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Operation in a glimpse:
A boiler operates using the feed water system, the steam system, the fuel system and the draft system. The feed water system supplies water to the boiler. The steam system controls and directs the steam produced in the boiler. The fuel system supplies fuel and controls combustion to produce heat. The draft system regulates the movement of air for combustion and evacuates gases of combustion. Water, steam fittings and accessories are required to supply and control water and steam in the boiler. Boiler fittings or trim are components such as valves directly attached to the boiler. Accessories are pieces of equipment not necessarily attached to the boiler, but required for the operation of the boiler.
Safety Valve
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pressure. This drop in pressure is the blow down of the safety valve. Safety valve capacity and blow down is listed on the data plate on the safety valve. Spring loaded safety valves are the most common safety valves. A spring exerts pressure on the valve against the valve seat to keep the valve closed. When pressure inside the boiler exceeds the set popping pressure, the pressure forces the valve open to release. The number of safety valves required and the frequency and procedures for testing safety valves is also specified by the ASME Code. Adjustment or repairs to safety valves must be performed by the manufacturer or an assembler authorized by the manufacturer. 2. Water fittings and accessories control the amount, pressure and temperature of water supplied to and from the boiler. Water in the boiler must be maintained at the normal operating water level or NOWL. Low water conditions can damage the boiler and could cause a boiler explosion. High water conditions can cause carryover. Carryover occurs when small water droplets are carried in steam lines. Carryover can result in water hammer. Water hammer is a banging condition caused by hydraulic pressure that can damage equipment.
3. Feed water Valves control the flow of feed water from the feed water pump to the boiler. Feed water stop valves are globe valves located on the feed water line. They isolate the boiler from feed water accessories. The feed water stop valve is positioned closest to the boiler to stop the flow of water out of the boiler for maintenance, or if the check valve malfunctions. The feed water check valve is located next to the feed water stop valve and prevents feed water from flowing from the boiler back to the feed water pump. The feed water check valve opens and closes automatically with a swinging disc. When water is fed to the boiler it opens. If water flows back from the boiler the valve closes.
4. Water Column minimizes the water turbulence in the gage glass to provide accurate water level reading.
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Water columns are located at the NOWL, with the lowest part of the water column positioned at least 3" above the heating system. Water columns for high pressure boilers consist of the main column and three tricocks. High and low water alarms or whistles may be attached to the top and bottom tricocks. 5. The Gage Glass is used to visually monitor the water level in the boiler. Isolation valves located at the top and bottom permit the changing of gage glasses.
Gage Glass
6. A Blow down Valve at the bottom of the gage glass is used to remove sludge and sediment. Tubular gage glasses are used for pressure up to 400 psig. All boilers must have two methods of determining the boiler water level. The gage glass serves as the primary method of determining boiler water level. If the water cannot be seen in the gage glass, the tricocks are used as a secondary method of determining boiler water level. The middle tricock is located at the NOWL. If water comes out of the middle tricock, the gage glass is not functioning properly. If water comes out of the top tricock, there is a high water condition in the boiler. If water comes out of the bottom tricock, water may be safely added to the boiler. If steam comes out of the bottom tricock, water must not be added to the boiler. Secure the fuel immediately. Adding water could cause a boiler explosion. 7. Makeup Water replaces boiler water lost from leaks or from the lack of condensate returned in the boiler. Makeup water is fed manually or automatically. Boilers can have both manual and automatic systems. If the boiler has both, the manual always bypasses the automatic system. Boiler operators must know how to supply makeup water quickly to the boiler in the event of a low water condition. Manual systems feed city water with a hand operated valve. Automatic systems feed city water with a float control valve
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mounted slightly below the NOWL. If the float drops from a low water level, the valve in the city water line is open. As the water level rises, the float rises to close the valve.
8. The Low Water Fuel Cut Off shuts off fuel to the burner in the event of a low water condition in the boiler. The low water fuel cut off is located 2" to 6" below the NOWL. Low water fuel cut offs are available with or without an integral water column. Low water fuel cut offs must be tested monthly or more often depending on plant procedures and requirements. Low water fuel cut offs operate using an electric probe or a float sensor. The float senses a drop in water level. Switches in the low water fuel cut off are wired to the burner control to shut off fuel to the burner when the water level drops in the chamber. 9. The Feed water Regulator maintains the NOWL in the boiler by controlling the amount of condensate return pumped to the boiler from the condensate return tank. The correct water level is maintained with a feed water regulator, but boiler water level must still be checked periodically by the boiler operator.
Feed Water Regulator
10. Feed water Pumps are used with feed water regulators to pump feed water to the boiler. Pressure must be sufficient to overcome boiler water pressure to maintain the NOWL in the boiler. For maximum safety, plants having one steam driven feed water pump must have a back up feed water pump driven by electricity. Feed water pumps may be reciprocating, centrifugal or turbine.
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11. Reciprocating feed water pumps are steam driven and use a piston to discharge
water to the feed water line. They are limited in capacity and are used on small boilers. 12. Centrifugal feed water pumps are electric motor or steam driven. They are the most common feed water pump. Centrifugal force moves water to the outside edge of the rotating impeller. The casing directs water from the impeller to the discharge piping. Discharge pressure is dependent on impeller speed. 13. Turbine feed water pumps are steam driven and operate similarly to centrifugal feed water pumps. 14. Feed water Heaters heat water before it enters the boiler drum to remove oxygen and other gases which may cause corrosion. Feed water heaters are either open or closed. Open feed water heaters allow steam and water to mix as they enter an enclosed steel chamber. They are located above the feed water pump to produce a positive pressure on the suction side of the pump. Closed feed water heaters have a large number of tubes inside an enclosed steel vessel. Steam and water do not come in contact, but feed water goes through the tubes and steam is allowed in the vessel to preheat the feed water. They are located on the discharge side of the feed water pump.
15. Bottom Blow down Valves release water from the boiler to reduce water level, remove sludge and sediment, reduce chemical concentrations or drain the boiler. Two valves are commonly used, a quick opening and screw valve. During blow down the quick opening valve is opened first, the screw valve is opened next and takes the wear and tear from blow down. Water is discharged to the blow down tank. A blow down tank collects water to protect the sewer from the hot boiler water. After blow down, the screw valve is closed first and the quick opening valve is closed last. 16. Steam Fittings & Accessories remove air, control steam flow, and maintain the required steam pressure in the boiler. Steam fittings are also used to direct steam to various locations for heating and process.
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17. Steam Pressure Gauges and vacuum gages monitor pressure inside the boiler. The range of these gages should be 1-1/2 to 2 times the MAWP of the boiler. For example: on a low pressure boiler, a maximum steam pressure on the pressure gage reads 30 psig as the MAWP is 15 psig.
Pressure Gauge
18. Steam Valves commonly used include a gate valve used for the main steam stop valve and the globe valve. The main steam stop valve cuts the boiler in online allowing steam to flow from the boiler or takes it off line. This is an outside stem and yoke or OS&Y valve. The position of the stem indicates whether the valve is open or closed. The valve is opened with the stem out and closed with the stem in. This provides quick information to the boiler operator. 19. The globe valve controls the flow of steam passing under the valve seat through the valve. This change in direction causes a decrease in steam pressure. A globe valve decreases steam flow and can be used to vary the amount of steam flow. This should never be used as a main steam stop valve.
Globe Valve
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20. Steam Traps remove condensate from steam in lines from the boiler. Steam traps work automatically and increase boiler plant efficiency. They also prevent water hammer by expelling air and condensate from the steam lines without loss of steam. Steam traps are located after the main steam header throughout the system. Steam traps commonly used include the inverted bucket, the thermostatic and the float thermostatic. In Steam Trap the inverted bucket steam trap steam enters the bottom flowing into the inverted bucket. The steam holds the bucket up. As condensate fills the steam trap the bucket loses buoyancy and sinks to open the discharge valve. The thermostatic steam trap has a bellows filled with a fluid that boils at steam temperature. As the fluid boils vapors expand the bellows to push the valve closed. When the temperature drops below steam temperature, the bellows contract to open the valve and discharge condensate. A variation of the thermostatic steam trap is the float thermostatic steam trap. A float opens and closes depending on the amount of condensate in the trap bowl. Condensate is drawn out by return vacuum. 21. Steam Strainers remove scale or dirt from the steam and are located in the piping prior to steam trap inlet. Scale or dirt can clog discharge orifices in the steam trap. Steam strainers must be cleaned regularly.
Steam Strainer
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The boiler is now ready to be put into service. About 12 hours should be allowed for the complete operation provided some means of circulating the boiler is provided. If circulation cannot be carried out, the steam raising procedure must be carried out more slowly, taking about 18-24 hours for the complete operation. This is due to the fact that water is a very poor conductor of heat, and heat from the furnace will be carried up by convection currents leaving the water below the furnace cold. This will lead to severe stresses being set up in the lower sections of the circumferential joints of the boiler shell if steam raising is carried out too rapidly, and can lead to leakage and 'grooving' of the end plate flanging . If steam is being raised simultaneously on more than one boiler, use the feed pump to circulate each boiler in turn, for about ten minutes each.
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7. No attempt should be made to approach the site of leakage directly, but the defective system should be shut down as soon as is practicable and the leakage rectified. 8. Do not allow steam and water leaks to go un-corrected as, apart from reduction in plant efficiency, they also lead to increased demand for extra feed with an inevitable increase in boiler water impurities. 9. Always be alert for conditions which increase the potential fire risk within the engine room: the best method of fire fighting is not to allow one to start. Thus all spaces, tank tops etc. must be kept clean, dry, and well lit. This not only improves the work environment, but also makes for the early detection of any leakage and encourages early repair. 10. Store any necessary stocks of combustibles remote from sources of ignition. Maintain all oil systems tight and free from leaks and overspills. Follow correct flashing-up procedures for the boiler at all times, especially in the case of roof-fired radiant heat boilers. Be familiar with the fire fighting systems and equipment, and ensure that all under your direct control are kept at a full state of readiness at all times. 11. Assess particular risk areas, especially in engine room sp aces, and formulate your approach in case of emergency; decide in some detail how you would deal with fires at various sites in the engine room. Make sure that your are familiar with the quick closing fuel shut-off valves, the remotely operated steam shut-off valves etc. to enable the boiler to be put in a safe condition if having to abandon the machinery spaces in the event of a fire.
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5. Where work is to be carried out in the drum, rubber or plastic mats can be used, with flexible wires attached and secured outside the drum so that they are not left inside when the boiler is closed up. 6. Check all orifices to boiler mountings to prove that they are clear, and ensure that all tools, cleaning materials etc. have been removed from the boiler. All internal fittings removed must be replaced. Fit new gaskets to all doors and headers, and close up the boiler. 7. All personnel working in the boiler must be impressed with the importance of the avoidance of any objects entering the tubes after the boiler has been searched, but that if a mishap should occur it must be reported before the boiler is finally closed up. 8. External Cleaning Spaces between tubes can become choked with deposits which are not removed by soot blowing. Where sufficiently loose they may be removed by dry cleaning using brushes or compressed air. But in most cases water washing will be necessary. Washing will require hot water, preferably fresh, under pressure and delivered by suitable lances. The water serves two purposes, dissolving the soluble deposits and then breaking up and flushing away the loosened insoluble residue. 9. Once started. Washing should be continuous and thorough, as any half-dissolved deposits remaining tend to harden off, baking on hard when the boiler is again fired, then to prove extremely difficult to remove during any subsequent cleaning operations. 10. Prior to cleaning, bitumastic paint should be applied around tubes where they enter refractory material, in order to prevent water soaking in to cause external corrosion
11. . Efficient drainage must be provided, with sometimes drains below the furnace floor requiring the removal of some furnace refractory. Where only a particular section is to be washed, hoppers can be rigged beneath the work area, and the water drained off through a convenient access door.
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12. For stubborn deposits a wetting agent may be sprayed on prior to washing. 13. After washing. Check that no damp deposits remain around tube ends, in crevices etc. removing any remaining traces found. In a similar manner remove any deposits in double casings around economizer headers etc., especially if they have become damp due to water entering during the washing process. 14. Ensure that all cleaning materials, tools. Staging etc. have been removed, and any refractory removed has been replaced, after which the access doors can be replaced. 15. Run the fans at full power with air registers full open for some minutes to clear any loose deposits. Then dry the boiler out by flashing up in the normal manner. If this cant be done immediately, then hot air from steam air heaters or from portable units must be blown through to dry the external surfaces.
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Preoperational precautions
Make sure all maintenance services are finished Make sure all air gates and flue gases gates are closed Make sure no personal are working on site Make sure all electric devices have power Air compressors must be working All air pressures in the system must be at normal Cooling water system must be ready Secondary Steam system must be on Drum must be filled with water
8.2.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.
Steps
Water tank level at normal (0) level Lubricating oil pressure < 1.4 bar Gear box at neutral position Valve for controlling lowest rate of feed water must be open Suction valve must be open Delivery Valve and bypass must be closed. Cooling water valve must be open
1. The bypass valve for the delivery pipe is opened 2. The delivery valve is opened 3. The control valve is opened for starting operation 4. The entrance valve to the economizer is opened The operating range for rate of feed water should be about (200-250 ton/hr) 5. After the drum is filled with water the delivery valve to the drum is closed to start operation 6. The ammonia (NH3) pump is turned on to increase the water PH 7. Hydrazine (N2H4) is used to remove Oxygen(O2) and increase PH 8. Sodium Phosphate (NA3PO4) is used to remove dissolved salts
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8.3.
a) b) c) d)
Air pressure must be 8 bar Cooling water system must be normal point Inlet and outlet gates for the air must be closed Inlet and outlet gates for the flue gases must be closed
a) b) c) d)
Open the inlet and outlet gates for the flue gases Open the inlet and outlet gates for the air The forced air fan is to be turned on now After 15 sec the induced fan is to be turned on.
8.4.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.
Air Preheater must be turned on Cooling water system must be operational Air suction gates must be closed on both sides Air delivery gates must be closed on both sides Lubricating oil pump must be operational Hydraulic coupling must be at normal (0) level
1. Turn the fan on 2. Hydraulic coupling is to be opened 20 % 3. The delivery gate for the fan is to be opened 4. The suction gate for the fan is to be opened The hydraulic coupling and the fan air suction gates must be set to AUTO setting All gates must be put to AUTO setting as follows: Over fire Damper 20 % open Aux. Dampers 40 % open Fuel Air Damper 60%
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1. Air fans must be turned on 2. Outlet gates for air must be open 3. Circulating Flue gases fans are to be turned on now
8.5.
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Operating Precautions:
Air fans must be on Cooling water system must be operational Inlet and outlet flue gases gates must be closed Heater gates must be opened Lubricating oil pump must be on
Secondary steam system must be turned on Secondary steam must be at 360 C at about 13.5 bar
Secondary steam destinations:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.
Air heaters Gas absorbers Air dumpers steam atomizer burners Secondary steam for steam turbines
8.6.
Fuel System:
1. Fuel level must be normal 2. Leakage preventing pump must be operational 3. suction valve must be opened 4. control valve for the lowest level of fuel must be opened 5. the delivery valve must be opened The main fuel pump can now be turned on Minimum pressure for the fuel is 20 bar by adjusting the control valve The steam atomizing system is now to be turned on
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After checking that the steam level is normal the inlet valve for the secondary steam is to be opened The atomizing steam pressure is to be 11 bar
8.7.
Purging condition
1. Air flow not much than 30% 2. One or more FDF running 3. Fuel Oil trip valve closed 4. Fuel gas trip valve closed 5. All igniter off 6. All scanner no flame. 7. MFT 8. Igniter gas oil supply pressure must be proper 9. Fuel oil or gas supply pressure must be proper 10. All flue gases and air damper are to be opened 11. All burners valve must be closed 12. BCS power supply normal 13. All Aux. Damper modulating
8.8.
Boiler Storage
As soon as possible after the end of the heating season, take these steps, where applicable: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Remove all fuses from the burner circuit. Remove soot and ash from the furnace, tubes, and flue surfaces. Remove all fly ash from stack cleanout. Drain the broiler completely after letting the water cool. Flush the boiler to remove all sludge, and loose scale particles. See that defective tubes, nipples, stay bolts, packings, and insulation are repaired or replaced as required. 7. Clean and overhaul all boiler accessories such as safety valves, gauge glasses, and firing equipment. Special attention should be given to low-water cutoffs and feedwater regulators to ascertain that float (or electrode) chambers and connections are free of deposits. 8. Check the condensate return system for tightness of components.
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9.1.
Burner controller:
The controller is usually located in front of the burner. On a call for heat the controller starts a sequence of events that ensure safe operation before the burner is allowed to start. The controller continues to monitor burner operation while the boiler is running. If for any reason the controller senses an unsafe operating condition it will shut the burner off. Pushing the manual reset on the controller will often restart the boiler.
9.2.
This device is a safety backup to the "operator" control. It has a manual reset which when pressed to start the boiler indicates that the "operator" control has failed.
9.3.
The natural gas fuel train usually has two pressure switches. The low pressure switch locks out the boiler when too little gas is available for operation. The high pressure switch locks out the boiler when the regulator is allowing too high a gas pressure. Both switches have a manual reset.
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9.4.
The low water cutoff may have a manual reset. When reset indicates a low water condition existed in the boiler.
9.5. Other devices that may prevent the boiler from starting:
9.5.1.
Time clocks:
Time clocks or other energy management devices may restrict boiler operation during weekends, evenings or other times of the day. Check their operating schedule.
9.5.2.
These devices sense outdoor temperatures and prevent boiler operation above certain outdoor temperatures, usually 65 degrees.
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10.2. Overpressure
Safe operation of a boiler is dependent on a vital accessory, the safety valve. Failure to test the safety valve on a regular basis or to open it manually periodically can result in heavy accumulations of scale, deposits of sediment or sludge near the valve. These conditions can cause the safety valve spring to solidify or the disc to seal, ultimately rendering the safety valve inoperative. A constantly simmering safety valve is a danger sign and must not be neglected. Your preventive maintenance program includes the documentation and inspection of the safety valve. A daily test must be performed when the boiler is in operation Simply raise the hand operating lever quickly to its limit and allow it to snap closed. Any tendency of a sticking, binding or leaking of the safety valve must be corrected immediately.
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boiler, with its complex fuel-handling plant, will be much slower to respond to changes in demand than a gas-fired one. Also, the turndown of the plant (the range of steam flows over which it will be capable of operating under automatic control) will depend on the type of fuel being burned, with gas-fired units being inherently capable of operating over a wider dynamic range than their coal-fired equivalents. The design of the master system is determined by the role which the plant is expected to play, and here three options are available. The demand signal can be fed primarily to the turbine (boiler-following control); or to the boiler (turbine-following control); or it can be directed to both (co-ordinated unit control). Each of these results in a different performance of the unit, in a manner that will now be analyzed.
1-1-Boiler-following operation
With boiler-following control, the power-demand signal modulates the turbine throttle-valves to meet the load, while the boiler systems are modulated to keep the steam pressure constant.
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How can we achieve this? When valve closes, a drop in pressure happens, to regain the pressure to its predetermined value, we should decrease flow rate to decrease pressure drop across the valve, also when we decrease flow rate, pump head increases according to performance of the centrifugal pump. In such a system, the plant operates with the turbine throttle-valves partly closed. The action of opening or closing these valves provides the desired response to demand changes. Sudden load increases are met by opening the valves to release some of the stored energy within the boiler. When the demand falls, closing the valves increases the stored energy in the boiler. In such a system the turbine is the first to respond to the changes. The boiler control system reacts after these changes have been made, increasing or reducing the firing to restore the steam pressure to the set value.
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1-2-Turbine-following operation
In the turbine-following system, the demand is fed directly to the boiler and the turbine throttle-valves are left to maintain a constant steam pressure. Particularly in the case of coal-fired plant, this method of operation offers slower response, because the turbine output is adjusted only after the boiler has reacted to the changed demand and as we know , the boiler response is much lower than turbine response especially the coal type. However, the turbine-following system enables the unit to be operated in a more efficient manner and tuning for optimum performance is easier than with the boilerfollowing system. We use this for large base-load power plant (where the unit runs at a fixed load, usually a high one, for most of the time), or with gas-fired plant where the response is comparatively rapid (as if we make the system boiler following, the boiler may fail to follow the fast response turbine).
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Performance restriction for the control system is very dependent on the rate of heating the turbine and boiler. Control parameters should always be adjusted as all system component ages and their performance changes.
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Because the steam-generation rate of its boiler is not automatically adjusted to meet an external demand, a plant operating under the control of a simple turbine-following system will generate amounts of power that do not relate to the short-term needs of the grid system. Such a plant is therefore incapable of operating in a frequencysupport mode, although this mode of operation may be used where it is not easy, or desirable, to adjust the fuel input, for instance in industrial waste-incineration plants.
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If amount of excess air is increase over a certain limit, it causes loss in efficiency. The reduction in efficiency is due to losses which are composed of the heat wasted in the exhaust gases and the heat which is theoretically available in the fuel, but which is not burned. As the excess-air level increases, the heat lost in the exhaust gases increases, while the losses in unburned fuel reduce (the shortage of oxygen at the lower levels increasing the degree of incomplete combustion that occurs). The sum of these two losses, plus the heat lost by radiation from hot surfaces in the boiler and its pipe work, is identified as the total loss. The figure above shows that operation of the plant at the point identified at 'A' will correspond with minimum losses, and from this it may be assumed that this is the point to which the operation of the combustion-control system should be targeted. However, in practice air is not evenly distributed within the furnace. For example, operational considerations require that a supply of cooling air is provided for idle burners and flame monitors, to prevent them being damaged by heat from nearby active burners and by general radiation from the furnace. Air also enters the combustion chamber through leaks, observation ports, soot-blower entry points and so on. The sum of all this is referred to as 'tramp air' or 'setting leakage'. If this is included in the total being supplied to the furnace, and if that total is apportioned to the total amount of fuel being fired, the implication is that some burners (at least) will be deprived of the air they need for the combustion of their fuel. In other words, the correct amount of air is being provided in total, but it is going to places where it is not available for the combustion process. Operation of the firing system must take these factors into account, and from then on the system can apportion the fuel and air flows. If these are maintained in a fixed relationship with each other over the full range of flows, the amount of excess air will be fixed over the entire range.
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Although this simple system may be quite adequate for very small boilers burning fuels such as oil or natural gas, its deficiencies become increasingly apparent as the size of the plant increases. System problems 1-It assumes that for a given opening of fuel valve or air damper we get a certain amount of flow and this is not true as flow depends also on pressure difference between valves sides, also flow will depends on properties of fuel and air like density.
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2- Another problem is that the response times of the fuel and air systems are never identical. Therefore, if a sudden load-change occurs and the two controlling devices are moved to predetermined openings, the flows through them will react at different rates. With an oil-fired boiler, a sudden increase in demand will cause the fuel flow to increase quickly, but the air system will be slower to react. As a result, if the fuel/air ratio was correct before the change occurred, the firing conditions after the change will tend to become fuel-rich until the air system has had time to catch up. This causes characteristic puffs of black smoke to be emitted as unburned fuel is ejected to the chimney. On a load decrease the reverse happens, and the mixture in the combustion chamber becomes air-rich. The resulting high oxygen content could lead to corrosion damage to the metalwork of the boiler, and to unacceptable flue-gas emissions.
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The system shown in figure in previous page shows a different control arrangement working with the same idealized plant (i.e. one with no air leaking into the combustion chamber). Here, instead of a gain function, a bias is added to one of the signals. The effect of this is that a fixed surfeit of air is always present and this is proportionally larger at the smaller flows, with the result that the amount of excess air is largest at small flows, as shown. Changing the bias signal (b) moves the curve bodily as shown. Each of these control configurations has been used in practical plant, although the version with bias (Figure 5.3b) exacerbates the effects of tramp air and therefore tends to be confined to smaller boilers. The arrangement shown in figure (a) therefore forms the basis of most practical fuel/air ratio control systems. In these illustrations it has been assumed that the master demand is fed to the fuel valve, leaving the air-flow controller to maintain the fuel/air ratio at the correct desired value. When this is done, the configuration is known as a 'fuel lead' system since, when the load demand changes, the fuel flow is adjusted first and the controller then adjusts the air flow to match the fuel flow, after the latter has changed. It doesn't have to be done this way. Instead, the master demand can be relayed to the air-flow controller, which means that the task of maintaining the fuel/air ratio is then assigned to the fuel controller. For obvious reasons this is known as an 'air-lead' system. So, Fuel lead system is the system which manipulates fuel flow according to load and let the controller adjust the amount of air flow to achieve the predetermined air to fuel ratio. So, air lead system is the system which manipulates air flow according to load and let the controller adjust the amount of fuel flow to achieve the predetermined air to fuel ratio.
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Comparing the "fuel-lead' and 'air-lead' approaches Of the two alternatives described above, the fuel-lead version will provide better response to load changes, since its action does not depend on the slower-responding plant that supplies combustion air to the furnace. However, because of this, the system suffers from a tendency to produce fuel-rich conditions on load increases and fuel-lean conditions on decreases in the load. Disadvantages of working in rich fuel region Operating in the fuel-rich region raises the risk of unburned fuel being ignited in an uncontrolled manner, possibly causing a furnace explosion. Disadvantages of working with too much excess air Whereas operating with too much excess air, while not raising the risk of an uncontrolled fire or an explosion, does cause a variety of other problems, including back-end corrosion of the boiler structure, and undesirable stack emissions. The air-lead system is slow to respond because it requires the draught plant to react before the fuel is increased. Although this avoids the risk of creating fuel-rich conditions as the load increases, it remains prone to such a risk as the load decreases as the air takes time to be reduced, hence the fuel will be injected during this period which will make a fuel rich mixture. However, the hazard is less than for the fuel lead system. Disadvantages of both systems A further limitation of these systems (in either the fuel-lead or air-lead version) is that they offer no protection against equipment failures, since these cannot be detected and corrected without special precautions being taken. For example, in the fuel-lead version, if the fuel-flow transmitter fails in such a way that it signals a lower flow than the amount that is actually being delivered to the furnace, the fuel/air ratio controller will attempt to reduce the supply of combustion air to match the erroneous measurement. This will cause the combustion conditions to become fuel rich, with the attendant risk of an explosion. Conversely, if the fuelflow transmitter in the air-lead system fails low, the fuel controller will attempt to
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compensate for the apparent loss of fuel by injecting more fuel into the furnace, with similar risks.
2-1-1-3-Cross-limited control
Figure above shows the principles of the cross-limited combustion control system. Individual flow-ratio controllers (FRC) (7, 8) are provided for the fuel and air systems, respectively. The effect of the fuel/air ratio adjustment block (4) is to modify the airflow signal in accordance with the required fuel/air relationship. (FT) is a flow transmitter to give a value for actual flow for fuel and air (2 & 3). Because fuel flow and air flow are each measured as part of a closed loop, the system compensates for any changes in either of these flows that may be caused by external
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factors. For this reason it is sometimes referred to as a 'fully metered' system. The effect of the fuel/air ratio adjustment block (4) is to modify the air-flow signal in accordance with the required fuel/air relationship. How this system works? So far, the configuration performs similarly to the basic systems in previous section. The difference becomes apparent when the maximum and minimum selectors are brought into the picture (components 5 & 6). Remembering the problems of the differing response-rates of the fuel and air supply systems, consider what happens when the master demand signal suddenly requests an increase in firing. Assume that, prior to that instant; the fuel and air controllers have been keeping their respective controlled variable in step with the demand, so that the fuel-flow and modified airflow signals are each equal to the demand signal. When the master demand signal suddenly increases , it now becomes larger than the fuel-flow signal and it is therefore ignored by the minimum-selector block (5) which instead latches onto the modified air-flow signal (from item 4). The fuel controller now assumes the role of fuel/air ratio controller, maintaining the boiler's fuel input at a value that is consistent with the air being delivered to the furnace. The air flow is meanwhile being increased to meet the new demand, since the maximum-selector block (6) has latched onto the rising master signal. On a decrease in load, the system operates in the reverse manner. The minimumselector block locks onto the collapsing master and quickly reduces the fuel flow, while the maximum-selector block chooses the fuel flow signal as the demand for the air-flow controller (8), which therefore starts to operate as the fuel/air ratio controller, keeping the air flow in step with the fuel flow. Analysis of the system will show that it is much better able to deal with plant or control and instrumentation equipment failures. For example, if the fuel valve fails open, the air controller will maintain adequate combustion air to meet the quantity of fuel being supplied to the combustion chamber. This may result in over firing but it cannot cause fuel-rich conditions to be created in the furnace. Similarly, if the fuelflow transmitter fails low, although the fuel controller will still attempt to
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compensate for the apparent loss of fuel, the air flow controller will ensure that adequate combustion air is supplied.
2-1-1-4-Multiple-burner systems
The systems that have been described so far are based on the adjustment of the total quantity of fuel and air that is admitted to the combustion chamber. This approach may be sufficient with smaller boilers, where adjustment of a single fuel valve and air damper is reasonable, but larger units will have a multiplicity of burners, fuel systems, fans, dampers and combustion-air supplies. In such cases proper consideration has to be given to the distribution of air and fuel to each burner or, if this is not practical, to small groups of burners. The concept of individually controlling air registers to provide the correct fuel/air ratio to each burner of a multi burner boiler has been implemented, but in most practical situations the expense of the instrumentation cannot be justified. Oil and gas burners can be operated by maintaining a defined relationship between the fuel pressure and the differential pressure across the burner air register (rather than proper flow measurements), but even with such economies the capital costs are high and the payback low. The need to provide a modulating actuator for each air register adds further cost. A more practical option is to control the ratio of fuel and air that flows to groups of burners. Figure shown next page shows how the principles of a simple cross limited system are applied to a multi burner oil-fired boiler. The plant in this case comprises several rows of burners, and the flow of fuel oil to each row is controlled by means of a single valve. The combustion air is supplied through a common wind box, and the flow to the firing burners is controlled by a single set of secondary-air dampers.
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In most respects the arrangement closely resembles the basic cross limited system explained in previous section, with the oil flow inferred from the oil pressure at the row. A function generator is used to convert the pressure signal to a flow-per-burner signal, which is then multiplied by a signal representing the number of burners firing in that row, to yield a signal representing the total amount of oil flowing to the burners in the group. Working with multiple fuels The control systems of boilers burning several different types of fuel have to recognize the heat-input contribution being made at any time by each of the fuels,
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and the arrangements become more complicated for every additional fuel that is to be considered.
Figure above shows a system for a boiler burning oil and gas. The similarities to the simple cross-limited system are very apparent, as are the commonalities with the fuelcontrol part of the multi burner system (shown within the chain-dotted area of Figure 5.9).
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The cross-limiting function is performed at the minimum-selector block (5) which continuously compares the master demand with the quantity of combustion air flowing to the common wind box of the burner group. The gain block (6) translates the air flow into a signal representing the amount of fuel whose combustion can be supported by the available secondary air. The selected signal (the load demand or the available air) ultimately forms the desired value of both the gas and oil closed-loop controllers. But, before it reaches the relevant controller a value is subtracted from it, which represents the heat contributed by the other fuel (converted to the same heat/m s value as the fuel being controlled). The conversion of oil flow to equivalent gas flow is performed in a function generator (10), while the other conversion is performed in another such block (14). Each of the two summator units (11 and 13) algebraically subtracts the 'other-fuel signal from the demand. Note that, in the case of this system, the gas pressure signal is compensated against temperature variations, since the pressure/flow relationship of the gas is temperature-dependent. As before, each fuel-flow signal represents the flow per burner and so it has to be multiplied by the number of burners in service in order to represent the total fuel flow. These diagrams are highly simplified, and in practice it is necessary to incorporate various features such as interlocks to prevent over firing and to isolate one or other of the pressure signals when no burner is firing that fuel. (This is because a pressure signal will exist even when no firing is taking place.)
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2-1-2-Draught control
We will understand draught control via inspecting draught system components, layout and operation. In the following section we shall see how air is delivered to the furnace at the right conditions of flow and temperature, starting with the auxiliary plant that warms the air and moving on to the types of fan employed in the draught plant. The air heater In a simple-cycle plant, air is delivered to the boiler by one or more forced draught fans and the products of combustion are extracted from it by induced draught fans as shown in figure below.
Figure above shows this plant in a simplified form, and illustrates how the heat remaining in the exhaust gases leaving the furnace is used to warm the air being fed to the combustion chamber. This function is achieved in an air heater, which can be
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either regenerative, where an intermediate medium is used to transfer the heat from the exhaust gases to the incoming air, or recuperative, where a direct heat transfer is used across a dividing partition. In the regenerative type, air and exhaust may mix at a certain limit; this is referred to as air leakage. Leakage happens across the circumferential, radial and axial seals, as well as at the hub. These leakages are minimized when the plant is first constructed, but become greater as wear occurs during prolonged usage. When the sheer physical size of the air heater is considered it will be appreciated that these leakages can become significant.
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In addition to the FD and ID fans mentioned above, another application for large fans in a power-station boiler is where it is necessary to overcome the resistance presented by plant in the path of the flue gases to the stack. In some cases, environmental legislation has enforced the fitting of flue gas desulphurisation equipment to an existing boiler. This involves the use of absorbers and/or bag filters, plus the attendant ducting, all of which present additional resistance to the flow of gases. In this case this resistance was not anticipated when the plant was originally designed, so it is necessary to fit additional fans to overcome the draught losses. These are called 'booster fans'.
2-1-2-2-1-Centrifugal fans
The blades are set radially on the drive shaft with the air or flue gas directed to the centre and driven outwards by centrifugal force.
2-1-2-2-2-Axial-flow fans
The air or gas is drawn along the line of the shaft by the screw action of the blades. Whereas the blades of a centrifugal fan are fixed rigidly to the shaft, the pitch of axialflow fan blades can be adjusted. This provides an efficient means of controlling the fan's throughput, but requires careful design of the associated control system because of a phenomenon known as 'stall', which will now be described.
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The stall condition affects only axial-flow fans. However, centrifugal fans are subject to another form of instability. If they are operated near the peak of their pressure/flow curve a small movement either way can cause the pressure to increase or decrease unpredictably. The point at which this phenomenon occurs is known as the 'surge limit' and it is the minimum flow at which the fan operation is stable.
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1-Fan damper
The simplest form of damper consists of a hinged plate that is pivoted at the centre so that it can be opened or closed across the duct. This provides a form of draught control but it is not very linear and it is most effective only near the closed position. Once such a damper is more than about 40- 60% open it can provide very little additional control. Another form of damper comprises a set of linked blades across the duct (like a Venetian blind). Such multi bladed dampers are naturally more expensive and more complex to maintain than single-bladed versions, but they offer better linearity of control over a wider range of operation.
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2-1-2-4-2-Vane control
The second form of control is by the adjustment of vanes at the fan inlet. Such vanes are operated via a complex linkage which rotates all the vanes through the same angle in response to the command signal from the DCS.
2-1-2-4-3-Variable-speed drives
Finally, control of fan throughput can be achieved by the use of variable speed motors (or drives). These may involve the use of electronic controllers which alter the speed of the driving motor in response to demand signals from the DCS or they can be hydraulic couplings or variable-speed gearboxes, either of which allows a fixed-speed motor to drive the fan at the desired speed. Variable speed drives offer significant advantages in that they allow the fan to operate at the optimum speed for the required throughput of air or gas, whereas dampers or vanes control the flow by restricting it, which means that the fan is attempting to deliver more flow than is required.
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As we know, in a fired boiler, the air required for combustion is provided by one or more fans and the exhaust gases are drawn out of the combustion chamber by an additional fan or set of fans. On boilers with retro-fitted flue-gas desulphurisation plant, additional booster fans may also be provided. The control of all these fans must ensure that an adequate supply of air is available for the combustion of the fuel and that the combustion chamber operates at the pressure determined by the boiler designer. All of the fans also have to contribute to the provision of another important function purging of the furnace in all conditions-when a collection of unburned fuel or combustible gases could otherwise be accidentally ignited. Such operations are required prior to light-off of the first burner when the boiler is being started, or after a trip. The control systems for the fans have to be designed to meet the requirements of start-up, normal operation and shut-down, and to do so in the most efficient manner possible, because the fans may be physically large and require a large amount of power for their operation (several MW in some cases). In addition, as we know, the performance constraints of the fans, such as surge and stall, have to be recognized, if necessary by the provision of special control functions or interlocks.
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If that balance is disturbed the results can be extremely serious. Such an imbalance can be brought about by the accidental closure of a damper or by the sudden loss of all flames. It can also be caused by mal operation of the FD and ID fans. The dashed line on the diagram shows the pressure profile under such a condition, which known as an 'implosion'.
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The results of an implosion are extremely serious because, even though the pressures involved may be small, the surfaces over which they are applied are very large and the forces exerted become enormous. Such an event would almost certainly result in major structural damage to the plant.
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2-2-1-Feedwater Regulators
A boiler feedwater regulator automatically controls the water supply so that the level in the boiler drum is maintained within desired limits. This automatic regulator adds to the safety and economy of operation and minimizes the danger of low or high water. Uniform feeding of water prevents the boiler from being subjected to the expansion strains that would result from temperature changes produced by irregular water feed. The danger in the use of a feedwater regulator lies in the fact that the operator may be entirely dependent on it. It is well to remember that the regulator, like any other mechanism, can fail; continued attention is necessary.
It consists of a simple float attached to lever to control feed water flow and to keep level constant as shown above. Next generation employs the float in a different manner as shown in figure a.
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For high-capacity boilers and those operating at high pressure, a pneumatic or electrically operated feedwater control system is used. There are basically three types of feedwater-control systems: (1) Single element, (2) two element, and (3) three element.
2-2-1-2-Single-element control
This uses a single control loop that provides regulation of feedwater flow in response to changes in the drum water level from its set point. The measured drum level is compared to its set point, and any error produces a signal that moves the feedwater control valve in proper response.
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Single-element control will maintain a constant drum level for slow changes in load, steam pressure, or feedwater pressure. However, because the control signal satisfies the requirements of drum level only, wider drum-level variation results.
2-2-1-3-Two-element control
This uses a control loop that provides regulation of feedwater flow in response to changes in steam flow, with a second control loop correcting the feedwater flow to ensure the correct drum water level. The steam flow control signal anticipates load changes and begins control action in the proper direction before the drum-level control loop acts in response to the drum water level. The drum-level measurement corrects for any imbalance between the drum water level and its set point and provides the necessary adjustment to cope with the swell and shrink characteristics of the boiler.
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2-2-1-4-Three-element control
This uses a predetermined ratio of feedwater flow input to steam flow output to provide regulation of feedwater flow in direct response to boiler load. The threeelement control regulates the ratio of feedwater flow input to steam flow output by establishing the set point for the drum-level controller. Any change in the ratio is used to modify the drum-level set point in the level controller, which regulates feedwater flow in direct response to boiler load. This is the most widely used feedwater-control system.
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2-2-2-2-Thermostatic expansion-tube-type
The thermostatic expansion-tube-type feedwater regulator is shown in Figure c. Because of expansion and contraction, the length of the thermostatic tube changes and positions the regulating valve with each change in the proportioned amount of steam and water.
A two element steam-flow-type feedwater regulator shown in the above figure combines a thermostatic expansion tube operated from the change in water level in the drum as one element with the differential pressure across the superheater as the second element. The two combined operate the regulating valve. An air-operated three-element feedwater control (Fig. 6.12a) combines three elements to control the water level. Water flow is proportioned to steam flow, with drum level as the compensating element; the control is set to be insensitive to the level. In operation, a change in position of the metering element positions a pilot valve to vary the air loading pressure to a standatrol (self-standardizing relay). The resulting position assumed by the standatrol provides pressure to operate a pilot valve attached to the feedwater regulator. The impulse from the standatrol passes through a hand-automatic selector valve, permitting either manual or automatic operation. The hand-wheel jack permits manual adjustment of the feedwater valve if remote control is undesirable.
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radiation from the burners and the flow of hot gases, an additional requirement is to provide some means of adjusting the temperature of the steam within different parts of the circuit, to prevent any one section from becoming overheated. Before looking at the types of steam-temperature control systems that are applied, it will be useful to examine some of the mechanisms which are employed to regulate the temperature according to the controller's commands. Depending on whether or not the temperature of the steam is lowered to below the saturation point the controlling devices are known as attemperators or desuperheaters. (Strictly speaking, the correct term to use for a device which reduces the steam temperature to a point which is still above the saturation point is an attemperator, while one that lowers it below the saturation point may be referred to either as an attemperator or a desuperheater. However, in common engineering usage both terms are applied somewhat indiscriminately.)
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(MCR). This limitation is also the result of the spray-water flow being a larger proportion of the steam flow at low loads.
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The accuracy of control and the turndown range available from a multi-nozzle attemperator is considerably greater than that of a single nozzle version, allowing the steam temperature to be controlled to + 5.5C over a flow range of 40: 1.
exposing it to a zone of low pressure and high turbulence, which therefore causes additional evaporation. Due to the Venturi principle, the pressure of the cooled steam is quickly restored downstream of the vena contracta point, resulting in a very low overall loss of pressure. An advantage of the VAD is that, due to the coolant injection occurring at a point where the steam pressure is lowered, the pressure of the spray water does not have to be significantly higher than that of the steam.
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Location of temperature sensors: Because the steam and water do not mix immediately at the plane of the nozzle or nozzles, great care must be taken to locate the temperature sensor far enough downstream of the attemperator for the measurement to accurately represent the actual temperature of the steam entering the next stage of tube banks. Direct impingement of spray water on the temperature sensor will result in the final steam temperature being higher than desired. Figure 4 shows a typical installation, in this case for a variable-annulus desuperheater.
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various tube banks. In some cases two separate sets of dampers are provided: one regulating the flow over the superheater banks, the other controlling the flow over the reheater banks. Between them, these two sets of dampers deal with the entire volume of combustion gases passing from the furnace to the chimney. If both were to be closed at the same time, the flow of these gases would be severely restricted, leading to the possibility of damage to the structure due to over pressurization. For this reason the two sets are controlled in a so-called 'split-range' fashion, with one set being allowed to close only when the other has fully opened. These dampers provide the main form of control, but the response of the system is very slow, particularly with large boilers, where the temperature response to changes in heat input exhibits a second-order lag of almost two minutes' duration. For this reason, and also to provide a means of reducing the temperature of the reheat steam in the event of a failure in the damper systems, spray attemperation is provided for emergency cooling. The spray attemperator is shut unless the temperature at the reheater outlet reaches a predetermined high limit. When this limit is exceeded, the spray valve is opened. In this condition, the amount of water that is injected is typically controlled in relation to the temperature at the reheater inlet, to bring the exit temperature back into the region where gas-apportioning or burner tilting can once again be effective. The relationship between the cold reheat temperature and the required spray water flow can be defined by the boiler designer or process engineer. If a turbine trip occurs the reheat flow will collapse. In this situation the reheat sprays must be shut immediately in order to prevent serious damage being caused by the admission of cold spray water to the turbine. Spray attemperators for reheat applications At first, it may seem that reheat spray-water attemperator systems should be similar to those of the superheater. This is untrue, because reheat attemperators have to cope with the lower steam pressure in this section of the boiler, which renders the pressure of the water at the discharge of the feed pumps too high for satisfactory
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operation. Although a pressure-reducing valve could be introduced into the spraywater line, this would be an expensive solution whose long-term reliability would not be satisfactory because of the severe conditions to which such a valve would be subjected. A better solution would be to derive the supply from the feed-pump inlet. In some cases, even this is ineffective, and separate pump sets have to be provided for the reheat sprays. (A) Gas recycling Where boilers are designed for burning oil, or oil and coal in combination, they are frequently provided with gas-recirculation systems, where the hot gases exiting the later stages of the boiler are recirculated to the bottom part of the furnace, close to the burners. This procedure increases the mass-flow of gas over the tube banks, and therefore increases the heat transfer to them. Because the gas exiting the furnace is at a low pressure, fans have to be provided to ensure that the gas flows in the correct direction. Controlling the flow of recycled gases provides a method of regulating the temperature of the superheated and reheated steam, but interlocks have to be provided to protect the fan against hightemperature gases flowing in a reverse direction from the burner area if the fan is stopped or if it trips.
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The Boiler Pressure Control is a digital control loop application with a sampling period every 2 seconds.
Basic Principles
A steam generator (boiler) is simply a heat exchanger and as such it obeys the standard heat transfer relationship from one side of the boiler (tubes side) to the other (shell-side). Standard Heat transfer relationship can be described as:
Q = U. A. D T
where:
Q = the
rate of heat exchange from the HTS to the boiler water (kJ/s).
U = heat transfer coefficient of the tubes (kJ/s/m2) A = tube area (m2) D T = temperature difference between HTS and steam generator inventory. A and U are a function of boiler design and therefore Q is proportional to D T.
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If reactor power output increases, then more heat must be transferred to the boiler water. Q has to rise, therefore D T must also increase.
This increase in D T can be achieved by either allowing the average HTS temperature to increase as reactor power increases (as is the case for a pressurize installation) or by arranging that the boiler Pressure falls, and therefore boiler temperature falls, as reactor power increases (as is the case for a Solid HTS designs with no pressurize).
For all units designed with a pressurize, the first method is employed. Whereas for units without Pressurize, the second method is used.
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Under normal operating conditions, BPC manipulates the reactor power output in order to control boiler pressure to the set point. The turbine/generator, which is the heat sink for the boilers, is controlled to an operator specified set point. "Alternate" or Reactor Leading Operation If the unit is operating in the reactor leading mode - at low power conditions - the reactor power set point is specified by the operator. Boiler pressure is then controlled to its set point by manipulation of the steam loads, i.e., turbine and steam discharge valves.
The Atmospheric Steam Discharge Valves (ASDV) and Condenser Steam Discharge Valves (CSDV) are, under normal operating conditions, closed due to the introduction of a bias signal.
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If, for any reason, the boiler pressure rises above its set point by 70 kPa the ASDVs will open. If the rise in boiler pressure is greater than 125 kPa above set point the CSDVs will start to open. If the positive boiler pressure error is not corrected by the ASDVs and CSDVs a reactor setback will be initiated to correct the thermal mismatch (i.e. correct both the demand and the supply).
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To control the boiler pressure, (the controlled variable) the following manipulated variables are used: (a) Reactor Power (b) Turbine Steam Flow (c) Steam Reject Valve (SRV) Steam Flow
The boiler pressure will be decreased from 5 MPa to 4 MPa as unit power is raised from 0 to 100% full power (this is to minimize HTS temperature changes).
This is also the turbine operating ramp. The SRV set point is a parallel ramp set 100 kPa higher than the turbine ramp.
Should the boiler pressure rise by more than 100 kPa excess pressure will be released by the small SRVs.
If the positive pressure transient is not corrected by the small SRVs the large SRVs will start to open. Opening of the large SRVs will initiate a reactor setback.
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If the boiler pressure falls below the turbine set point the speeder gear will run back to a point where the decreased turbine power will be matched.
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2-5-Control devices
The purpose of the control system is to start, operate, and shut down the combustion process and any related auxiliary processes safely, reliably, and efficiently. A combustion system typically includes a fuel supply, a combustion air supply, and an ignition system, all of which come together at one or more burners. During system start-up and at various times during normal operation, the control system will need to verify or change the status of these systems. During system operation, the control system will need various items of process information to optimize system efficiency. Additionally, the control system monitors all safety parameters at all times and will shut down the combustion system if any of the safety limits are not satisfied.
2-5-1-Control platforms
The control platform is the set of devices that monitors and optimizes the process conditions, executes the control logic, and controls the status of the combustion system.
2-5-1-1-Relay System
A relay consists of an electromagnetic coil and several attached switch contacts that open or close when the coil is energized or de-energized. A relay system consists of a number of relays wired together in such a way that they execute a logical sequence. For example, a relay system may define a series of steps to start up the combustion process. Relays can tell only if something is on or off and have no analog capability. They are generally located in a local control panel. Advantages of relays Relays have several advantages. They are simple, easily tested, reliable, and wellunderstood devices that can be wired together to make surprisingly complex systems. They are modular, easily replaced, and inexpensive. They can be configured in fail-safe mode so that if the relay itself fails, combustion system safety is not compromised. Disadvantages There are also a few disadvantages of relays. Once a certain complexity level is reached, relay systems can quickly become massive. Although individual relays are
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very reliable, a large control system with hundreds of relays can be very unreliable. Relays also take up a lot of expensive control panel space. Because relays must be physically rewired to change the operating sequence, system flexibility is poor.
2-5-1-2-Burner Controller
A variety of burner controllers is available from several different vendors. They are prepackaged, hardwired devices in different configurations to operate different types of systems. A burner controller will execute a defined sequence and monitor defined safety parameters. They are generally located in a local control panel. Like relays, they generally have no analog capability. Advantages of burner controllers include the fact that they are generally inexpensive, compact, simple to hook up, require no programming, and are fail-safe and very reliable. They are often approved for combustion service by various safety agencies and insurance companies. There are also some disadvantages. Burner controllers cannot control combustion systems of much complexity. System flexibility is nonexistent. If it becomes necessary to change the operating sequence, the controller must be rewired or replaced with a different unit.
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Disadvantages of PLCs include having to write software for the controller. Coding can be complex and creates the possibility of making a programming mistake, which can compromise system safety. The PLC can also freeze up, much like a desktop computer freezes up, where all inputs and outputs are ignored and the system must be reset in order to execute logic again. Because of this possibility, standard PLCs should never be used as a primary safety device. Special types of redundant or fault-tolerant PLCs are available that are more robust and generally accepted for this service, but they are very expensive and generally difficult to implement.
2-5-1-5-Hybrid Systems
If you could combine several of the systems listed above and build a hybrid control system, the advantages of each system could be exploited. In practice, that is what is usually done. A typical system uses relays to perform the safety monitoring, a PLC to do the sequencing, and either dedicated controllers or an existing DCS for the analog
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systems control. Sometimes, the DCS does both the sequencing and the analog systems control, and the safety monitoring is done by a fault-tolerant logic system. Most approval agencies and insurers require the safety monitoring function to be separate from either of the other functions.
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When we control burners of boilers, we keep 2 bounds in our consideration; 1- If the amount of fuel burned is more than required duty, overheating will occur. 2- If the omount of fuel burned is less than required, drop in power will happen. If we connect the boiler to turbine, it will make the turbine work in wet region.
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2-5-2-Analog devices
2-5-2-1-Control Valves
Control valves are among the most complex and expensive components in any combustion control system. As shown in Figure, the type of service and control desired determines the selection of different flow characteristics and valve sizes. Controls engineers use a series of calculations to help with this selection process. A typical control valve consists of several components that are mated together before installation in the piping system: a) Control Valve Body The control valve body can be a globe valve, a butterfly valve, or any other type of adjustable control valve. Usually, special globe valves of the equal percent type are used for fuel gas control service or liquid service. Control of combustion air and waste gas flows generally require the use of butterfly valves often the quick-opening type. Because the combustion air or waste line usually has a large diameter, and the cost of globe valves quickly becomes astronomical after the line size exceeds 3 or 4 inches, butterfly valves are usually the most economical choice.
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b) Actuator The actuator supplies the mechanical force to position the valve for the desired flow rate. For control applications, a diaphragm actuator is preferred because, compared to a piston-type actuator, it has a relatively large pressure-sensitive area and a relatively small frictional area where the stem is touching the packing. This ensures smooth operation, precision, and good repeatability. Proper selection of the actuator must take into account valve size, air pressure, desired failure mode, process pressure, and other factors. Actuators are usually spring-loaded and single-acting, with control air used on one side of the diaphragm and the spring on the other. The air pressure forces the actuator to move against the spring. If air pressure is lost, the valve fails to the spring position thus, the actuator is chosen carefully to fail to a safe position (i.e., closed for fuel valves, open for combustion air valves). c) Current-to-Pressure Transducer The current-to-pressure transducer, usually called the I/P converter, takes the 24 VDC (4 to 20 milliamps) signal from the controller and converts it into a pneumatic signal. The signal causes the diaphragm of the actuator to move to properly position the control valve. d) Positioner The positioner is a mechanical feedback device that senses the actual position of the valve as well as the desired position of the valve. It makes small adjustments to the pneumatic output to the actuator to ensure that the desired and the actual position are the same. e) Three-Way Solenoid Valve When energized, the three-way solenoid valve admits air to the actuator. When deenergized, it dumps the air from the actuator. Because single-acting actuators are generally used, the spring in the actuator forces the valve either fully open or fully closed, depending on the engineers choice of failure modes when specifying the valve. Obviously, a control valve that supplies fuel gas to a combustion system should
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fail closed, while the control valve that supplies combustion air to the same system should fail open. f) Mechanical Stops Mechanical stops are used to limit how far open or shut a control valve can travel. If it is vital that no more than a certain amount of fluid ever enters a downstream system, an up stop is set. If it is necessary to ensure a certain minimum flow, for cooling purposes for example, a down stop is set. In the case of a fuel supply control valve, the down stop is set so that during system lightoff, an amount of fuel ideal for smooth and reliable burner lighting is supplied. After a defined settling interval, usually 10 seconds, the three-way solenoid valve is energized and normal control valve operation is enabled.
2-5-2-2-Thermocouples
Whenever two dissimilar metals come into contact, current flows between the metals and the magnitude of that current flow and the voltage driving it, vary with temperature. This phenomenon is called the Seebeck effect. If both of the metals are carefully chosen and are of certain known alloy compositions, the voltage will vary in a nearly linear manner with temperature over some known temperature range. Because the temperature and voltage ranges vary depending on the materials employed, engineers use different types of thermocouples for different situations. In combustion applications, the K type thermocouple (0 to 2400F or18 to 1300C) is usually used. When connecting a thermocouple to a transmitter, the transmitter should be set up for the type of thermocouple employed. Installing thermocouples in a protective sheath known as a thermowell prevents the sensing element from suffering the corrosive or erosive effects of the process being measured. However, a thermowell also slows the response of the instrument to changing temperature and should be used with care.
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2-5-2-3-Velocity Thermocouples
Also known as suction pyrometers, the design of velocity thermocouples attempts to minimize the inaccuracies in temperature measurement caused by radiant heat. Inside a combustor, the thermocouple measures the gas temperature. However, the large amount of heat radiated from the hot surroundings significantly affects the measurement. A velocity thermocouple shields the thermocouple from radiant heat by placing it in one or more concentric hollow pipes. Hot gas is induced to flow across the thermocouple, producing a gas temperature reading without a radiant component.
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Resistance of any conductor increases with temperature. For a specific material of known resistance, it is possible to infer the temperature. Similar to the thermocouples described above, the linearity of the result depends on the materials chosen for the detector and their alloy composition. Engineers sometimes use RTDs instead of thermocouples when higher precision is desired. Platinum is a popular material for RTDs because it has good linearity over a wide temperature range. Like thermocouples, installation of RTDs in thermowells is common.
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2-5-2-5-Pressure Transmitters
A pressure transmitter is usually used to provide an analog pressure signal. These devices use a diaphragm coupled to a variable resistance, which modifies the 24 VDC loop current (4 to 20 milliamps) in proportion to the range in which it is calibrated. In recent years, these devices have become enormously more accurate and sophisticated, with onboard intelligence and self calibration capabilities. They are available in a wide variety of configurations and materials and can be used in almost any service. It is possible to check and reconfigure these smart pressure transmitters remotely with the use of a handheld communicator.
2-5-2-6-Flow Meters
There are many different types of flow meters and many reasons to use one or another for a given application. The following is a list of several of the more common types of flow meters, how they work, and where they are used.
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Vortex shedders have a wide range, are highly accurate, reasonably priced, highly reliable, and useful in liquid, steam, or gas service.
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In the case of a magnetic flow meter, the meter generates the magnetic field and the flowing liquid supplies the motion and the conductor. The voltage produced is proportional to the flow. These meters are highly accurate, very reliable, have a wide range, but are somewhat expensive. They are useful with highly corrosive or even gummy fluids as long as the fluids are conductive. Only liquid flow is measured.
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The Coriolis flow meter is easily the most complex type of meter to understand. The fluid runs through a U-shaped tube that is being vibrated by an attached transducer. The flow of the fluid will cause the tube to try to twist because of the Coriolis force. The magnitude of the twisting force is proportional to flow. These meters are highly accurate and have a wide range. They are generally more expensive than some other types.
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The magnitude of the shift, called the Doppler effect, is proportional to the relative velocity of the source and the medium. The ultrasonic meter generates ultrasonic
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sound waves, sends them diagonally across the pipe, and computes the amount of frequency shift. These meters are reasonably accurate, have a fairly wide range, are reasonably priced, and are highly reliable. Ultrasonic meters work best when there are bubbles or particulates in the fluid.
A turbine meter is a wheel that is spun by the flow of fluid past the blades. A magnetic pickup senses the speed of the rotation, which is proportional to the flow. These meters can be very accurate but have a fairly narrow range. They must be very carefully selected and sized for specific applications. They are reasonably priced and fairly reliable. They are used in liquid, steam, or gas service.
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Positive displacement flow meters generally consist of a set of meshed gears or lobes that are closely machined and matched to each other. When fluid is forced through the gears, a fixed amount of the fluid is allowed past for each revolution. Counting the revolutions reveals the exact amount of flow. These meters are extremely accurate and have a wide range. Because there are moving parts, the meters must be maintained or they can break down or jam. They also cause a large pressure drop, which can be important for certain applications.
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