STRATA

Seismic Inversion
Instructor: Hemant Kumar Dixit Instructor: Hemant Kumar Dixit
22
nd
March 2
nd
April 2010
Vietnam Petroleum Institute (PetroVietnam)
August, 2008 2
STRATA Course Outline
Overview of Post-stack Inversion
Exercise 1 - Erskine 3D Initializing
Model Building 1: Log Correlation
Exercise 2 - Erskine 3D - Log Correlation and inversion
Model Building 2: Log Interpolation
Wavelet Extraction
Exercise 3 - Blackfoot - Starting the Project
Model-based Inversion Parameters
Exercise 4 - Blackfoot Model-based Inversion
Other Inversion Parameters
Exercise 5 - Blackfoot Other Inversion Methods
Overview of Pre-stack Inversion
Exercise 6 Simultaneous inversion of pre-stack data
August, 2008 3
Inversion is the process of extracting, from seismic data, the
underlying geology which gave rise to that seismic.
Traditionally, inversion has been applied to post-stack seismic data,
with the aim of extracting acoustic impedance volumes (Strata).
Recently, inversion has been extended to pre-stack seismic data, with
the aim of extracting both acoustic and shear impedance volumes.
This allows the calculation of pore fluids (Strata + AVO).
Another recent development is to use inversion results to directly
predict lithologic parameters such as porosity and water saturation
(Emerge).
General Inversion Comments
August, 2008 4
Input Seismic
Acoustic Impedance
Post-stack seismic
inversion
transforms an input
seismic volume into
a volume of
acoustic impedance.
This output display shows
3 components:
(1) Derived AI (colour)
(2) Derived AI (wiggle)
(3) Real AI logs
General Inversion Comments
August, 2008 5
Post-stack:
Recursive: Traditional bandlimited inversion
Model Based: Iteratively updates a layered initial model
Sparse Spike: Constrained to produce few events
Colored: Modern derivative of Recursive Inversion
Pre-stack:
Elastic Impedance: Enhancement for pre-stack data
Independent Inversion: Enhancement for pre-stack data
Lambda-mu-rho (LMR): Enhancement for pre-stack data
Simultaneous Inversion: Enhancement for pre-stack data
These inversion methods are available in STRATA:
Types of Inversion
August, 2008 6
Impedance
Acoustic
Shear Elastic
Reflectivity
Wavelet
Seismic
The common forward model for all inversions:
General Forward Model for Inversion
August, 2008 7
Impedance
Reflectivity
Inverse
Wavelet
Seismic
Inversion tries to reverse the forward model:
Inverse Model
Acoustic
Shear Elastic
August, 2008 8
Acoustic Impedance
or
Shear Impedance
or
Elastic Impedance
Impedance Reflectivity
Acoustic Impedance =
Shear Impedance =
Elastic Impedance =
P
V
S
V
Complicated formula (later)
General Forward Model for Inversion
i i
i i
i
Z Z
Z Z
R
+

=
+
+
1
1
Z =
Z
i
Z
i+1
R
i
August, 2008 9
Reflectivity Seismic
* S W R Noise = +
Seismic = Wavelet convolved
with Reflectivity plus noise.
Notes
(1) There are no multiples modeled.
(2) Transmission loss and geometric spreading are ignored.
(3) Frequency-dependent absorption is ignored.
(4) The wavelet may be time varying.
General Forward Model for Inversion
August, 2008 10
The effect of convolving
the wavelet with the
reflectivity is to remove
much of the high-
frequency detail:
General Forward Model for Inversion
August, 2008 11
Convolution in the time domain is
multiplication in the frequency
domain.
As we can see from these plots, the
effect of the wavelet is to remove
both high and low frequencies from
the trace spectrum.
Theoretically, inversion attempts to
recover these lost regions.
General Forward Model for Inversion
August, 2008 12
All inversion algorithms suffer from
non-uniqueness.
There is more than one possible
geological model consistent with the
seismic data. The only way to decide
between the possibilities is to use other
information, not present in the seismic
data.
This other information is usually
provided in two ways:
the initial guess model
constraints on how far the final
result may deviate from the initial
guess
The final result always depends on the other
information as well as the seismic data.
Non-Uniqueness in Inversion
+
Seismic
Initial Model
Inversion
Inversion Components
Wavelet
+
+
Inversion Parameters
August, 2008 14
Starting at the first layer,
the impedance of each
successive layer is
determined by recursively
applying this formula:
The impedance of the i
th
+ 1 layer can be
determined from the i
th
layer:
Starting from the
definition of reflection
coefficient:
Recursive Inversion, also called Bandlimited Inversion, is the simplest and
earliest form of inversion.
Bandlimited (Recursive) Inversion
i i
i i
i
Z Z
Z Z
R
+

=
+
+
1
1
i
i
i i
R
R
Z Z

+
=
+
1
1
1

=

+
=
1
1
1
1
1
n
i
i
i
n
R
R
Z Z
Z
i
Z
i+1
R
i
August, 2008 15
In this simple example:
(a) shows that we can recover
the true value of impedance if
we have a single spike, but
(b) shows that if we convolve
the spike with a wavelet we
cannot recover the correct value
of impedance.
Z
2
= 818
Z
2
= 1500
Z
1
= 1000
Z
3
= 1227
Z
4
= 1004
Z
1
= 1000
Bandlimited Inversion
August, 2008 16
Step 1:
The initial background model for Recursive Inversion is formed by
filtering an impedance log from a well:
10-Hz
High Cut
Bandlimited Inversion
August, 2008 17
Step 2:
The recursive equation is applied to the seismic trace. (Note: this is
almost identical to a -90 degree phase rotation):
1 *
1
1-
i
i i
i
r
Z Z
r
+
+
=
Bandlimited Inversion
August, 2008 18
Step 3:
Add the scaled inversion trace to the filtered model to get the final result:
+
=
Bandlimited Inversion
August, 2008 19
Input Seismic
Recursive Inversion
Recursive Inversion
produces a result
which is bandlimited
to the same
frequency range as
the input seismic
data.
Note the loss of high
frequency detail, as
compared with the
well logs.
Bandlimited Inversion
August, 2008 20
Issues in Recursive Inversion:
(1) The wavelet is ignored. This means that the input seismic data
must be zero phase. STRATA automatically dephases the data
if an extracted wavelet is available.
(2) Even if the seismic is zero-phase, side-lobes from the actual
wavelet will be interpreted by the algorithm as lithologic
variations.
(3) The inversion result is bandlimited to the frequency range of the
seismic data.
(4) The scaling of the seismic trace to reflectivity is critical to get the
proper range of impedance changes.
Bandlimited (Recursive) Inversion
August, 2008 21
Model Based Inversion
* S W R Noise = +
Model Based Inversion starts with the equation for the convolutional
model:
Assume that the seismic trace, S, and the wavelet, W, are known.
Assume that the Noise is random and uncorrelated with the signal.
Solve for the reflectivity, R, which satisfies this equation. This is
actually a non-linear problem, so the solution is done iteratively.
August, 2008 22
Step 1:
The initial background model for Model Based Inversion is formed by
blocking an impedance log from a well:
The user specifies the layer size
in milliseconds.
All the layers are originally set
to the same size (in time).
Model Based Inversion
August, 2008 23
Step 2:
Using the blocked model, and the known wavelet, a synthetic trace is
calculated.
This is compared with the
actual seismic trace.
By analyzing the errors or
misfit between synthetic
and real trace, each of the
layers is modified in
thickness and amplitude to
reduce the error.
This is repeated through a
series of iterations.
Synthetic Seismic
Model Based Inversion
August, 2008 24
Input Seismic
Model Based Inversion
Model Based
Inversion produces
a broad-band, high
frequency result.
A potential problem
is that the high
frequency detail
may be coming from
the initial guess
model, and not from
the seismic data.
This problem is
minimized by using
a smooth initial
model.
Model Based Inversion
August, 2008 25
Recursive Inversion
Model Based Inversion
This is a
comparison
between Recursive
and Model Based
Inversion.
Generally, the
Model Based gives
more detail, but
the results are
actually quite
similar.
Model Based Inversion
August, 2008 26
Issues in Model Based Inversion:
(1) Because the wavelet is known, its effects are removed from the
seismic during the calculation. For example, the seismic does not
have to be zero-phase, as long as the wavelet has the same phase
as the seismic.
(2) Errors in the estimated wavelet will cause errors in the inversion
result.
(3) The effective resolution of the seismic is enhanced.
(4) The result can be dependent on the initial guess model. This can be
alleviated by filtering the model.
(5) There is a non-uniqueness problem, as with all inversion.
Model Based Inversion
August, 2008 27
Sparse Spike Inversion
assumes that the actual
reflectivity can be
thought of as a series of
large spikes embedded
in a background of
small spikes.
Sparse Spike Inversion
assumes that only the
large spikes are
meaningful. It finds the
location of these large
spikes by examining the
seismic trace.
Sparse Spike Inversion
August, 2008 28
Sparse Spike Inversion
builds up the
reflectivity sequence
one spike at a time.
Spikes are added until
the trace is modeled
accurately enough.
The amplitudes of the
impedance blocks are
determined using the
Model Based Inversion
algorithm.
Sparse Spike Inversion
August, 2008 29
Input Seismic
Sparse Spike Inversion
Sparse Spike
Inversion
produces a
broad-band, high
frequency result.
Sparse Spike Inversion
August, 2008 30
Model Based Inversion
Sparse Spike Inversion
Sparse Spike
Inversion
produces a result
which is similar to
Model Based
Inversion.
The main
difference is that
the very thin layers
are missing.
Sparse Spike Inversion
August, 2008 31
The simplest model is defined as a model with minimum L1 norm subject
to the constraint that its synthetic matches with the input seismic.
Linear Programming Sparse Spike Inversion seeks the simplest possible
reflectivity model that, when convolved with the wavelet, produces a
synthetic that matches the input seismic.
Sparse Spike Inversion (LPSS)
August, 2008 32
Sparse Spike Inversion
Issues in Sparse Spike Inversion:
(1) Sparse Spike Inversion puts events only where the seismic
demands.
(2) It attempts to produce the simplest possible model consistent
with the seismic data.
(3) It often produces fewer events than are known to be geologically
true.
(4) It may be less dependent on the initial guess model than Model
Based Inversion.
August, 2008 33
Colored Inversion is a modification of Recursive Inversion, which
was originally described by Lancaster and Whitcombe of BP at the
2000 SEG Convention.
In this process, there is a single operator, O, which is applied to the
seismic trace S to transform it directly into the inversion result Z:
Colored Inversion
The authors defined the operator, O, in the frequency domain.
By examining transforms between seismic data and actual inversion
results, they concluded that the operator phase is -90 degrees.
S * O Z =
August, 2008 34
The amplitude spectrum of the operator is derived this way:
Using a set of wells from
the area, the amplitude
spectra of the acoustic
impedance for all the wells
are plotted on a log-log
scale.
As predicted by theory, we
can fit a straight line which
represents the desired
output impedance
spectrum.
Log(Frequency)
L
o
g
(
I
m
p
e
d
a
n
c
e
)
Amplitude Spectrum of Acoustic Impedance
Colored Inversion
August, 2008 35
Then, using a set of seismic traces
from around the wells, the average
seismic spectrum is calculated.
Spectrum of Seismic Data
Frequency (Hz)
Operator Spectrum
From the two preceding spectra, the
operator spectrum is calculated. This
has the effect of shaping the seismic
spectrum to the impedance spectrum
within the seismic band.
Colored Inversion
August, 2008 36
Colored Inversion Operator
Time (ms)
Putting together the derived
amplitude spectrum with the -90
degree phase shift produces
the Colored Inversion Operator.
This is applied to all the seismic
traces by convolution.
Colored Inversion
August, 2008 37
Input seismic
Colored Inversion
Colored Inversion
produces a result very
similar to Recursive
Inversion.
One difference is that, in
the original
implementation, the
scale is relative Acoustic
Impedance, with positive
and negative values.
-3000
0
+3000
Colored Inversion
August, 2008 38
Recursive Inversion
Relative Colored Inversion
-3000
0
+3000
4600
8300
12000
Relative AI
Absolute AI
The comparison below is the proverbial apples and
oranges, since we are comparing absolute to relative AI.
August, 2008 39
Recursive Inversion
4600
8300
12000
Absolute AI
Absolute AI
4600
8300
12000
Absolute Colored Inversion
However, we have an option in STRATA to add back
the low frequencies to produce absolute AI, as shown below.
August, 2008 40
Colored Inversion
Issues in Colored Inversion:
(1) Very little dependence on the initial model, except to determine the
general impedance trend.
(2) Very fast to apply.
(3) Very simple with few user parameters.
(4) Assumes the data is zero-phase.
(5) Produces a result similar to Recursive Inversion, but with higher
frequency content and better scaling.
(6) In the initial implementation, the method produced a relative
impedance result, although we now have an option to add back the
low frequency trend.
August, 2008 41
The basic convolutional model assumes zero-offset data.
Conventional inversion should not be applied to data with AVO
effects, since changes in V
P
/V
S
are not explicitly accounted for.
To extend inversion to handle AVO data, these algorithms are
currently used:
(1) Elastic Impedance
(2) Independent Zp and Zs inversion
(3) Simultaneous Inversion for Zp, Zs, and density
(4) Lambda-Mu-Rho (LMR)
AVO Inversion
These techniques will be discussed later in the course.
August, 2008 42
Stochastic Inversion
Stochastic Inversion
This is a form of geostatistical inversion which explicitly addresses the
non-uniqueness problem by producing a large range of inversion
results for a given input seismic volume.
Each of the results is consistent with the seismic data, and honors the
expected continuity conditions, as contained in the variograms.
These results are analyzed to give an estimate of the uncertainty in the
result, along with the most probable result.
STRATA does not contain a stochastic inversion option.
August, 2008 43
(1) Create Model: Select wells
Correlate each well
Extract wavelet
Import / Pick seismic horizons
(2) Perform Inversion: Select Inversion Type and Parameters
QC Inversion Result
(3) Interpret Result: Create data slices
Create cross plots
Input to EMERGE project
General Inversion Flow
August, 2008 44
Two ways:
(1) Error plot
(2) Cross validation
How do we know the
inversion worked?
Input seismic
Inversion result
QCing the Inversion
August, 2008 45
From the derived
impedance traces, we
can calculate a
synthetic using the
known wavelet.
Ideally, this should
look very much like
the input seismic.
Input seismic
Inversion synthetic
QCing the Inversion
August, 2008 46
By subtracting the
Inversion Synthetic from
the Input seismic, we get
the Inversion Error.
If the inversion has
worked well, this should
show very little amplitude
with no localized events.
Because of non-
uniqueness, a small error
does not guarantee the
right answer.
Input seismic
Inversion Error
QCing the Inversion
August, 2008 47
The second type of inversion QC is cross-validation. In this process, we
drop a well completely from the initial model, perform the inversion at
that location, and compare the result with the hidden well.
Hidden Well
Inversion Result
Inversion Error
QCing the Inversion
August, 2008 48
By analyzing the errors at each well location, we can identify problem
wells.
QCing the Inversion
August, 2008 49
A recent use of Inversion is input to
EMERGE, which directly predicts porosity
and other reservoir attribute volumes.
Inversion
EMERGE
Porosity volume
Inversion as an Attribute for EMERGE
August, 2008 50
The first exercise will apply inversion to a carbonate reef dataset from
central Alberta.
Start the GEOVIEWprogram by selecting Geoview from Start / Programs /
HRS applications (Windows).
GEOVIEWconsists of 2
windows. The first is the
program manager.
The second is the Well
Explorer.
Exercise 1: Erskine 3D, Initializing
August, 2008 51
We will create a new GEOVIEWdatabase for this project.
When you start the
GEOVIEW program, this
menu appears, allowing
you to open a previously
created database. In this
case, select New and click
on Ok.
August, 2008 52
Name the new database
erskine_database as shown
here, and click on Ok:
Now, the Well
Explorer appears
with no wells
entered yet:
August, 2008 53
On the GEOVIEW Well
Explorer window, click on
Import Data / Logs, Check
Shots, Tops, Deviated
Geometry from Files:
Change the Destination Well
Name field to erskine_well and
click on Next >> on this page:
On the File Import
page, select the file
erskine_log.las and
click on Next >>.
August, 2008 54
This page now appears, showing that there is a single sonic log contained in
the LAS file. Click on Ok to read in this log.
Click on Next >> to use the default location information:
Accept the default display units.
August, 2008 55
After the log is read into GEOVIEW, click on the name of the erskine_well and
then click on Display Well:
The erskine sonic log is displayed.
August, 2008 56
Start the STRATA program by clicking on the STRATA
button on the GEOVIEWmain window.
Name the new project
erskine_project
Select the option to Start New Project:
Now we will start a new project in STRATA to perform inversion on the
erskine data set.
August, 2008 57
The first step is to read the 3D seismic volume into STRATA. Click on Data
Manager / Import Data / Open Seismic / From SEG-Y File:
Select the file ersk3d.sgy and click on Next >>:
August, 2008 58
Once again, we will load the seismic data as a 3D volume.
This file also does not have Inline & Xline numbers or X & Y coordinates in
the trace headers. Change the menu as shown below:
August, 2008 59
We will correct the geometry by typing
in 155 as shown. Note that the
number of Inlines will be calculated.
Click on Ok to load the seismic
volume.
Click Next >> twice to accept the defaults until you reach the final page.
The program initially assumes that there is just a single inline.
August, 2008 60
On the Well To Seismic Map menu, insert the location of the erskine_well
as shown below. Click Ok on this menu.
On the seismic display,
enter 24 (Enter) as the
desired Inline to plot
and the resulting
display will look like
this:
August, 2008 61
To build the initial guess model for this data set, we
need a set of horizons. First, we will pick a single
horizon, and then we will import a set of previously
picked horizons.
Click on Horizon / Pick Horizons:
Accept the default name
Horizon 1. Click on Ok. Click
Yes on the dialog that asks if
you would like to display a Map
View.
August, 2008 62
As shown below, change the Mode to Left & Right Repeat. Then, pick the
single horizon shown below by clicking the mouse near it:
The map window shows the pick times
for this single inline.
August, 2008 63
Now we will ask the program to pick the entire 3D volume automatically,
using the single picked inline as a guide. Click on Options / Automatic
Picking:
Click on Ok on the Automatic Picking
menu, and the volume will be picked.
We can see from the pick map that there
is a potential problem on the first couple
of inlines.
August, 2008 64
Display inline 2 by typing that number at the top of the STRATA window
and clicking Enter.
Fix this error manually by clicking near the event:
We can see a zone where
the automatic picking has
jumped a leg.
August, 2008 65
Now do the automatic picking again.
When the automatic picking menu appears, you
can see that the default option is to clear all the
previous automatic picks, and only keep the
manual picks as the new guide:
Click on Ok to get the new result. Note
that picking the second inline manually
improved the model to guide the
automatic picking:
August, 2008 66
Next, we will import the picks. First, delete
the horizon we have just picked:
Then click on Ok on the bottom of the
STRATA window to remove the picking
options.
Click on Horizon /
Import Horizons /
From File:
On the file selection menu,
select the 5 files called
erskine1.pik to erskine5.pik.
August, 2008 67
In this case, the File Type is
Default Geoquest:
Click on Next >> to get the
next page.
We will accept the defaults
on the next page, including
the suggested names and
colors for the horizons.
Click on OK on this menu
to read in the picks.
August, 2008 68
When the picks have been loaded, display inline 24 again, and STRATA
should look like this:
August, 2008 69
Click on Model / Build/Rebuild a Model:
On the model building menus, we will accept all
the defaults. Click Next>> and Ok to create the
model.
Now we will build the initial model for inversion.
(End of Exercise 1)
August, 2008 70
The initial guess model
for each trace consists
of an impedance log,
usually derived by
multiplying a real sonic
log by a real density log.
The impedance log
model must be
measured in 2-way travel
time. The original logs
are measured in depth.
A critical step is depth-
to-time conversion:
The Initial Guess Model
August, 2008 71
The depth-to-time
conversion is made
using a depth-time table
which maps each depth
to the two-way travel
time from the datum
(surface) to that depth
and back:
August, 2008 72
1
2*
i
j
i
j
j
d
t
V
=
=

The time to an event depends
on all the velocities above that
layer, including the first
velocity to the surface, V
1
.
That velocity is unknown and
is usually approximated by
extrapolating the first
measured velocity back to the
surface:
The depth-time table is usually calculated from the sonic log velocities
using this equation:
where: t
i
= time down to layer i
d
j
= thickness of layer j
V
j
= velocity of layer j
August, 2008 73
If the well is deviated, it must be corrected to vertical and the correction
made from KB to datum:
D
M
= Measured depth from KB
D
V
= Vertical depth from KB
D
S
= Vertical depth from datum
T = Two-way time from datum
August, 2008 74
The depth-time table calculated from the sonic log is rarely sufficient to
produce a model impedance which ties the seismic data properly because:
The seismic datum and log datum may be different.
The average first layer velocity is not known.
Errors in the sonic log velocities produce cumulative errors in the
calculated travel-times.
The events on the seismic data may be mispositioned due to
migration errors.
The seismic data may be subject to time stretch caused by
frequency-dependent absorption and short-period multiples.
August, 2008 75
To improve the depth-time table two procedures are used:
Apply check shot corrections.
Apply manual log correlation to the seismic data.
Check Shot Corrections
A check shot table is a series of
measurements of actual 2-way
time for a set of depths:
August, 2008 76
The depth-time
table calculated
from the sonic log
must be modified
to reflect the
desired check shot
times:
Original
Depth/Time
Curve
Desired
Depth/Time
Curve
August, 2008 77
Linear: Honors the points exactly with straight line segments between
Spline: Honors the points exactly with smooth curves between
Polynomial: Fits a smooth curve using least-squares optimization
The
interpolation of
points on the
drift curve uses
one of three
options:
August, 2008 78
Note: The time
stretches in this
example are
unrealistically
large.
Depending on the
interpolation option
used, the sonic log
changes may be
drastic:
August, 2008 79
Changing the depth-time table implies a
possible change in the original sonic log
velocities. There are three options in STRATA:
(1) Change all the velocities in the log in such
a way that the new log will integrate to exactly
the desired times.
Note: This involves a ramped velocity above
the first measured depth to handle the bulk
time shift and to minimize the effect of
spurious reflections on the synthetic.
This is called Apply All Changes in STRATA.
Changing the depth-time table
August, 2008 80
(2) Change the velocities for layers between
the first and last check shot depth only.
This means that no ramp is added above the
first measured depth.
The resulting log will integrate to the desired
times except for a bulk time shift.
This is called Apply Relative Changes in
STRATA.
August, 2008 81
(3) Do not change the velocities in the sonic
log.
The resulting log will not integrate to the
desired times, but GEOVIEWand STRATA
will use the new depth-time table.
This option has the effect of maintaining the
original reflection coefficients for synthetic
calculations.
This is called Change Depth-Time Table
Only in STRATA.
August, 2008 82
Log correlation is the process of applying a manual correction to the depth-
time curve to optimize the correlation between initial model and seismic
data.
Log correlation should be applied after the check shot correction, and is
ideally a small change.
Log correlation changes the depth-time curve in exactly the same way as a
check shot correction.
Log correlation consists of selecting events on the synthetic trace and the
corresponding events on the real trace.
Since the synthetic is used, the choice of wavelet may be crucial.
Log Correlation
August, 2008 83
On the selection menu, select
erskine_well to correlate:
Now we are
ready to do log
correlation on
the erskine well.
Click on Well /
Edit/Correlate
Well:
Exercise 2: Erskine 3D Log
Correlation and Inversion
August, 2008 84
On the eLog window, click on Correlate:
On the Extract Composite Trace menu, accept the default, which is to
extract the composite trace from the ersk3d volume using +/- 1 inline and
cross line:
August, 2008 85
The log correlation window
looks like this:
First, extract a new wavelet. Since
the log has not yet been correlated,
use the Statistical wavelet extraction
to extract a zero-phase wavelet with
the same amplitude spectrum as the
seismic.
August, 2008 86
We will set the analysis
window to use a smaller
Time window and select
traces from a small range of
Inlines and Xlines around
the well:
Use the default values on
the third page of the
Statistical Wavelet
Extraction menu:
August, 2008 87
The extracted wavelet will look like this:
August, 2008 88
Now the Log Correlation window looks like this:
We can see that
there is a mis-tie
between the events
on the synthetic
traces and the
corresponding
events on the real
traces.
We can also see
that the program is
suggesting we
apply a time shift of
14 ms.
To see that better
click on the
Parameters button.
August, 2008 89
The Cross Correlation window
shows the correlation between
the synthetic traces and the
real composite trace.
Note that the maximum
correlation occurs if the
synthetic traces are shifted by
14 ms.
Note, also, that this calculation
can sometimes be improved by
optimizing the Traces
Calculation Window.
For this case, we will leave that
alone.
August, 2008 90
Now go to the Log Correlation window and apply the suggested shift by
clicking on Apply Shift:
Two things happen first, the logs are shifted; second, the correlation plot is
updated:
August, 2008 91
The shift we have just done is
the best we could do with a
single bulk shift.
To further improve the
correlation, we need to manually
apply time-variant shifts.
To do that, select the series of
points shown on the right by
alternately clicking on the event
on the synthetic (blue) trace and
the corresponding event on the
real (red) trace.
When you have selected the
events as shown, click on the
Stretch button.
August, 2008 92
The default parameters use
Spline interpolation between
points on the drift curve.
August, 2008 93
Change the Type of Interpolation to Linear and click on Apply. Note the
change in the shape of the drift curve.
August, 2008 94
Change the menu as shown below and click on Apply. Note that the option to
Apply all changes adds a ramp to the top of the sonic log, and changes the
sonic log values.
August, 2008 95
Finally, change the menu as
shown below and click on
Apply. Then click on Ok on
the Check Shot window to
accept these parameters.
August, 2008 96
The log correlation window
now looks like this. Note
that we have achieved an
86% correlation..
August, 2008 97
The Cross Correlation window now
shows a strong peak close to time
zero.
Actually, it suggests a further -1ms
time shift. To apply that shift, click
the Apply Shift button once more.
We can also conclude from the
very symmetric correlation shape
that no further phase adjustment is
required.
August, 2008 98
Now that the correlation is done, click on Ok
at the bottom of the eLog window.
The next menu allows you to name the
sonic log that will be created. Click Ok
on this menu to accept the default
name (P-wave_corr).
Finally, click on File / Exit Window on the eLog
window.
August, 2008 99
Now run the model based inversion using this initial model. We will use the
default parameters and discuss these parameters later.
We will do this in two stages. First
we apply inversion at the well
location to confirm the inversion
parameters and allow the program
to determine the optimum scaling.
Click on Analysis / Post-stack
Analysis / Model Based:
On the first menu page, select ersk3d as the inversion input. Then click on
Next>>
Running the inversion
August, 2008 100
On the second page, we confirm that the right wavelet is being used.
Click on Set Current Wavelet to see it.
The display shows our
previously extracted wavelet,
which is right. Click on Cancel
to remove this window.
Then click on Next>> and Ok to
accept all the defaults and
produce the Inversion Analysis
window.
August, 2008 101
The Inversion Analysis
window shows a
number of useful curves
which help confirm that
the inversion has
worked properly.
Synthetic
Real
Data
Error
Inversion
Trace
Initial
Model
Real Log
August, 2008 102
Many of the display parameters can be
customized by clicking on the eyeball
icon.
Select the Curves tab.
And choose the
option to apply a filter
to the real logs.
Then, click on Ok:
August, 2008 103
From this display, we can apply the 2
QC criteria for a good inversion. The
inverted trace (red) corresponds very
closely to the real (filtered) log (blue).
Also, the error or difference between
synthetic (red) traces and real (black)
traces is practically zero.
If we liked, we could
modify any inversion
parameters on the
other menu, and click
Apply to see the new
result. However, this
inversion is definitely
good enough to
proceed.
Click on File / Exit on
the analysis window.
August, 2008 104
Now, we apply inversion to the entire
volume. To do that, click on Inversion
/ Post-stack Inversion / Model Based
Inversion:
On the resulting menu, all the
default parameters are correct,
since we have confirmed them
during the analysis. Also,
clicking Next>> until reaching
the Scaler Option page, we see
that the scalers calculated at
the well location will be used
for the entire volume. Click on
Ok to invert the entire volume.
August, 2008 105
When the inversion of the entire volume has completed, the result will look
like this:
Note that you can move through the volume by clicking the arrow keys as
shown above.
August, 2008 106
One way to evaluate the quality of the inversion result is to create the Error
Plot. This is the difference between the synthetic calculated using the
inversion result and the original data. To see this plot, click on the
eyeball icon on the inversion result window.
When the menu appears, set the Trace Data Volume to be the inverted
derived Synthetic Error.
Then click on Apply at the bottom of the menu to see the resulting error plot.
August, 2008 107
The Error Plot is scaled at exactly the same scale as the input data. The
fact that there is very little coherent error indicates that the derived model is
a very faithful representation of the seismic data.
Click on File / Exit
Project on any
window to close the
Strata program.
August, 2008 108
A warning message will appear,
asking if you want to save the
project. Click on Yes.
(End of Exercise 2)
Finally, click on Ok to save the
modified P-wave log back to the
Geoview database, and save the
Strata project as well.
Now a new message will appear,
asking if you want to see a list of
logs which have been modified.
Click on Yes to see that list.
August, 2008 109
Interpolating the Log:
Adding a single log to the model creates a uniform horizontal model:
The Initial Guess Model
August, 2008 110
Note: A single picked event simply produces a bulk time shift on the log for
each trace. This is equivalent to applying a check shot correction with a
single point.
Picking a single event guides the interpolation of the log:
August, 2008 111
Picking two or more events is equivalent to applying a variable check-shot
at each trace. The impedances between the two picked events are
stretched / squeezed.
August, 2008 112
The type of interpolation between
horizons is controlled in STRATA by
the Model Option menu:
August, 2008 113
There are 3 options for interpolation as
shown on the right.
By default, all horizons are treated as
Conformable, except the first and the last.
August, 2008 114
A pinch-out is handled by forcing the two picked events to converge:
August, 2008 115
In this case, H1 has a higher priority, so H2 is
truncated.
This is the opposite case.
If horizons cross, the handling depends on the
Priority Value assigned to each horizon.
August, 2008 116
STRATA currently does not handle faults in model building. However, the
effect may be simulated by picking the same event on both sides of the
fault, and picking the fault plane as well:
August, 2008 117
When more than one well is entered into the model, the results are
interpolated using inverse-distance weighting:
August, 2008 118
2
2 2
1
1
1 2
1
1 1
d
w
d d
=
+
* out i i
i
L w L =

-2
-2
i
i
j
j
w
d
d
=

where:
In general:
Assume that there are two input logs, L
1
and L
2
. We wish to calculate the
output log, L
out
.
This will be a linear combination of the two input logs:
L
out
= w
1
*L
1
+ w
2
*L
2
The weights vary inversely as the
distance from the target point to each of
the input logs:
August, 2008 119
The options for inter-well interpolation are shown here:
August, 2008 120
Less frequently used options are
Triangulation, which fits a series of
plane segments between adjacent
wells
and Kriging, which
requires a variogram to be
input:
August, 2008 121
Using picked events with multiple logs forces the inverse distance
interpolation to be guided by the picked events:
August, 2008 122
General rules for adding picked events:
(1) Picked events must be present across the entire survey. Missing
picks will be interpolated by the program.
(2) Only pick events which you are sure of.
(3) Pick the large scale structure, not the fine details.
(4) Usually, the events picked during conventional interpretation are
precisely what STRATA needs.
Note the difference between interpolation with and without picked events:
August, 2008 123
By default, STRATA produces a smoothed model by applying a high-cut
frequency filter to the traces after interpolation, maintaining only the low-
frequency trend. This prevents high-frequency details in the model from
influencing the final inversion result.
August, 2008 124
It is also possible
to use the high-
frequency model
that results from
simply interpolating
the model traces,
without any
smoothing.
August, 2008 125
High Frequency Model
Smooth Model
Inversion Result
Inversion Result
This is a comparison of inversion results from the High Frequency and Smooth
initial models.
August, 2008 126
Result from High
Frequency Model
Result from
Smooth Model
The results are
surprisingly similar, but
the second is probably
more reliable.
August, 2008 127
The Convolutional Model is used as
the basis for all inversion:
trace = wavelet * reflectivity + noise
In the frequency domain, convolution
becomes multiplication:
Inversion can be thought of as division by the wavelet:
Reflectivity = Trace / Wavelet
The narrow band wavelet restricts the available range of information
in the frequency domain.
Wavelet Extraction
August, 2008 128
Over a limited
frequency range, the
phase spectrum may
often be approximated
by a straight line.
The intercept of the
line is the constant
phase rotation which
best characterizes this
wavelet.
The slope of the line
measures the time-
shift of the wavelet.
The wavelet is defined completely by its amplitude spectrum and its phase
spectrum:
August, 2008 129
0
o
45
o
90
o
180
o
-90
o
These wavelets all have the same amplitude
spectrum, but different (constant) phase
spectra:
August, 2008 130
Shifting the wavelet changes the slope of the phase curve. The intercept
stays the same.
August, 2008 131
There is a
fundamental
ambiguity between
wavelet phase and
time shift of the logs.
Consider this case
where the impedance
log has not been
correlated properly
so, there is a mis-tie.
The right way to fix
this is to shift the log
(change the depth-
time curve). Then
extract the wavelet.
Shift
Extract
August, 2008 132
Theoretically, the mis-
tie could also be fixed
by shifting the
wavelet, instead of
the log.
This is not desirable
because:
(1) If there is more
than one well, a
single wavelet shift
will not fix all the
mis-ties.
(2) Doing inversion
with the shifted
wavelet will
position the
derived impedance
at the wrong time.
Dont Shift
Extract
August, 2008 133
When STRATA
extracts a wavelet, it
detects the time shift
required on the well
log and reports it:
The user applies that
shift by clicking the
Apply Shift button.
August, 2008 134
The alternate convention is that an increase in acoustic impedance is
represented as a trough on zero-phase seismic data:
A special wavelet phase issue is the Polarity Convention.
The default convention is that an increase in acoustic impedance is
represented as a peak on zero-phase seismic data:
August, 2008 135
Wavelets in the earth vary both laterally (spatially) and temporally for a
variety of reasons:
Near surface effects (space variant)
Frequency-dependent absorption (space and time variant)
Inter-bed multiples (space and time variant)
NMO stretch
Processing artifacts
STRATA assumes that the wavelet is constant with time and space:
Time invariant: This means that the inversion is optimized for a
limited time window.
Space invariant: This assumes that the data has been processed
optimally to remove spatial variations in the wavelet.
August, 2008 136
There are two basic procedures for wavelet extraction in STRATA:
(1) Use the well(s) and
seismic to extract both
the amplitude and phase
spectra of the wavelet.
(2) Use the seismic alone to
extract the amplitude
spectrum of the wavelet.
Assume the wavelet is
zero phase.
August, 2008 137
Why not always use
the wells?
Log correlation
errors (stretches)
can cause very big
phase problems.
Solution: do log
correlation before
wavelet extraction
using wells.
Extract
Extract
August, 2008 138
This procedure uses only the autocorrelation from the seismic data. The
phase is assumed known.
Main parameters:
Trace range (usually set this large to increase statistics)
Time window (should be at least twice the wavelet length)
Wavelet length
Statistical Wavelet
Extraction (dont use
wells):
August, 2008 139
Example of Statistical Wavelet extraction: Note that the wavelet is zero-
phase because the user has set that as a parameter.
August, 2008 140
Wavelet extraction using well logs:
August, 2008 141
This procedure uses the well logs to
estimate both the amplitude spectrum
and the phase spectrum of the
wavelet. It depends critically on the
quality of the tie between logs and
seismic.
Main parameters:
Select wells to use (use only logs
which tie well)
Time window
Wavelet length
Extraction Type
Wavelet extraction using well logs:
August, 2008 142
This extracts both the amplitude and phase spectrum exactly by solving for
the time-domain operator which shapes the well log reflectivity to the
seismic composite trace. This will only work if the tie is extremely good.
Full Wavelet Option:
August, 2008 143
This option calculates the amplitude spectrum of the wavelet using the
autocorrelation of the seismic traces, exactly as in the statistical procedure.
The phase spectrum is approximated as a single constant value, using the
well logs. This procedure is more robust than the Full Wavelet calculation,
especially when the tie between logs and seismic is poor. This is the default
choice.
Constant Phase Option:
August, 2008 144
Steps for calculating the phase:
(1) Calculate the wavelet using the statistical wavelet extraction
procedure (dont use the wells).
(2) Apply a series of constant phase rotations to the extracted
wavelet.
(3) For each phase rotation, calculate the synthetic trace and
correlate it with the seismic trace.
(4) Select the phase rotation which produces the maximum
correlation.
August, 2008 145
Full Wavelet
If the well tie is good, the methods
produce similar results:
Constant Phase
August, 2008 146
A General Problem with wavelet extraction:
To extract a wavelet using logs, an optimum correlation must be
done first.
To perform correlation properly, the wavelet must already be
known.
Practical wavelet extraction procedure:
(1) Use statistical wavelet extraction to determine a preliminary
wavelet. This assumes that the approximate phase of the
wavelet is known.
(2) Stretch/squeeze the logs to tie the seismic data.
(3) Extract a new wavelet using the well logs.
(4) Possibly repeat steps (2) and (3).
August, 2008 147
A very useful wavelet diagnostic is the Cross Correlation window.
Maximum correlation after the
current well is shifted.
Suggested shift of the well.
This is only (exactly) correct if
no stretching is required.
The symmetry of these side
lobes shows that there is no
residual phase error.
August, 2008 148
If there is more than one well, a very good diagnostic
is Multi-well Analysis:
August, 2008 149
The Correlation Plot shows a graph of correlation
for each well. This can be used to flag bad wells,
which can be removed from a later wavelet
extraction.
August, 2008 150
Select the database blackfoot.wdb
Click on Database / Open on
the GEOVIEWwindow:
In this exercise, we will begin inverting a new data set.
This data set is from the Blackfoot area of Western Canada, and consists of
13 wells which tie a 3D volume. These wells have already been loaded into a
GEOVIEWdatabase. The first step is to open that database.
Exercise 3: Blackfoot Starting the
Project
August, 2008 151
The GEOVIEW Well Explorer window will now look like this:
If you display
any of these
wells, you can
see that each
well contains a
sonic and a
density log.
Start the STRATA program by clicking the STRATA button on the GEOVIEW
window.
August, 2008 152
Start New Project:
Give it the name blackfoot_project:
Open the blackfoot 3D
volume by clicking on Data
Manager / Import Data /
Open Seismic / From SEG-Y
File:
The file is called blackfoot_seismic.sgy:
August, 2008 153
This time we are going to read the file using the Inline & Xline numbers
from the trace headers:
On the fourth page, we wish to examine the headers to make sure that the
Inline and Xline numbers are correct. To do that, click on Detail
Specification as shown here:
August, 2008 154
A new menu will appear with a
series of pages. The first page
contains general information
from the line (binary) header.
Note that anything can be
modified if it is wrong.
Click Next >> twice to show the
third page.
August, 2008 155
This page shows the byte location
of the Inline and Xline numbers.
The fourth page allows you to view
the actual numbers. Since
everything is correct here, click on
the OK button on this menu to
accept the standard SEGY format.
August, 2008 156
After scanning, the
Geometry page will
look like this. This is
correct, so click on
Ok to load the
volume.
August, 2008 157
The mapping of wells to
seismic is correct
because the X & Y
coordinates of the wells
were set in GEOVIEW.
Click on Ok on the Well To
Seismic Map menu.
The seismic data appears in the STRATA window.
August, 2008 158
To see a base map with the well locations, click on
View / Base Map on the STRATA window:
The base map appears:
August, 2008 159
Display Xline 42 by modifying the
parameters as shown, clicking Enter:
August, 2008 160
Lets insert a different log into the display. Click on the
eyeball icon to bring up the menu.
Modify the Insert page of the
Parameters menu as shown to
the right. Then click on Apply
to see the result below.
After you have seen the density
logs inserted, click on Cancel on
the Parameters menu to restore
the sonic logs to the display.
August, 2008 161
Now we will import horizons.
Click on Horizon / Import Horizons / From File:
Select the file blackfoot_horizons.txt.
Note that this single file
contains two horizons in
Free Format:
August, 2008 162
On the next page specify
that there are 2 horizons
in the file:
On the last page,
click on the name of
the pick file, then on
the Display selected
file button so that we
can determine the
format parameters:
August, 2008 163
The file looks like this:
This allows us to insert the
parameters as shown on the
left.
Note that we have changed
the names of both horizons.
August, 2008 164
After the two horizons have been read in, the next step is to correlate each
of the wells.
Actually, the wells have already
been correlated. We will examine
one of them.
Click on the well 08-08 and
click on the Edit button.
Click on Well / Edit/Correlate Well:
August, 2008 165
On the eLog window, click on the Correlate button. Click Ok on the Extract
Composite Trace menu to extract a trace with the default parameters.
August, 2008 166
At first glance, you might think this is a poorly
correlated well.
Click on Wavelet / Display Current
Wavelet to see that the wavelet is
the default:
However, we should not make any decisions
before extracting a better wavelet.
August, 2008 167
Extract a statistical wavelet by clicking on
Wavelet / Extract Wavelet / Statistical:
Set the time window from 800 to 1200 ms,
and set the Inline range to cover only a
single Inline.
Use the defaults on the Wavelet
Parameters page:
August, 2008 168
The extracted wavelet looks like this:
Note the high frequency content.
August, 2008 169
Note that if we had attempted to do the correlation with the wrong wavelet,
the result would have been disastrous.
Click on the Parameters button:
The correlation already looks much better.
August, 2008 170
The display shows a good
correlation (70%) after a shift
of 6 ms.
Click on the Apply Shift button
to shift the logs:
August, 2008 171
Now, we will fine-tune the
correlation. Actually, it looks
pretty good already. Select
the events shown at the right
and click on Stretch.
On the menus that appear,
click on Ok to apply the
stretch.
August, 2008 172
The Cross Correlation shows a residual
phase error. We could attempt to fix it
for this well, but actually we need an
optimum wavelet for all wells
simultaneously.
To do that, we will extract a wavelet
using the wells.
Click on Wavelet / Extract Wavelet / Use
Well.
August, 2008 173
On the first menu page, select Add All>>
to use all the wells.
Set the extraction window from 800 to
1200 ms.
August, 2008 174
On the last page, accept all the defaults
for the wavelet type. Click on Next>>
and Ok to extract the wavelet.
August, 2008 175
The Cross Correlation plot now shows a
symmetric shape. It also suggests one
more time shift, so click on the Apply
Shift button once more to do that.
We have finished the Log Correlation on this well. Click on Ok on the
menu, and accept the name for the new P-wave log as shown below:
Finally, click on File / Exit Window to close the eLog window.
August, 2008 176
We have now completed the log correlation step for one of the 13
wells, and extracted a single wavelet, for all the wells.
In a real project, we would have to do this correlation step for the
remaining 12 wells. To save time, we have done this correlation for
you, so we will assume the other wells are correlated.
The complete flow for a general multi-well project is:
(1) Extract a single Statistical Wavelet.
(2) Go through each of the wells, doing the correlation.
(3) Extract a single wavelet using all the wells.
(4) Go through each of the wells again, fine tuning the correlation.
Usually this step means simply apply a bulk shift.
(End of Exercise 3)
August, 2008 177
The parameters for model based inversion:
The most significant
parameters are:
Number of Iterations
Average Block Size
Type of scaling
Less important parameters
are:
Inversion Option
Maximum Impedance
Change
Model Based Inversion Parameters
August, 2008 178
Since STRATA converges through a series of iterations, this parameter
determines the degree of convergence. In practice most of the work has
been done after about 3 iterations.
There is never any harm in having more iterations - it only affects the run-
time.
The number of iterations required for convergence may depend on the
block size used in the inversion. A finer block size may require more
iterations.
The way to confirm whether enough iterations have been done is to
examine the error plot.
Recommendation : Use 10 or more iterations.
Number of Iterations
August, 2008 179
The final inversion result may change the size of the blocks, but the number
of blocks is still the same. This means that some blocks get bigger and
some get smaller, while the average is kept constant.
Using a small block size (2 ms) will increase the resolution, but the increased
detail may be coming from the initial guess. This may be alleviated by using
a smooth initial model. Using a small block size will always improve the fit
between the input trace and the final synthetic trace.
This parameter controls the resolution of the final result. The initial guess
model is blocked to a series of uniform blocks with this size:
Average Block Size
August, 2008 180
Average Block Size
Inversion using 6
ms block size:
Inversion using 2
ms block size:
Recommendation: Set block size equal to sample rate, but use smooth initial
model.
August, 2008 181
After the main inversion menu is set, the following pages appear,
controlling the scaling of the data:
Scaling Parameters
August, 2008 182
The Convolutional Model is used as the basis for all inversion:
Trace = Wavelet * Reflectivity + Noise
In the frequency domain, this can be approximated by:
Reflectivity = Trace / Wavelet
To solve for the reflectivity, the wavelet must be known.
Normally, when a wavelet is extracted, only its shape is known; not its
absolute amplitude. Inversion requires that the absolute amplitude be known
as well.
From the equation above, if the wavelet is multiplied by 2, the resulting
reflectivity will be divided by 2.
STRATA determines the scaling of the wavelet automatically by forcing the
root-mean-square amplitude of the initial guess synthetic to be equal to the
root-mean-square amplitude of the real trace.
Why is Scaling an Issue?
August, 2008 183
The only way to determine this factor is by visually inspecting how well
the inversion traces match the initial guess logs.
Calculate a single scaler for the entire data set.
Calculate a separate scaler for each trace
The first option, single scaler, is theoretically more desirable. This is because
it assumes that there is a single wavelet scaling which is suitable for all traces
of the data set. This will preserve amplitude variations from trace to trace.
The second option, separate scaler, is actually more robust. It effectively
assumes that traces may need to be rescaled to remove trace-to-trace
variation which is not based on lithology.
For either option, the window used to determine the scaler may be different
from that used in the actual inversion. For some data sets, especially sparse
models, the automatic scaling may not be ideal. In that case, you may
override with a manual adjustment, which multiplies the automatic scaling
result:
Scaling Options
August, 2008 184
Scaling Comparison
Blue = original
impedance log
Red = inversion
impedance
result
Scaling
too low
Scaling
too high
Scaling
just right
August, 2008 185
Scaling Options
Recommendation: Use inversion analysis to calculate a
single global scaler at the well locations.
August, 2008 186
This parameter controls the how the constraints will be used.
Model Based inversion minimizes an objective function of this form:
J = weight
1
x (T - W*r) + weight
2
x (M - H*r)
where:
T = the seismic trace
W = the wavelet
r = the final reflectivity
M = the initial guess model impedance
H = the integration operator which convolves with the final
reflectivity to produce the final impedance
* = convolution
Inversion Option
August, 2008 187
The Model Constraint is the value of weight
2
in the objective function. Setting
this value to 0 causes the seismic trace to dominate. Setting this value to 1
causes the initial guess model to dominate. This is called a soft constraint
because the final model may deviate any distance from the initial guess, but it
pays an increasingly large penalty for doing so.
Minimizing the first part, (T - W*r), forces a solution which models the
seismic trace. Minimizing the second part, (M - H*r), forces a solution which
models the initial guess impedance using the specified block size.
These two conditions are (usually) incompatible. The weights, weight
1
and
weight
2
, determine how the two parts are balanced. In Soft Constraint
inversion, the objective function is exactly as shown above. The weights are
determined by this parameter:
The objective function has two parts.
August, 2008 188
Recommendation: Use Hard Constraint with default parameters.
The Maximum Impedance Change is a percentage of the average
impedance for the log. Note the effective range for this model:
In Hard Constraint inversion, the second term is missing entirely from the
objective function. However, the algorithm is constrained to keep the final
impedance values constrained within the limits specified by:
This is called a hard constraint,
because values are not allowed to
change beyond a fixed boundary.
August, 2008 189
Ideally, the
Error Plot
should
show no
coherent
energy, and
should
have a low
over-all
amplitude.
The Error Plot shows the difference between the actual traces and the
synthetic traces calculated using the inversion impedance result:
Error Plot
August, 2008 190
Low frequency component in the error probably caused by using the
wrong wavelet:
August, 2008 191
Error localized to one side of line probably caused by not picking enough
events:
August, 2008 192
Coherent error throughout data set probably caused by:
too large block size
not enough iterations
constraint too tight
August, 2008 193
Call it Model_1.
Use all the default
parameters, and include
all of the wells.
Now we will build the initial model for the
Blackfoot data set.
Click on Model / Build/Rebuild a Model.
Exercise 4: Blackfoot Model-Based
Inversion
August, 2008 194
Now, the model appears in the STRATA window, as shown below.
Lets examine the detailed model parameters. Click on Model / Set
Model Parameters:
August, 2008 195
Look at each of the pages.
To see the effect of one of
these parameters, go to the
Advanced tab, and change the
menu as shown.
Click on the Apply button to
see the STRATA window
redrawn with these new
settings.
This menu consists of a series of pages which control all aspects of the
model building.
August, 2008 196
The model now shows the high frequency detail, which results from
interpolating between the wells without filtering.
This high frequency model is not recommended
for inversion, so click on Cancel to restore the
smooth model.
August, 2008 197
We will proceed to do inversion with the default model parameters. As in
the previous exercise, we will do the inversion in two steps
Select the volume blackfoot_seismic:
Click on Analysis / Post-stack Analysis
/ Model Based:
Accept all the defaults for now, by clicking on Next>> and Ok.
August, 2008 198
When the Inversion
Analysis window
appears, it looks like
this. Note that you can
scroll through each of
the wells by clicking on
the arrow keys.
August, 2008 199
Once again, we will improve the display
by filtering the real impedance logs.
This time, we will check the frequency
content of the input seismic data. On
the STRATA main window, click on
Process / Utility / Amplitude Spectrum
and fill out the menu as shown below:
August, 2008 200
Now, modify the Inversion
Analysis display by
clicking on the eyeball
icon and changing the
parameters as shown:
August, 2008 201
By zooming in on the
zone of interest, we
can see that the
inversion result is a
little too high in
amplitude at that
location. If this is
precisely our zone of
interest, and this was
confirmed at other
well locations, we
might wish to modify
it, using the Scaler
Adjustment Factor:
However, for this exercise,
we will leave the default
value.
August, 2008 202
Another useful display is the Error
Profile. To get that click on Error
Analysis / Logs / Error Profile:
This display shows the error
for each well (difference
between actual impedance
and predicted impedance).
If there were any very large
outliers, we could examine
that well location for possible
problems.
For now, close the Inversion
Analysis window by clicking
File / Exit.
August, 2008 203
Now that we have checked the
parameters at the well locations,
and determined the optimal scaling,
we are ready to apply inversion to
the entire volume. To do that, click
on Inversion / Post-stack Inversion /
Model Based Inversion:
Since we have already established
the parameters, there is nothing to
change on this menu, except to set
the Output Volume Name:
When you have changed this single item, click Next>> and Ok to perform the
entire inversion. This will take about 10 minutes.
August, 2008 204
When the inversion completes, it will look like this. Note that you can
scroll through the volume by clicking the arrow keys at the top.
August, 2008 205
It can be helpful to
insert the actual
impedance logs
within this display.
To do that, click on
the eyeball icon
and change the
menu as shown
below. Then click
on Apply.
The zoomed display
looks like this.
August, 2008 206
A second improvement is to
change the color amplitude
range. Go to the Color Key
tab, and click on Data Range.
Change the values as shown,
and click Ok on both menus.
August, 2008 207
The final inversion display will look as shown below:
August, 2008
208
Another useful display is a data slice
through the inversion volume. To
produce that, click on Process /
Slice / Create Data Slice:
Default the values on the first page,
and click Next>>:
August, 2008
209
On the next page, set the parameters as shown. This extracts the
average amplitude over a 20 ms window below the Lower Mannville
event. Click on Next and Ok to create the map:
(End of Exercise 4)
August, 2008 210
The menu for sparse spike inversion:
Sparse Spike Inversion uses the same parameters as constrained model
based inversion.
These additional parameters determine how many spikes will be detected
on each trace:
Maximum Number of Spikes
Spike Detection Threshold
Maximum-Likelihood Sparse Spike
Inversion Parameters
August, 2008 211
Maximum Number of Spikes
This parameter sets the maximum number of allowable spikes per trace.
This is defaulted to be the same as the total number of samples in the
window. Effectively this means that this parameter does not operate under
normal conditions.
Spike Detection Threshold
As each spike is added, its amplitude is compared with the average
amplitude of all spikes detected so far. When the new amplitude is less
than a specified fraction of the average, the algorithm stops adding spikes.
August, 2008 212
The power spectrum of an inverted trace:
The power spectrum contains three frequency bands. The seismic band is the
frequency band of the input seismic data. The information concerning low
and high frequency bands has to be obtained either from the initial model or
other a-priori information incorporated in the inversion.
Two parameters in the inversion menu, sparseness and constraint frequency,
are used for the control of these two frequency bands.
Linear-Programming Sparse Spike
Inversion Parameters
August, 2008 213
Constraint frequency = 10
Constraint frequency = 20
Constraint frequency = 1
The constraint frequency determines how
much low frequency is taken from the initial
model.
If too much is taken from the model (the
constraint frequency is too tight), a poor
fit to the seismic may result.
Too small a constraint frequency may
causelateral discontinuities.
Constraint frequency
August, 2008 214
Sparseness = 100
Sparseness = 20
Sparseness = 0.1
The sparseness determines how much high
frequency is added to the model to make it
sparse.
100% will add as much as needed to make the
model the simplest possible.
0% will add no high frequency, which makes
the model bandlimited.
The sparseness will have no effect on the
fitting of seismic data.
Sparseness
August, 2008 215
The menu for bandlimited inversion:
The only parameter for Bandlimited Inversion is:
Constraint High-Cut Frequency: This parameter controls the filter which is
applied to the initial guess model to provide the low-frequency component
to the result. All frequencies above this value are removed from the initial
guess. All frequencies below this value are removed from the recursively
inverted trace. The two are then added together.
Bandlimited Inversion Parameters
August, 2008 216
The resulting initial guess model for various settings of the Constraint High-
Cut Frequency:
August, 2008 217
First, you must run
spectral analysis and
create an operator. The
result is shown on the
next slide.
One key parameter for
Colored Inversion is the
Impedance Output
Option, where High
Frequency Residual, or
Relative impedance is
the default.
The other option is to
create a Full Spectrum
by the adding the
specified frequency
range from the model.
Colored Inversion Parameter Menu
August, 2008 218
The spectral analysis and operator creation result has two parts. The top
part of the display shows the analysis and operator results.
Colored Inversion Operator
Calculation
August, 2008 219
The operator is created automatically using a least-squares fit. The bottom
part of the display allows you to change the automatic parameters if you
wish, and is shown above.
The next set of slides describes the parameters on this menu.
August, 2008 220
The first panel shows a plot of
the amplitude spectrum of
Impedance from a series of wells
vs Frequency. This is shown on
a log/log scale.
The red line is a regression
curve, which represents the
desired output of the Colored
Inversion.
These parameters allow you to
over-ride the automatic calculation
of the regression line:
August, 2008 221
The second panel shows two
curves. One is the amplitude
spectrum of the input seismic
data. The second is the desired
output from the previous panel.
Note that this is now curved,
because we are showing a linear
scale in Frequency.
This parameter allows you to apply
smoothing to the Seismic
Spectrum:
Seismic Spectrum
Desired Spectrum
August, 2008 222
The horizontal red line is the
Spectrum Threshold. This sets a
frequency range over which the
inversion operator will be
calculated. Only those frequencies
for which the seismic spectrum
(blue) is above the threshold will be
used in the calculation. The
threshold prevents division by zero
or small noise values.
This parameter allows you to
change the threshold value:
Spectrum Threshold
Alternatively, these parameters (if set
to non-zero values) allow you to set
the frequency range manually:
August, 2008 223
Finally, these panels show the time and frequency domain operator which
has been calculated.
These operator displays will be updated automatically to reflect changes to
all the other parameters on the menu.
These parameters directly affect the
operator itself:
August, 2008 224
Go to the window
containing the
seismic and model
data sets (not the
previous inversion
result and click on
Inversion / Post-
stack Inversion /
Bandlimited
Since we have built the initial model for the Blackfoot data set, we can
easily apply other inversion methods to the data and compare the results
with model-based inversion.
We will start with Bandlimited inversion.
Exercise 5: Blackfoot Other
Inversion Methods
August, 2008 225
Bandlimited Inversion
On the first menu,
change the name of
the output file to
bandlimited, as
shown.
Also, we will invert
just a single xline as
shown.
Click on Next >>
August, 2008 226
Use the defaults on all the menus.
The key parameters are shown on
the right. Click on OK to get the
following result:
Notice that the
bandlimited
inversion runs
much faster than
model-based
inversion.
However, there is
less detail in the
result.
August, 2008 227
Go to the window containing
the seismic and model data
sets and click on
Inversion/Post-stack Inversion /
Linear Programming Sparse
Spike
On the first menu, change the
name of the Output Volume File
to lp_inversion, and the Xline
range, as shown.
Click on Next >>
Linear Programming Sparse-Spike
Inversion
August, 2008 228
Use the defaults on all
the menus. The key
parameters are shown
on the right.
August, 2008 229
Here is the final result. Note that the detail is comparable to model-based
inversion.
August, 2008 230
Go to the window
containing the seismic and
model data sets and click
on Inversion / Post-stack
Inversion / Colored
Inversion
On the first menu, change
the name and range as
before.
Click on Next >>
Colored Inversion
August, 2008 231
We will use the defaults on
all the menus. However,
we still need to create the
operator for the inversion,
by clicking on the Run
Spectral Analysis button
on the Colored Inversion
Parameters Menu, shown
on the right.
This will create the plot
shown on the next slide.
August, 2008 232
Colored Inversion Operator
August, 2008 233
Click on OK on the previous menu and you will be
prompted for the operator name, as shown on the left.
Click on OK to accept the default. Use the defaults on
the rest of the menus to produce the result shown
below.
Colored Inversion
August, 2008 234
We will now create an
absolute impedance
volume. Go back to the
window containing the
seismic data and model
and re-run Colored
Inversion, changing the
name to:
colored_inversion_abs
and changing the
Impedance output as
shown on the right.
August, 2008 235
Use the same operator for this run by simply defaulting all the parameters.
The final result is as follows:
August, 2008 236
Model
based
Bandlimited
This and the
next 2 slides
show a
comparison
between the
methods.
August, 2008 237
Sparse
Spike
Absolute
colored
August, 2008 238
Model
based
Bandlimited
Sparse
Spike
Absolute
colored
(End of Exercise 5)
August, 2008 239
The basic convolutional model assumes zero-offset data.
Conventional inversion should not be applied to data with AVO
effects, since changes in V
P
/V
S
are not explicitly accounted for.
To extend inversion to handle AVO data, these algorithms are
currently used:
(1) Elastic Impedance
(2) Independent Zp and Zs inversion
(3) Simultaneous Inversion for Zp, Zs, and density
(4) Lambda-Mu-Rho (LMR)
Pre-stack, or AVO, Inversion
These techniques will now be discussed, followed by an exercise on
simultaneous inversion and LMR.
August, 2008 240
Elastic Impedance
The Elastic Impedance concept was originally developed by Connolly
(The Leading Edge, 18, no. 4, 438-452 (1999)).
He started with the Aki-Richards equation which relates reflection
amplitude to incidence angle:
Note that post-stack inversion theory
assumes that = 0, which gives us:
: where , c
V
V
b
V
V
a ) ( R
S
S
P
P
P

+ + =
. sin
V
V
. c , sin
V
V
b ,
tan
a
P
S
P
S
(
(

|
|
.
|

\
|
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
= + =

2
2
2
2
2
2 5 0 and 4
2 2
1
|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =

P
P
P
V
V
R
2
1
) (0
o
Thus, changes in V
P
/V
S
are ignored.
August, 2008 241
Notice that, for the zero-offset case:
By analogy, Connolly defined a new type of impedance such that:
By mathematical manipulation, he showed that:
Elastic Impedance
Impedance Acoustic where
ln
2
1
2
1
2
1
) (0
o
=

|
|
.
|

\
|
+ =
AI
) AI (
AI
AI
V
V
R
P
P
P

Impedance. Elastic where , ) ( ln
2
1
2
1
) ( =

EI EI
EI
EI
R
P

, V V V V ) ( EI
c b
S
a
P
) sin K ( ) sin K (
P
) tan (
P
2 2 2 4 1 8 1
2 2 2


= =
+
.
V
V
K
P
S
2
where
|
|
.
|

\
|
=
August, 2008 242
This figure, from Connollys paper shows an overlay of Elastic Impedance
over Acoustic Impedance from a well. The Elastic Impedance shows
anomalously low values at hydro-carbon areas.
Elastic Impedance
August, 2008 243
Gathers
AVO Analysis
Near angle
stack at
1
Far angle
stack at
2
Invert to EI(
1
) Invert to EI(
2
)
The work flow for this type of inversion starts from the pre-stack data,
creates two angle stacks, and inverts each separately.
Elastic Impedance
August, 2008 244
This produces 2
inversion results.
Note the improved
definition of the
gas sand on the
far angle
inversion
Near Angle Inversion
Far Angle Inversion
Elastic Impedance
August, 2008 245
Selected values from
the Far Angle Inversion
are cross plotted
against the Near Angle
Inversion.
Anomalously low Far
Angle values can be
interpreted as
potential
hydrocarbons.
Near Angle Inversion
F
a
r

A
n
g
l
e

I
n
v
e
r
s
i
o
n
Elastic Impedance
August, 2008 246
The final interpretation
consists of mapping
the anomalous points
from the cross plot
back to the original
seismic volumes.
August, 2008 247
Independent inversion for P and
S-Impedance
We now turn from elastic impedance inversion to independent P and S-
impedance inversion. Later, we will discuss simultaneous inversion
and how it differs from independent inversion.
Both independent and simultaneous inversion for P and S-impedance
will lead us to the lambda-mu-rho (LMR) approach, but we will talk
about LMR before introducing the simultaneous approach.
We call this method independent inversion, because the first step is
to extract independent estimates of the zero-offset P and S
reflectivities, R
P0
and R
S0
from the seismic gathers. This is done using
the Fatti equation:
D S P PP
R c R c R c R
3 0 2 0 1
) ( + + =
. R ,
V
V
R ,
V
V
R
,
sin
tan c ,
sin
c , tan c
D
S
S
S
S
S
P
sat sat

=
(

+ =
(

+ =
=

= + =
and
2
1
2
1
2
2
1 8
1 where
0 0
2
2
2
3
2
2
2
2
1
August, 2008 248
R
P
and R
S
Inversion Flow
A flow chart for the independent inversion procedure. Note that
both the AVO and STRATA programs are required.
Gathers
AVO Analysis
R
P
Estimate R
S
Estimate
Invert to Z
P
Invert to Z
S
AVO
Program
STRATA
Program
August, 2008 249
R
P
and R
S
Sections
Here are the R
P
and R
S
sections,
extracted using the
AVO program, with
the correlated P-
wave sonic
inserted at the
proper location,
and three picked
horizons. Horizon
2 is picked on the
gas sand trough.
August, 2008 250
P-wave and S-wave Models
Here are the initial
models for inversion.
Note that these
models were created
under the Model/
Build/Rebuild a Model
option using:
P-impedance Model
S-impedance Model
August, 2008 251
P-wave and S-wave Inversions
Here is the final P-wave
and S-wave inversion
results. The low P-wave
impedance just below
Horizon 2 represents the
gas sand.
Note that this
corresponds to an
increase in S-wave
impedance.
August, 2008 252
Lambda-Mu-Rho (LMR)
LMR uses the following relationships between V
P
, V
S
, and the Lam
parameters, and :
Note that the final result
is to express the
quantities and in
terms of the acoustic
impedance Z
P
and
shear impedance Z
S
.
The Lambda-Mu-Rho or LMR method was originally proposed by
Goodway et al (SEG Expanded Abstracts, 1997). Like the Elastic
Impedance method, this procedure extends conventional inversion to
handle data with AVO effects.
2 2
2
2 :
:
2
S P
S
S P
Z Z and
Z therefore
V and V
=
=
=
+
=

August, 2008 253
Gathers
AVO Analysis
R
P
Estimate R
S
Estimate
Cross-plot
Invert to Z
P
Invert to Z
S
Transform to and
The work flow for LMR involves
calculating R
P
and R
S
seismic
volumes from pre-stack data.
Two inversions are performed
to create Z
P
and Z
S
volumes.
These volumes are transformed
and cross-plotted using the
equations from Goodway et al.
LMR Flowchart
August, 2008 254
This example shows the
result of applying the
LMR approach to a gas
sand example from
Alberta, where the gas
sand is indicated by the
ellipse.
The top section shows
the lambda-rho result,
and the bottom section
shows the mu-rho
result.
LMR Example

August, 2008 255

This mu-rho vs lambda-rho crossplot is
shown on the left, where the red zone
indicates gas (low lambda-rho) and the
blue zone indicates the shales and wet
sandstones.
These zones are displayed on the section
below and indicate the gas sand zone.
LMR Example

August, 2008 256

Simultaneous Inversion
Simultaneous Inversion inverts for Z
P
, Z
S
, and possibly Density using pre-
stack angle gathers as input. The benefit of this procedure is that it allows
constraints to be imposed between these variables. This can stabilize the
results and reduce the non-uniqueness problem.
1 2 3
( )
PP P S D
R c R c R c R = + +
2
1
2 2
2
2 2 2
3
1 tan
8 sin
1
tan 2 sin
2
S
P
c
c
c
V
V

= +
=
= +
=
1
2
1
2
.
P
P
P
S
S
S
D
V
R
V
V
R
V
R

(
= +
(

(
= +
(

=
where:
We again start with Fattis version of the Aki-Richards equation. This
models reflection amplitude as a function of incident angle:
August, 2008 257
Ln(Zs)
Ln(Zp)
Ln()
Ln(Zp)
S
L
D
L
ln( ) ln( )
ln( ) ln( )
S P c S
P c D
Z k Z k L
m Z m L
= + +
= + +
A linear relationship is assumed for the background wet lithologies.
Simultaneous Inversion solves for deviations from this background:
Simultaneous Inversion
August, 2008 258
Simultaneous
Inversion
produces
volumes of Zp, Zs,
Density, and
derived
combinations:
Z
P
Z
s
V
P
/V
S
Simultaneous Inversion
August, 2008 259
The interpretation of Simultaneous Inversion volumes is similar to other
AVO Inversion results:
Simultaneous Inversion
Let us now finish the course with an exercise on Simultaneous Inversion
using a shallow gas sand example from Alberta.
August, 2008 260
The well for this data set has already
been loaded into a GEOVIEW database.
To access that, click on Database / Open
on the GEOVIEW window:
Select the database
angle_gather_database and click Ok:
In this exercise, we will apply pre-stack simultaneous inversion to a single 2D line,
containing a series of angle gathers.
If the STRATA program is still running, close it down by clicking on File / Exit Project
on any of the STRATA windows.
Exercise 6: Simultaneous inversion
August, 2008 261
The database contains a
single well, AVO_WELL.
Highlight that line and click
on Display Well.
The well contains a sonic,
density, and shear wave
log.
August, 2008 262
Now click on the STRATA button to start that
program.
Choose the option to Start a New Project, and
click Ok:
Name the project angle_gather_project and click
Ok:
August, 2008 263
The STRATA window now appears,
initially blank.
The first step is to read in the
angle_gathers, which have already been
created. Click on Data Manager / Import
Data / Open Seismic / From SEGY File:
From the list, select angle_gather.sgy
and click on Next:
August, 2008 264
Select the option to handle this as a
2D Line and click Next>>.
On the next page, specify that this file does NOT
have XY coordinates in the trace headers.
Click Next and Ok until the Well
to Seismic Map Menu appears.
Specify that the well is located
at CDP 330, as shown. Finally,
click Ok on this menu.
August, 2008 265
The angle gather now appears, with the single well inserted.
August, 2008 266
Now, we will import horizons for
model building. Click on
Horizon / Import Horizons / From
File.
Select the file
angle_gather_horizons.txt
and click on Ok.
August, 2008 267
This file has multiple horizons, so click
that option and then click Next>>.
There are 3 horizons, so fill in that
number, and click Next>>
Finally, fill in the format page as
shown to the right. You may want
to Display selected file to verify
these choices. When you have
completed the menu, click on Ok to
load the horizons.
August, 2008 268
Now, we build the initial model for the
inversion. Click on Model / Build /
Rebuild a Model:
On the first page choose the option
Typical setup for Pre-stack Inversion
and click Next>>:
On the next page, we confirm the
wells used in the model. Click on
Next>>.
On the next page, we confirm
which logs curves are used.
Click on Next>>.
August, 2008 269
On the next page, we confirm which
horizons are used in the model
building. Click on Next>>:
Finally, we confirm that the
model will be filtered to retain
only the low frequency
components. Click on Ok.
When the model has been
built, it will look like this:
August, 2008 270
Because this is pre-stack seismic data, the default
display does not show the model in a continuous
form. To verify the model, click on the eyeball icon:
On the View Parameters menu, turn off the
trace plotting (temporarily) by changing the
Trace Data Volume to None and clicking Apply:
The STRATA window now shows
the low frequency impedance
model which will be used for the
inversion.
Click on Cancel on the View
Parameters menu to restore the
original STRATA window.
August, 2008 271
For pre-stack inversion, it is usually helpful to
have a wavelet which varies with angle. So far,
in previous projects, we have only extracted a
single wavelet. Now, we will extract two
wavelets, one for the near traces and one for the
far traces.
Click on Wavelet / Extract Wavelet / Statistical:
On the first menu page, set the Offset
range from 0 to 15. For angle gathers, this
is actually the angle in degrees.
On the last menu page, set the Wavelet
Name as wave_near.
Click on Ok to get the near angle wavelet.
August, 2008 272
Now, repeat the entire process to get the far
angle wavelet.
Click on Wavelet / Extract Wavelet / Statistical:
On the first menu page, set the Offset
range from 15 to 30.
On the last menu page, set the Wavelet
Name as wave_far.
Click on Ok to get the far angle wavelet.
August, 2008 273
By examining the two
wavelets, we can see
a slight loss of high
frequencies for the far
wavelet, as expected:
Near Wavelet
Far Wavelet
August, 2008 274
We are now ready to do the simultaneous inversion. This is
actually done in two stages. First we apply inversion at the
well location(s) to confirm the inversion parameters and
allow the program to determine the proper scaling. Then, we
apply inversion to the entire volume. To do the first step,
click on Analysis / Pre-stack Analysis:
On the first menu page, select
angle_gather as the input and click
Next>>:
On the second menu page, we confirm
the angle range for this data set. Click
Next>>:
August, 2008 275
On the next page, we confirm a
number of parameters. The most
important parameter on this page
is the wavelet. By default, STRATA
will use the last extracted wavelet.
To display that wavelet, click on
Set Current Wavelet:
When the wavelet menu appears,
it displays last wavelet we
extracted, wave_far. To use both
the near and far angle wavelets,
click on the option to Set Angle
Dependent Wavelets.
August, 2008 276
Now the menu shows a table,
allowing you to type in the angles
for each of the desired wavelets.
Change the menu to look like this.
Note that we have specified an angle
of 22.5 degrees for the far wavelet.
This is because it was extracted over
a range of 15-30 degrees. Similarly,
the near wavelet is specified as 7.5
degrees, which is the mid-point of the
extraction range 0-15 degrees.
Finally, click on Set Current Wavelet on the bottom left of this menu. The
Analysis Setup Menu now shows that 2 wavelets are being used:
Click on Next and Ok on this menu.
August, 2008 277
Now, a new menu appears, allowing you to set the background relationship
between ln(Z
P
), ln(Z
S
), and ln(Density):
These cross plots have
been calculated using
the full range of the logs
from the AVO well. An
improved estimate could
be made by limiting the
depth range of the data
being used.
For now, we will simply
manually improve the
regression fit through
the clusters.
August, 2008 278
Using the mouse,
modify the
regression lines
from this:
To this:
And click Ok and
Save regression
coefficients:
August, 2008 279
The Pre-stack Inversion
Menu now looks like this
(note that the coefficients
may not be exactly the
same):
All the parameters on this
menu can be defaulted.
Click on Apply to see the
inversion result at the well:
August, 2008 280
The display shows a number of useful curves:
Synthetic
Real
Data
Error
Inversion
Trace
Initial
Model
Real Log
August, 2008 281
To customize the display, click on the eyeball icon:
On the Layout page, remove
the plot of Density and add
the plot of Vp/Vs:
Then, click on the Curves page:
And select the option to
Apply a filter to the
original logs for display.
Finally, click on Ok.
August, 2008 282
The new display shows a very good fit between the inversion traces and the original
logs, especially near the target zone:
August, 2008 283
Now we will apply the inversion to the entire data set.
Click on Inversion / Pre-stack Inversion:
The menu that follows confirms all
the parameters we have already
seen. So we can default every
page, except the last one, which
determines which volumes will be
created. Since we have chosen
NOT to update Density, we remove
it from the list and add Zs instead
Now, click Ok to create the
inversion volumes:
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A series of windows now appears.
One window is the synthetic data
corresponding to the inversion
output.
We can also see the error, which
is the difference between the real
data and synthetic data.
Click on the eyeball and set the
Trace Data Volume as shown below:
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The other volumes
are Zp, Zs, and
Vp/Vs. These
volumes are now
available for
visualization, cross
plotting or Emerge
analysis.
We have completed
the pre-stack
inversion project.
Close down the
STRATA program by
clicking on File / Exit
Project on any of the
STRATA windows.
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Summary
Inversion is the process of extracting, from the seismic data, the
underlying geology which gave rise to that seismic.
Inversion can be a very non-unique process. The low-frequency model
is particularly important.
Successful inversions depend on careful correlation of each of the wells
and careful wavelet extraction.
In this course we have studied the following types of inversion:
Model-based inversion
Bandlimited inversion
Colored inversion
Sparse-spike inversion
Pre-stack inversion (Elastic Impedance, Independent
and Simultaneous inversion, and LMR)
Model-based inversion is the recommended choice for most inversion projects.