste such as leaves and cane tops are residues available for conversion to usable energy.
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The sugar industry forms a major part of the agricultural sector in the Fiji Islands. The four sugar mills owned by the Fiji Sugar Corporation (FSC) Limited have a collective electricity generating capacity of around 30MW during the sugar cane crushing season. The boilers in these mills are fuelled by bagasse. Firewood is used to supplement bagasse in some mills during particular times when there is shortage of bagasse or when the open-air-stored bagasse is in an advanced stage of decay. The bagasse is generated on site while whatever firewood used is purchased locally. FSC is one of the 3 Independent Power Producers (IPP), whereby they produce electricity for their own use in their production facility and sell the surplus to FEA to distribute to its customers.
Animal Waste
Waste from poultry, pigs, cattle and goats can be converted to generate energy (biogas) in an anaerobic digester. Two biogas plants in the Fiji Islands are used for household energy use such as cooking (Figure 15).
Figure 15: Cooking using biogas.

Source: A.Matakiviti/SOPAC
Figure 16: A fixed-domed Carmatec biogas digester.

Source: A.Matakiviti/ SOPAC
Both biogas digesters are fixed-domed Carmatec biogas plant (Figure 16) with a volume of 15 m3 and both use cattle and pig waste.
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Other Waste
Other waste in the Pacific include plastics, paper and food waste, which normally end up as Municipal Solid Waste (MSW). Most of the PICs suffer from high levels of non usable/recyclable waste generated from imported products such as plastic products, the disposal of which are increasingly causing major environmental problems. However, in developed countries where expertise and financial resources are readily available, these non-recyclable wastes are frequently incinerated to produce energy. In other scenarios, these wastes are deposited in large landfills with the collection of methane gas through the anaerobic digestion. Similar installations in PICs for example, the Tafaigata Landfill in Samoa and the Naboro Landfill in the Fiji Islands are able to generate methane gas. However, such waste disposal and wasteto-energy technologies for atoll countries of the Pacific is unquestionably inappropriate considering the usually high perched and vulnerable water lens and limited land space for landfill construction and development. Technical capacity and resources available also need to be assessed to develop a relevant and applicable technology.
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WASTE-TO-ENEGRY TECHNOLOGY POTENTIAL IN THE PACIFIC Waste and Processes

Over the last decade, demand for consumer products has significantly increased which naturally led to a substantial increase in waste generation. This substantial increase in waste however has substantially contributed towards effecting a behavioural change for some PICs as far as waste management and disposal is concerned. More often than not, waste tend to be left to the natural process of decomposition or where there is sufficient incentive, burnt, as is the conventional practice of waste disposal. Such practises have even been witnessed as still prevalent in logging and sawmill industries. Obviously, the disposal (or non-disposal) of waste, be it recyclable or non-recyclable sources create environmental problems where they are not properly disposed or reused (Figure 17). But with alternative waste-to-energy technologies that have now become available, and more so with the increasing costs of fossil fuel, it is important that PICs consider utilising such technologies.
Figure 17: Sawmill waste pollute the surrounding environment in the Fiji Islands.
Source: A.Matakiviti/SOPAC
There is still a large potential for the efficient use of biomass waste in the Pacific Region. Table 2 shows the technical potential use of solid biomass for the Fiji Islands Islands, Vanuatu and Tuvalu.
TP
Table 2: Available Resource Bio-energy in 20002003 (PJ)*
Sector
Forestry Agriculture Livestock (Dung) Total
Fiji
5.98 42.14 6.75 54.9
15
Vanuatu
1.61 1.11 2.19 4.91
Tuvalu
0.017 0.05 0.06
*PJ = petajoule = 1000 million million joules = 10
The most promising crop/agriculture residue for the Fiji Islands is sugar cane bagasse, similarly other crops like coconut hold promise as bio-energy for the future. The potential for the exploitation of the human and animal waste resources for biogas production in PICs is high, primarily because local communities still largely lead a subsistence-level existence, close to the land, with human and animal waste a fact of their daily lives that have the potential to contribute to increased health problems if not properly managed. Table 3 lists promising biomass and waste resources and technologies relevant to the PICs.
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Table 3: A summary of promising biomass and waste to energy technologies for the Pacific region. Resources Sugar cane/Bagasse Technology/Processes and Products Direct combustion and gasification for heat and power. Ethanol fermentation for fuel substitute in land transport Direct combustion and biomass gasification for heat and power. Pyrolysis, Biomass gasification for heat and power Anaerobic digestion biogas for cooking, heat and power. Direct combustion and gasification for heat and power. Comments Technology already integrated. Higher prospects expected in sugar cane producing countries. Integration of appropriate waste to energy technology and waste management practices can create jobs and provide access to cheaper energy sources both for the industry and landowners. Good potential in countries where coconut and cocoa industries are economically viable and sustainable. Prospect for some countries, in cattle farms and in commercial and domestic piggeries. Lack of technical expertise on the construction of biogas digesters still need to be addressed. Such waste to energy technology needs to be integrated into the industries to ensure viability and contribution to energy security.
Forestry residues logging sawmill waste Coconut/Cocoa Waste Municipal Solid Waste Animal/Human Waste Agricultural residues
Past and Recent Experiences 1. Alcohol Fermentation

The alcohol fermentation technology from sugar cane processing is well developed and widely known in developed countries notably the United States of America and Brazil. However, the potential for this alternative technology in the Pacific in sugar producing countries, like the Fiji Islands and PNG, are currently being investigated. Other examples of starch crops that could be used as feed stock for alcohol fermentation, e.g. sweet sorghum, have also been considered for ethanol production in the Fiji islands in the 1980s but the economics at that time were marginal resulting in the idea being abandoned.
2. Biomass Gasification
Different types of biomass gasification technology have been trialled in some PICs in the 1970s. In 1981 there was the introduction of the Waterwide heat gasifiers throughout Papua New Guinea in the cocoa, coffee, copra and tea plantations. Similar projects were initiated and approved under the then Lome II Programme, which budgeted for a total of 17 gasifier projects for the Fiji Islands, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu and Samoa. In 1986, a 25kW plant was installed by Biomass Energy Consultants and Engineers (BECE) at the Onesua School in Vanuatu to demonstrate biomass gasification as a viable alternative technology. A recent case study reported that the project was successful and remained operational for 17 years largely due to one individuals enthusiasm and practical skills. The continuing support provided during this extensive period along with regular financial injections for replacement parts, (i.e. filter bags, etc) was also a contributing factor. Prospects of gasification technology, utilising copra mill waste, for example, husks and coconut shells are being currently considered in Samoa by EPC (Electric Power Corporation) as part of the CocoGen Project.
3. Anaerobic Digestion
Anaerobic digestion technologies have been viable in some demonstration projects in the Fiji Islands. However, larger-scale projects involved high initial capital investment, which was not usually available and sometimes contributed to the failure and less-than-full utilisation of such a technology. For example, the Colo-i-Suva Pig Farm Project set up in 1999 in the Fiji Islands had 300 pigs and was able to produce 16 m3 of biogas per day at standard temperature and pressure (STP). The project was implemented only for four years and was not utilised to its full potential as the farmer was not able to fund the electricity generating equipment that would utilise the excess gas to generate electricity.
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Two other biogas digesters but at a much smaller scale are still operational. Both systems have a 15 m3 Fixed-Dome Carmatec Digester. The oldest system that used cattle dung/waste for biogas was installed in 1997 and since then has been operational without any major technical problems. The second biogas digester was installed in 2001 and uses piggery waste to produce biogas. Both systems provide gas for cooking and heating. A pig waste sanitation and biogas energy production project was also developed in Tuvalu in 2002. The project failed due to various technical factors and the lack of resources and technical expertise on the island.
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The prospect of utilising animal waste for producing energy is promising; however the lack of capacity in the construction and installation of the biogas plant or digester remains a barrier.
4. Direct Combustion
As noted earlier in this report, the use of direct combustion technology is being used in large factories in the Fiji Islands, for example the Punjas Factory in Lautoka as well as in some smaller logging factories. Currently, the FSC is one of the three independent power producers (IPPs) operating in the Fiji Islands which are engaged in co-generation and producing electricity for their own use and sell the surplus to FEA to distribute to customers. As noted earlier, agricultural waste can be used to generate a combination of heat and power using appropriate technologies such as direct combustion.
Prospects
A number of proposals to develop waste-to-energy facilities in many PICs have been written and submitted to potential donors/investors for consideration. The waste-to-energy technology is perhaps the solution to meeting some of the regions increasing energy requirements thus, reducing both the need to import petroleum products and contribute to reducing current dependence on fossil fuels. The waste-to-energy technology seems to have worked well at research and development project as well as demonstration level however, the involvement of the private sector developers are quite reserved, as there is a large initial investment required. Supportive policies, plans and the assistance with initial investments can help alleviate barriers to the development of waste-toenergy plants on a commercial basis.
Concerns and Appropriateness

Waste-to-energy conversion may seem promising and ideal for some PICs, however, the region has to take precautions and work on lessons and experiences learnt from past projects. The question(s) the region should now consider are: Is it time to adopt the alternate technology as an integral part of electricity generation due to high fuel costs? Given the vulnerability of our small island states, what are the environmental impacts of having a waste-to-energy plant in the country? The establishment and running of a waste-to-energy plant requires enormous amount of power and a continued guaranteed source of waste. Where will the power come from? Do the islands have abundant waste to burn? Will more diesel generators be needed to supply power for the plant? Will the waste-to-energy work out cheaper than the currently available renewable energy technologies such as solar photovoltaic, hydro and wind? Will the country be able to service and maintain such an installation?
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CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Like the introduction of any new energy technology, the question of suitability, appropriateness and sustainability arises. Waste-to-energy technology for the Pacific is what many people will perhaps agree to, given its benefits of not only generating heat and electricity but also as an alternative way of disposing waste however, do these benefits outweigh the environmental impacts that can result indirectly from generating electricity from waste? With a few countries in the Pacific region identified as having potential for waste-to-energy bioenergy plants, perhaps developers should consider carefully the recommendations provided from feasibility studies that look at options to build a pilot/demonstration plant at these sites. However, the questions like the one raised above relating to appropriateness, concerns, environmental and economic impacts should also be answered. The region should also consider improving its institutional policy and financial structures and mechanisms for managing and implementing renewable energy technologies and other alternative technologies, such as waste-to-energy technologies. The Pacific small island states will definitely not be able to adopt and sustain the new alternative technologies on their own. The region needs assistance and guidance from its neighbouring developed and developing nations, as well as lessons learnt from past experiences. Several constraints to the large-scale commercial use of waste to produce energy remain, which include: technology development, investment costs, available indigenous technical skills and management capabilities. An available option is to register the waste-to-energy projects under the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) of the Kyoto Protocol, which will enhance the financing and implementation of such technologies through the transfer of technical expertise and carbon financing. This may be part of the solution to the constraints for renewable energy technology development in the Pacific region. The successful use of waste to produce energy on a substantial and commercial basis is dependent on appropriate technologies, the size and type of waste resource available, availability of a suitable level of power initially, and the level of capacity to maintain the installation all translating to high initial costs for such an undertaking.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bowry, V., Cheatham, C., Cloin, J., Forstreuter, W., Vaitilingom, G. October 2005. CocoGen Samoa Feasibility Study into the use of Coconut Oil Fuel in EPC Power Generation, prepared for EPC and UNDP, SOPAC, Fiji. Dutschke, M., Kapp, G., Lehmann, A., Schafer, V. 2006. Risks and Chances of Combined Forestry and Biomass Projects under the Clean Development Mechanism, Hamburg: UNEP & HWWA Hamburg. Fiji Electricity Authority. Annual Report 2005. Herbert, W., et al. 2004. Pacific Islands Regional Energy Assessment Regional Overview Report- Volume 1, GEF, SPREP, UNDP. Apia, Samoa. Intermediate Technology Development Group. (Undated). Technical Brief, Biogas and Liquid Fuels Practical Answers to Poverty, ITDG Publishing. Woods, J. et al. March 2006. Mitigation & Adaptation Strategies for Global Change, Volume II, Number 2 Bio-energy systems at community level in the South Pacific: impacts and monitoring, Springer, UK. Matakiviki, A. July 2006. Sawmill Waste Assessment in the Fiji Islands, PIEPSAP Field ReportSOPAC, and Fiji. Matakiviti, A. 2005. Biogas Plant Installations in the Fiji Islands Field Visit Report. PIEPSAP SOPAC, Fiji. Saloa K. (undated). Pig Waste Sanitation and Biogas Energy Production Project Proposal, International Water Programme, Department of Environment, Government of Tuvalu, Tuvalu. University of the South Pacific. June 1991. Biomass Gasifiers in the Pacific Energy Studies Unit, Institute of Natural Resources, USP, Fiji.
Websites used:

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http://en.wikipedia.org/EI0.fuel http://www.aciar.gov.au http://www.btgworld.com http://www.cd4cdm.org http://www.esru.strath.ac.uk http://www.e85fuel.com http://www.fao.org http://www.grida.no/climate http://www.sprep.org.ws http://www.unescap.org
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GLOSSARY Anaerobic Means without air or without oxygen. The absence of air during a biological process by which bioconversion takes place is called anaerobic digestion. Bagasse The dry, fibrous residue remaining after the extraction of juice from the crushed stalks of sugar cane. Can be used as a source of cellulose for some paper products and as fuel in direct combustion for heat and power generation. Biogas A methane gas that is generated by bacteria in the absence of air. The bacteria degrade materials such as animal/human manure. Biogas is considered a form of renewable energy. Biomass An organic matter that is available on a renewable basis including log and mill residues, agricultural crops and waste, livestock operation residues, aquatic plants and municipal waste. Boiler Any device used to burn biomass material and waste to heat water for generating steam. Cogeneration The technology of simultaneously producing electric energy and other forms of thermal or mechanical energy from a single facility for industrial or commercial heating or cooling purposes. Combustion The rapid process of oxidation when organic matter (biomass) ignites and burns producing heat. Heat is released in the process, assisting the breakdown of more biomass tissue and/or used indirectly. It is the same chemical reaction that occurs during decomposition and respiration requiring enough heat and oxygen. Chemical reaction: (6O2 + C6H12O6 6H2O + 6CO2).
B B B B B B B B B B B B
Decomposition The break down of the organic material to usable size molecules. Ethanol The alcohol product of fermentation that is used in alcohol beverages and for industrial purposes; chemical formula blended with gasoline to make gasohol; also known as ethyl alcohol or grain alcohol.
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Hydrolysis A chemical reaction that uses water to break down a compound. Methane A flammable gas produced from landfill waste and animal waste through anaerobic digestion, gasification or natural decay. Pyrolysis Oil Also referred to as bio-oil a product of pyrolysis (combustion in the near absence of oxygen).
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Published by the Community Lifelines Programme Energy Section
PACIFIC ISLANDS APPLIED GEOSCIENCE COMMISSION
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EXPLORING THE POTENTIAL OF WASTE AS A RENEWABLE SOURCE OF ENERGY IN THE PACIFIC ISLANDS

SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 626

Community Lifelines Programme Energy Team

SOPAC Miscellaneous Report 626

Figure 1: Map of the Pacific region. Source: SOPAC.

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Figure 2: An illustration of a Fixed-Domed Carmatec Digester.

Figure 3: Picture of Biogas Installation.

The application of special enzymes is restricted to an acidic condition of between pH 4-5.

Figure 4: Alcohol Fermentation Chemical Reaction.

Figure 6: A 5 ton/day Pyrolysis Plant in the Netherlands.

Figure 7: A Combined Heat and Power Gasification Plant, Denmark.

Figure 8: A Biomass to Electricity Gasifier, Indonesia.

Figure 9: An illustration of Power/Heat Gasification Process.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF WASTE-TO-ENERGY FACILITIES Advantages

USABLE WASTE RESOURCES IN THE PACIFIC

Forestry, Logging and Timber Industries

2. Saw Milling Residues

3. Plywood and Veneer Residues

4. Secondary Processing Residues

Table 1: Average Annual Log Input and Waste Materials.

Volume of Logs Processed(m 3 )

Potential waste 50% recovery (m 3 )

11,000 14,000 43,000 3,360 90,000 171,360

5,500 12,000 21,500 1,680 45,000 85,680

Sugar cane Cultivation

Figure 15: Cooking using biogas.

Figure 16: A fixed-domed Carmatec biogas digester.

WASTE-TO-ENEGRY TECHNOLOGY POTENTIAL IN THE PACIFIC Waste and Processes

Table 2: Available Resource Bio-energy in 20002003 (PJ)*

*PJ = petajoule = 1000 million million joules = 10

Past and Recent Experiences 1. Alcohol Fermentation

Concerns and Appropriateness

CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Published by the Community Lifelines Programme Energy Section

PACIFIC ISLANDS APPLIED GEOSCIENCE COMMISSION

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