Energy itsself is often designed as the capacity to do

work or trasnfer heat, a fuzzy concept.

It is easier to understand specific types of energy.
Energy is not some sort of invisible fluid.
Energy is not something that can be measured directly.

Concepts of Energy
TYPES OF ENERGY
A. Energy transfer between the system and surroundings without
any accompanying mass transfer OR ENERGY THAT can not be
stored in a system-they are solely transfer into and out of a
system.
1. Work
Mechanical work
Electrical work
Shaft work
Flow work (chapter 22).
2. Heat
B. Energy that can be stored, that is, retained because material has
associated energy: kinetic, potential and internal energy.
3. kinetic,
4. potential
5. internal energy
Work is a path function, and the value depends on the initial state, the
path, and the final state of the system.
Mechanical work : work that occurs because of a mechanical
force that moves the boundary of a system.
State 1 State 2
F
Electrical work : electrical work occurs when am electrical
current passes through an electrical resistance in the circuit.
Shaft work : shaft work occurs by a force acting on a shaft to
turn it against mechanical resistance.
Flow work : flow work is performed on the system when fluid is
pushed into the system by the surrounding occurs by a force
acting on a shaft to turn it against mechanical resistance.
Heat is commonly defined as that part of the total energy flow
across a system boundary that caused by a temperature difference
(potential) between the system and the surrounding (or between
two systems).
Heat is a path function.
Kinetic energy (EK) is the energy a system, or some material,
possesses because of its velocity relative to the surroundings, which
are usually, but not always, at rest.
The kinetic energy of a material refers to what is called the
macroscopic kinetic energy, namely the energy that is associated
with the gross movement (velocity) of the system or material, and
not the kinetic energy of the individual molecules that belong in the
category of internal energy.
The value of a change in te specific kinetic energy ( ) occurs in a
specified time interval, and depends only on the initial and final
values of the mass and velocity of the material.
.
AKE
Potential energy (PE) is energy the system possesses because of the
force exerted on its mass by a gravitational or electromagnetic field
with respect to a reference surface.
The value of a change in the specific potential energy, , occurs
in a specified time interval, and depends only on the initial and final
states of the system (state variabel), and not on the path followed.
.
APE
Internal energy (U) is macroscopic concept that takes into account
all of the molecular, atomic, and subatomic energies, all of which
follow definite microscopic conservation rules for dynamic system.
Internal energy can be stored. Because no instruments exist with
which to measure internal energy directly on a macroscopic scale,
internal energy must be calculated from certain other variables that
can be measured microscopically, such as pressure, volume,
temperature, and composition.
To calculate the internal energy per unit mass ( ) from the
variables that can be measured, we make use of a special property
of internal energy, namely that it is an exact differential because it is
a point or state variable.
.
U
Custom dictates the use of temperature and specific volume as the
two variables. For a single phase and single component, we say that
is a function of T and

By taking the total derivative, we find that

(21.5)

By defiinition is the heat capacity (specific heat) at
constant volume, given the special symbol Cv.
.
U
.
V
)

, (

V T U U =
V d
V
U
dT
T
U
U d
T V

|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=
( )
V
T U

/

c c
For all practical purpose in this text, the term is so small
that the second term on the righthand side of Equation (21.5) can
be neglected. Consequently, changes in the specified intenal energy
over a specified time interval can be computed by integrating
Equation (21.5) as follows:

(21.6)

For an ideal gas U is a function of temperature only. Equation
(21.6) alone is not valid if a phase change occurs during the
processs.
Note that you can only calculate differences in internal energy, or
calculate the internal energy relative to a reference state, but not
absolute values of internal energy.


( )
T
V U

/

c c
} }
= = = A
2
1
2
1

1 2

T
T
v
U
U
dT C U d U U U
The principles of the conservation of energy states that the total
energy of the system plus the surroundings can neither be created
nor destroyed*

*Can mass be converted into energy according to E=mc
2
? It is not
correct to say that E=mc
2
means mass is converted into energy. The
equal sign can mean that two quantities have the same value as in
measurements of two masses in an experiment, or it may mean (as
in general relativity) that the two variables are the same or are
equivalent things. It is in the latter sense that E=mc
2
applies, and
not in terns of converting a rest mass into energy. You might write
E=c
2
m. If m is negative, E is also negative. What this means is
as the inertia mass decreases, E decreases, and the reverse.
The Concept of the Conservation of Energy
Energy Balances for Closed Systems
System energy (U+PE+KE) = E
(E may change with time, AE)
Surroundings may do work
on the system, W
Heat, Q, may enter the
system
Unsteady state Systems
A(U+PE+KE)
inside
= AE = Q + W
Steady state Systems
0 = Q + W
All work done on a closed, steady state system must be transferred out as heat.
However, Heat added to a closed, steady state system Q does not always equal the
work done by the system (-W). (second law of thermodynamics).

Energy Balances for Open Systems
P
1
P
2
AE = ([U
1
+ P
1
V
1
] + E
k1
+ E
p1
) - ([U
2
+ P
2
V
2
] + E
k2
+ E
p2
) + Q - W
s

AE = (H
1
+ E
k1
+ E
p1
) (H
2
+ E
k2
+ E
p2
) + Q - W
s

Unsteady state Systems : AE = 0
Steady state Systems : AE = 0
The accumulation term (E) in the energy balance can be
nonzero because:
1. the mass in the system changes
2. the energy per unit mass in the system changes, and
3. both 1 and 2 occur.

Accumulation term (inside the system)
Type of energy in the system At time t
1
At time t
2

Internal
U
t1
U
t2

Kinetic KE
t1

E
t1

KE
t2

E
t2

Potential PE
t1
PE
t2

Mass of the system m
t1
m
t2

Energy accompanying mass transport (through the system boundary) during the interval
t
1
to t
2

Type of energy Transport in Transport out
Internal U
1
U
2

Kinetic KE
1
KE
2

Potential PE
1
PE
2

Mass of the flow m
1
m
2

Net heat exchange between the system
and the surroundings during the interval
t
1
to t
2

Q
Works terms (exchange with the
surroundings) during the interval t
1
to t
2

W
shaft

Net shaft, mechanical, and electrical work W W
mechanical

W
electrical

Flow work done on the system to introduce
material into the system

Flow work done on the surroundings to remove
material from the system
)

(
1 1 1
V p m
)

(
2 2 2
V p m
TABLE 22.1 Summary of the Symbols to be Used in the General Energy balance
The represent the so-called pV work, pressure
energy, flow work, or flow energy, that is, the
work done by the surroundings to put a mass of
matter into the system at boundary 1, and the work
done by the system on the surroundings as a unit
mass leaves th esystem at boundary 2, respectively.
Because the pressures at the entrance and exit to the
system are deemed to be constant for differential
displacement of mass, the work done per unit mass
by the surroundings on the system adds energy to the
system at boundary 1:

1 1 1 1

0
1 1

) 0

(

1
V p V p V d p W
V
= = =
}
Enthalpy
We will axpress the enthalpy in terms of the temperature and
pressure (a more convenient variable) than the specific volume).


(21.10)

By definition is the heat capacity at constant pressure, and
is given the special symbol Cp. For most practical purposes is
so small at modest pressure that the second term on the righthand
side of Equation (21.10) can be neglected.
However, in processes operating at high pressure, the second term on
the righthand side of Equation (21.10) cannot necessarily be
neglected, but must be evaluated from experimental data.
) , (

p T H H =
dp
p
H
dT
T
H
H d
T p
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
+
|
|
.
|

\
|
c
c
=

( )
p
T H c c /

( )
T
p H c c /