Early Quantum Phenomena

The Compton Effect The Compton Effect was explained in 1923 by applying conservation of energy and momentum but employing relativistic expressions for the energy and momentum of the photon and electron.
E= m c2 1 2

!1"
dr v= dt
2

p=

mv

1 2

!2"

where
1 = v v # c
2

!3"

The expressions for the energy and momentum !1" and !2" satisfy the $orent% invariance
E p m c2 =1. m c

!&"

'hen ()rays are scattered by electrons# a shift in fre*uency can be observed# the amount of this shift depending on the scattering angle. This effect was discovered by Compton in 1923 and explained on the basis of the photon picture simultaneously by Compton himself and +ebye. The following figure illustrates the ,inematical circumstances. 'e assume the electron is unbound and at rest before the collision.

Conservation of energy and momentum2 + m c2 = + m c & + p 2c 2 #

k = k + p #

!." !0" !1" !2"

k =/c .

Components of momentum conservation !0" yield p cos = cos c c p sin = sin c To eliminate # we add the s*uares of !1" and !2"-

2 2 2 2 2 2 p = 2 + 2 cos 2 2 cos + 2 sin c c c c 22 2 2

2 p 2c 2 = 2 2 + 2 2 2 cos

!9"

3ne can use !9" to eliminate p 2 in !." so we first rewrite !." as followsm c & + p 2c 2 = + m c 2
2

m c & + p 2c 2 = 2 2 + 2 2 + m c & 2 2 + 2m c 2 2m c 2
2 2

p 2c 2 = 2 2 + 2 2 2 2 + 2m c 2 2m c 2
E*uating !9" and !1 "# we have 2 cos = 2 + 2m c 2 2m c 2 cos = m c 2 m c 2
1 1 = = (1 cos ) = 2 sin 2 2 2 mc m c 2

!1 "

!11"

4n terms of wavelengths# one has = 2 = 2c / .

= 2c sin 2
2

!12"

where c h / m c is ,nown as the Compton wavelength of a particle with a rest mass m !here# an electron". The Compton wavelength can be used as a measure of the si%e of a particle. The ,inetic energy gained by the scattered electron is
Te = = 1 1 = 1 = + 2c sin 2 2

2 2c sin 2 Te = = + 2 sin 2 c 2

!13"

The ,inetic energy of the scattered electron is directly proportional to the energy of the photon. The Compton effect can only be observed in the domain of short wavelengths !()rays and gamma)rays". 3ne must remember that in classical electrodynamics# no alteration in fre*uency is permitted in the scattering of electromagnetic waves5 only light can explain the Compton effect. 6 *uanta with momentum k and energy relatively broad Compton line appears in the experiment due to certain momentum distributions of the electrons and because they are bound in atoms. The Compton effect experimentally confirms the concept of light *uanta !or photons" and the validity of the relativistic momentum and energy conservation in interactions between light and matter.

The Compton effect energy distribution of photons and electrons# showing dependence on the scattering angle.

Ritz Combination Principle 4n analy%ing the radiation emitted by atoms# one finds that each atom possesses characteristic spectral lines which may be formally arranged into certain spectral series !e.g.# the 7almer series in the hydrogen atom". The 8it% combination principle !19 2" states that new spectral lines can be found by additive and subtractive combination of two ,nown spectral lines. The existence of spectral lines implies that transitions of the electrons in an atom occur between discrete energy levels. The fre*uency condition E = h = explains the 8it% combination principle. The transition of an atom from a state of energy E to a state of energy En maybe represented schematically as follows.

'e have

n = E En = E Em + Em En = m + mn

4n terms of the fre*uencies#

n = m + mn

The spectral series result from transitions from different higher energy levels into a common 9ground state9 En. Thus# the spectral analysis of atoms suggests *uite clearly that only discrete energy levels exist in an atom and that energy can be transferred only by light *uanta with a definite energy.

The Franck-Hertz Experiment 6nother experiment demonstrating the *uanti%ation of energy was performed by :ranc, and ;ert% in 1913# using a triode filled with mercury vapour. The triode consists of an axial cathode < in a cylindrical grid 6 closely surrounded by a third electrode =. The electrons are accelerated between < and 6 to reach = through the anode grid. 6 small countervoltage prevents very slow electrons from reaching =. The experiment yields a current)voltage characteristic between < and = as shown in the following figure.

6s long as the energy of the electron in the field does not exceed &.9 e># the electrons can cross the tube without a loss of energy. The exchange of energy due to elastic collisions between electrons and mercury atoms can be neglected. The current increases steadily# but as soon as the energy of the electrons has reached &.9 e># the current drops drastically. 6 mercury atom obviously can ta,e up exactly this much energy from the electrons in a collision. Thereafter an electron has insufficient ,inetic energy to reach the second anode = and the atom emits this energy with the characteristic wavelength of ? 2.31@. 3n increasing the voltage further# the electrons can regain ,inetic energy and the process repeats itself. The :ranc,);ert% experiment shows the existence of discrete energy levels !*uanti%ation of energy" in the mercury atom.

The Stern-Gerlach Experiment Atern and Berlach in their experiment performed in 1921# observed the splitting of an atomic beam in an inhomogeneous magnetic field. 4f an atom possesses a magnetic moment m # it will be affected not only by a tor*ue# but also by a force F when in an inhomogeneous magnetic field H . The potential energy in the magnetic field is given by
V = m H

The force is given by the gradient# i.e.

F = V = m H

6 beam of neutral silver atoms was sent through an inhomogeneous magnetic field and the distribution of the atoms after passing the field was measured. Classically one would expect a broadening of the beam# due to the varying strength of the magnetic field. 7ut instead# the beam splits into two distinct partial beams. The intensity distribution on the screen is shown *ualitatively in the following figure.

This doubly pea,ed distribution implies that the magnetic moment of the silver atoms cannot orient itself arbitrarily with respect to the magnetic field5 rather# only two opposing orientations of the magnetic moment in the field are possible. This cannot be understood classically. Thus the phenomena of *uanti%ation appearing in the atomic domain are not restricted to energy and momentum only# but are also found in other physical *uantities li,e angular momentum. This particular *uanti%ation is called directional *uanti%ation or *uanti%ation of the angular momentum.