Kolkata water profile: City of joy weeps for water

Adversity in spite of abundance. Thats how Kolkatas water situation can be summed up. The city has access to plenty of water, but its worn out delivery network results in ine!uitable distribution. "orse, drinkin# water #ets contaminated, resultin# in fre!uent outbreaks of water borne diseases$ Kolkata (formerly Calcutta) was founded in the late 1600s by the British settlers who arrived with the East India Com any! "he city robably derives its name from Kalikata# one of the three villa$es on which it came u # which was famous for a tem le dedicated to %oddess Kali! "he city has a history s annin$ over three centuries and was the ca ital of British India from 1&&' to 1(11! )ver the years# Kolkata# # which is the ca ital of *est Ben$al# has $rown manifold to become one of the bi$$est cities in the world! "he latest e+ ansion of the city limits took lace after the Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration -ct# 1(.'# was assed! It included the munici alities of /outh /uburban# %arden 0each and 1adav ur within the Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration2s 3urisdiction# which now s reads over 1.#&'' hectares# consistin$ of 141 wards! 0iver 5oo$hly flows ast the western art of Kolkata and the /outh 64 7ar$anas district forms the southern and southeastern boundary! "he 8orth 64 7ar$anas forms the eastern and northern limits of the city! %nade!uate civic infrastructure "he civic infrastructure of the metro olitan area is not ade9uate to cater to the city2s $rowin$ o ulation! :n lanned develo ment for the better art of the city;s three centuries of e+istence has taken its toll! "he shorta$e of funds and low revenue $eneration has also affected develo ment work! 5ousin$ shorta$e has resulted in the $rowth of slums! 0oads are few while the traffic has increased tremendously! 7ublic trans ortation is e+tremely crowded! /anitation# water su ly# ollution# health# access to education and the state of the economy are ma3or areas of concern! "he demo$ra hic density durin$ 1(.1 was 66#660 erson er s9 km and durin$ 1((1 this rose to 6'#6&0 ersons er s9 km in Kolkata! "AT&' ()**+, (TAT)( *arado-ical situation. *ater scarcity in a city like Kolkata# which is situated in the lower reaches of one of the world2s lar$est delta re$ions# may seem arado+ical! "hou$h Kolkata has a fairly abundant source of surface water close by# the community water su ly system suffers from roblems of oor maintenance# ine9uitable distribution and oor 9uality mana$ement!

Kolkata residents $et more water than their counter arts in other metro olitan cities! But# the abysmal 9uality of water makes it a serious health ha<ard! -n inade9uate and worn=out distribution system cou led with overty and s9ualor in the innumerable slums and s9uatter colonies adds to the roblem! -s a result# outbreaks of waterborne diseases and e idemics because of faecal ollution of drinkin$ water are alarmin$ly fre9uent in the city! "ater sources "he residents $et their water su ly from three main sources> "he K,C su lies treated water throu$h an under$round i eline network "he roadside ublic bore wells that K,C has du$ "he innumerable rivate bore wells that the residents have du$ u ! "hou$h there is no dearth of water# the city does not have enou$h resources to treat it or maintain and mana$e the distribution system! &nou#h water, claim authorities "he conference of secretaries# chief en$ineers and heads of im lementin$ a$encies in=char$e of urban water su ly and sanitation held in ,ay# 1(.(# had recommended a minimum er ca ita water su ly of 1?0 litres er day# includin$ losses for Class I cities! Earlier# the 8ational Commission on :rbanisation had recommended that in the urban areas# the ob3ective should be to have a rovision of at least &0 litres of water er ca ita er day for domestic re9uirements! K,C2s Basic @evelo ment 7lan for Kolkata# released in 1(66# recommended a rovision of 6&6 litres er ca ita er day in Kolkata and 5owrah munici al areas and 61& litres er ca ita er day for the rest of the metro olitan district! "he munici al cor oration resently su lies about &?0=.00 million litres er day (,A@) from its surface water sources and 1'6 ,A@ from $roundwater sources! -dditionally# it also su lies '00 ,A@ of unfiltered# but chlorinated water! K,C now claims to su ly over 6?0 litres of water er day to residents in its 3urisdiction! In other words# at least on a er# there is no shortfall even after takin$ into account the increase in o ulation since 1(.1! /ut the stats dont add up$ K,C2s statistical fi$ures# however# conveniently cover u the hardshi s that most residents face due to ine9uitable distribution! ,oreover# at least 6?='? er cent of the water su lied $oes waste due to leaka$es in the worn=out i es# ublic ta s and stand osts! Kolkata has some .#000 stand osts in all and about 60 er cent of the water that these outlets su ly is wasted (see icture)! Bet# there is no alternative# as these stand osts are the only source of water for the oor!

Stand water

"he rather hi$h er ca ita water su ly fi$ure needs to be considered from another an$le also! -bout 40=?0 er cent of the total o ulation in Kolkata lives in slums or s9uatter colonies and has to collect water from posts supply stand osts only! -nother 60=6? er cent is served by sin$le ta connections in their houses! "hus# the actual to citys poor fi$ure is unlikely to $o beyond 60=.0 litres er day! It is evident that a lar$e volume of water is bein$ wasted due to im ro er mana$ement! Considerin$ the e+tremely oor level of water su ly in ma3ority of munici alities and non=munici al urban areas in the Kolkata ,etro olitan @evelo ment -uthority areas outside K,C# the a roach a ears to be lo =sided! 0istory of water supply in Kolkata 7otable water su ly be$an in Kolkata in 1.6( with the installation of a slow sand filtration unit havin$ a ca acity of 6 million $allons er day (m$d) at 7alta! "he lant2s ca acity was raised# in sta$es# to '6 m$d by 1(11! "he city e+ anded ra idly between 1(4. and 1(66 and had to cater to a hu$e influ+ of eo le for various reasons# includin$ the /econd *orld *ar# the infamous Ben$al famine# Inde endence and artition of Ben$al! Aar$e settlements $rew on both side of 0iver 5oo$hly in the %an$etic delta! "he Kolkata ,unici al -uthority (K,-) looked after the civic needs of a o ulation of more than 14!6 million# settled over 1&.#?00 hectares! "he first water works at 7alta for su ly of 6&!6. million litres of filtered water every day to a o ulation of 0!4 million was constructed in 1.&0 for a community water su ly scheme with a su ly of 6. litres er ca ita er day! "oday# the 7alta *ater *orks# which is situated on 1(? hectares alon$ the riverfront# su lies about &.0 million litres of water every day on an avera$e! "he water from 7alta flows throu$h four i es (of 1 to 1!. m in diameter) to the reservoirs and um in$ station at "allah! Crom "allah the water is distributed to the city by four <onal mains# which feed the vast distribution network measurin$ about '#.00 kilometres in len$th! 5owever# the "allah=7alta water su ly system is not enou$h to serve the consumers in the southern arts of the city# articularly in areas that have been recently added to the Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration like "olly$un3# %arden 0each# /outh /uburban and 1adav ur! Considerin$ the low ressure and inade9uate su ly in these areas# su lementary arran$ement from local $roundwater sources is made to au$ment the su ly! *ith the settin$ u of %arden 0each works in 1(.6 to su ly water to these areas# the critical water su ly distribution system in /outh Kolkata is e+ ected to im rove! 7resently# %arden 0each su lies ?0 million litres er day# which is e+ ected to rise to 61& million litres er day when the construction of various units of the water works is com leted! *resent status -ccordin$ to B K ,aiti# @e uty Chief En$ineer# *ater /u ly @e t# K,C# the demand as on 6004 is around ''4 million $allons er day (,%@) and su ly from surface and $roundwater source is about '60 ,%@ with a $a of 10 ,%@! In 6006# K,C su lied 1066!1. ,A@ of water# fallin$ short of the demand by almost 1.( ,A@! 5owever# in 600'# the avera$e su ly rose to 1666!?6 ,A@# meetin$ nearly (0 er cent of the re9uirement! Kee in$ the needs of the $rowin$ o ulation in mind# K,C has undertaken several ca acity enhancement and u $radation ro$rammes and ho es to e+ceed the demand by 600?!

"he 8ew 7alta *ater *orks at Indira %andhi *ater "reatment 7lant is a notable ste in this rocess! "he '&. ,A@ water $eneration ro3ect# which was commissioned in 1uly 6004# further au$ments 7alta2s ca acity by 666!. ,A@! "his# alon$ with the increased su ly from %arden 0each *ater *orks# will increase the er ca ita water su ly to 6'4 litres er day from the resent 606 litres er day! Kolkatas water supply at a #lance: "otal daily otable water su ly (in million litres) 1'?0 606

7er ca ita availability of water er day (in litres) 8o! of tubewells Bi$ diameter /mall diameter 8o! of connections @omestic Industrial and commercial 7ublic -ccess /tand osts (in numbers) /treet hydrants that use unfiltered water (in numbers) 8o! of reservoirs

4?? &.&?

6#16#000 6?#000

1&#01( 6#000

& 7resent 14 :nder construction (6 Combined ca acity (in million $allon) After the commissionin# of the 1ew *alta "ater "orks, the per capita water availability in Kolkata will be 234 litres per day /ource> K,C *roblems that *alta "ater "orks faced 0a id $rowth of o ulation in the city laced a hu$e burden on the lant! Increased salinity in 0iver 5oo$hly# e+cessive leaka$e throu$h the old distribution network and loss of ressure head as water had to be conveyed over lon$ distances were amon$ the chief roblems that the lant faced! But# with the construction of %arakka Barra$e and diversion of sweet water to 0iver 5oo$hly# there has been marked reduction in the salinity of river water! *ith the establishment of Kolkata ,etro olitan @evelo ment -uthority (K,@-)# develo ment work for im rovement of surface water to K,C and other settlements in the Kolkata ,etro olitan -rea have been undertaken! "he lant# which had an initial ca acity of 66!6. million litres er day (,A@)# $enerated filtered water throu$h sedimentation in re and final settlin$ tanks and slow sand filtration in the )ld /eries of 16 filter beds! -nother 64 beds# each with a ca acity of '!&. ,A@# were added between 1...=1.('! In 1(0?# filter beds with &!?6 ,A@ ca acity# called 8ew /eries# was started! Between 1(60 and 1('6 when 1& beds of 11!'4 ,A@ ca acity and one bed of &!?6 ,A@ ca acity# called E+tension /eries# were introduced! *ith an out ut of 4(1!4 ,A@ the lant seems to have erennial ca acity to serve! In 1(?6# a 16=bed ra id $ravity unit with a ca acity of &?!6 ,A@ was added! "his rocess hel ed in reducin$ the sedimentation time! In 1(6.# another 666!. ,A@ ra id $ravity filtration unit was added! (low sand filter

"he slow sand filtration system is an effective and reliable system that does not re9uire daily washin$! sin$le bed can work u to 100 to 600 days! Cormation of a biolo$ical mat soon after effective char$in$ removes turbidity# colour and microbes! "he biolo$ical mat on the surface removes (? er cent of the colloidal clay articles# which are hideouts for microbes! "he rocess re9uires much less chlorine to disinfect water! 0e$ular scra in$ of about 10 to 60 millimetres of the to sand layer once in every 100 days kee s the beds ready for reuse! "ater supply in suburbs "he standard of services and 9uantity of su ly in the munici al and non=munici al urban areas outside K,C com ares very oorly with that in the city area! *hereas the basic develo ment lan envisa$ed a su ly of 66& litre er ca ita day with the avera$e rate of su ly bein$ only ?6 litre er ca ita er day with the avera$e rate of su ly bein$ only ?6 litres er ca ita er day! In 1(.1# the total water demand of two munici al cor orations and '' munici alities of the Kolkata :rban -$$lomeration was 1?'6 ,A@! By 6001# it rose to 6'.6 ,A@! "he $a between the e+istin$ su ly and demand is considerable! "he or$anisation2s ca acity and infrastructure of the munici ality outside K,C are so oor that the e+istin$ su ly in most of these munici alities is only a fraction of the o timum ossible su ly from the installed ca acities of water su ly systems in those munici alities! In the non=munici al urban areas# there is no or$anised ublic water su ly system whatsoever! 5istribution system "he most critical as ect of Kolkata2s community water su ly is the state of its distribution system! "he number of <onal mains is inade9uate and the $reater art of the network has lon$ outlived its natural life and is in an advanced sta$e of dila idation! ,a3or and minor tank leaks are endemic and burstin$ of ma3or i es is fre9uent! "hese factors are the rinci al causes of not only substantial loss of water in transit but also $ross ollution and deterioration in water 9uality! Construction of ,etro railway and other ublic utility services has dama$ed and a$$ravated the decayin$ water distribution system in the city! "ater char#es -ccordin$ to K,C the roduction cost for 1000 litre of water is about 0s '!11 and the sellin$ cost is 0s ' for domestic ur oses as on 600'! "he Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration -ct# 1(.0# em owers the cor oration to im ose fees at such rates as would be determined by the re$ulations made in this re$ard for su ly of water to remises for domestic ur oses! "he K,C decision to im ose water fees on 6&!'1 er cent of the 1?6#?&. holdin$s in the city as on '1!0.!.? is encoura$in$! "his fee at resent is char$ed on holdin$s# whose annual valuation is above 0s 6((0# so that the economically weaker section are e+em ted from ayin$ the ta+! K6C to collect water ta-fter withdrawal of subsidy on water su ly in Kolkata# the citi<ens collectively may have to ay about 0s 600 million annually to the civic authorities! :nder directions of the -sian @evelo ment Bank (-@B)# K,C will levy char$es for water su ly# sewera$e and draina$e char$es to recover costs! *ater su ly in the city is subsidised under the current system! In 6001=06# 0s &?&!1 million was s ent in $eneration and su ly of filtered water in K,C areas# while only 0s 1.' million was recovered as water char$es! "he K,C su lies an avera$e of 6?0 ,%@ to the city# at a cost of 0s 10 er kilolitre! "he su ly works out to an avera$e of 4? litres er head er day! 7resently# the water char$e is based on the si<e of the ferrule in a house D homes half=inch ferrules are char$ed 0s 4.0 er year (to $o u to 0s 600) and one=inch ferrule connections at the rate of 0s &(0 (to $o to 0s 1#000)! Cor bulk users of water# consumin$ over 1000 kilolitres er day# water meters are installed! ,etered water su ly is to be char$ed at the rate of 0s ' er kilolitre for domestic consumers# while industrial and commercial connections are to cost 0s 1? er kilolitre! -ccordin$ to a survey# this would $enerate a sur lus of 0s &00= .00 million er year! Cor sewera$e and draina$e# a ?0 er cent surchar$e will be im osed on water tariff for domestic consumers# which will be .0 er cent for industrial consumers! EIn addition# 1? er cent of the consolidate rate char$e will be allocated for su ortin$ water su ly# 1? er cent of sewera$e and draina$e and 1? er cent of /*,#2 the -@B re ort stated! ( The Times of India, 8ovember 66# 6006)

"ater !uality and health risks "he city has been notorious for the e idemics of cholera and other water=borne diseases for lon$! news a er re ort ublished on /e tember 6(# 1.6? states> EF the terrible way in which Cholera has broken out in Kolkata is beyond all description it is very difficult to ascertain the number of people that are dying every day in Kolkata, we have heard that in the week the average number of deaths may be 400 It would be no e!aggeration but on the side of under estimation " "he incidence of cholera rose shar ly with the increasin$ o ulation of the city in the late 1(40s and 1(?0s due to influ+ of refu$ees! In 1(?.# there were 4#.(? cases of cholera and 1#&?6 deaths were re orted! "hou$h the city now witnesses fewer cholera e idemics# durin$ the 1(&0s and 1(.0s# the city witnessed outbreaks of $astroenteritis# he atitis# dysentery and other water borne diseases! E+ erts believe that thou$h the water su ly from 7alta is safe after the treatment it under$oes# it $ets contaminated as it asses throu$h the under$round distribution network! "he fear of water=borne disease strikin$ is the $reatest durin$ the monsoons! "he floods increase the chances of surface water bein$ contaminated by sewa$e and $arba$e washin$s! "he contaminated water then enters the distribution system throu$h breaches in the distribution network! / ecial mention may be made here of the unfiltered water su ly of '40 ,A@ drawn from the river and distribution throu$h 1#160 kilometres of mains# meant chiefly for fire fi$htin$# street washin$# water closet flushin$# etc! "he city2s oor also use this untreated water for domestic uses! It was a ma3or factor behind the cholera e idemics that afflicted Kolkata till 1(60s! Chlorination of unfiltered water on the basis of a re ort submitted by the -ll India Institute of 5y$iene G 7ublic 5ealth has dramatically reduced the cases from 1(6' onwards! - survey# conducted by the Cederation of Consumers -ssociation (CC-)# *est Ben$al and Better Business Bureau# a 8%) found that .0 er cent of the 1#000 water sam les collected from all munici al wards of the city contain # coli (bacteria that indicates the resence of faecal matter)# / almonella (res onsible for ty hoid)# $higella (bacteria that causes dysentery) and %ibrio (causes cholera)! "he scenario is the worst in the Kasba=Bally$un3 area! "hou$h chlorinatin$ the water could have killed these microbes# not the sli$htest trace of Chlorine was found even in a sin$le sam le! (/ource> The Telegraph# - ril 14# 600') 5rinkin# water !uality in Kolkata7 - recent study conducted by Better Business Bureau (BBB) concluded that the 9uality of water su lied by K,C is $ood at the source (where it is treated and um ed from)# but $ets contaminated on its way before it reaches the consumers! "he researchers e+amined 100 sam les out of a total of 1000 sam les collected from nine <ones! "he study revealed>

.& er cent of water reservoirs servin$ residential buildin$s had hi$h traces of human waste *ater collected from 6' er cent of ta s showed a hi$h level of faecal contamination# while 60 er cent of water sam les collected from the city;s hos itals were also olluted! 0ou$hly one=fifth of the dee wells and hand um s maintained by the Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration also had traces of e+crement!

"he <one=wise analysis is as below> 8one wise analysis of water samples Hone -reas included no Hone 1 E+tends from Aake ,arket in 8orth to %aria in /outh# 0a3a /!C!,allick 0d! in East to @esh ran /asmal 0d! in *est! Hone 6 E+tends from "aratal = ,a3erhut in the 8orth to Biren 0oy 0oad!= Barisha in /outh G Banamali Aaskar 0s! = Behala in the *est to @esh ran /asmal 0d! in the East! Hone ' E+tends from Kasba = Bally$aun$e in the 8orth to %aria in the /outh# E!,! By ass in the East u to 0a3a /!C!,allik 0oad# %arihat crossin$ G 8/C Bose 0oad /!C! ,allick 0d! in the *est! "he <one is bounded by Circus -venue = 7ark Circus = "a sia 0d! in the 8orth and @es riya 7ark = Bally$aun$e in the /outh# E!,! By ass in the East and /!7! ,ukher3ee 0d! in the *est! "he <one is bounded by Aenin /arani# Cannel /outh 0oad in the 8orth# -!1!C# Bose 0oad !!! "a sia 0d! in the /outh# ,aidan in the *est to @ha a !!! E!,!By ass in the East! "he <one is bounded by Bel$hachia 0d! # 7ati 7ukur # Aake "own in the north to /ealdah # Belia$hata 0oad in the /outh # -!7!C! 0oad in the *est to 8a<rul Isam /arani # :ltadan$a 0oad # 8ational ,edical Colle$e in the East# "ala in the /outh # 5oo$ly 0iver in the *est and /eth Ba$an !! @um @um 0oad in the East! "he <one is bounded by /hyam Ba<ar Crossin$ of Bel$hachiya road in the north to Aenin /arani in the /outh # /trand 0oad# Baraba<ar in the *est and -charya 7!C! 0oad in the East! Bounded by /ithi K!C! 0oy road in the north# Bel$achiya# "ala in the /outh# 5oo$ly in the *est and /eth Ba$an @um @um road in the East!

"est result of $roundwater sam les -rsenic closes to ermissible limit -rsenic closes to ermissible limit

Hone 4

"urbidity# "@/ and iron were resent in hi$her than ermissible limits! -rsenic closes to ermissible limit "urbidity# "@/ and iron were resent in hi$her than ermissible limits! In Hone ? and 6 both K,C and rivate bore wells were found to be totally free from any chemical contamination!

"est result of K,C i e water su ly! ?0 er cent of sam les have hi$h hardness and iron content! ' er cent of sam les dis layed -rsenic hi$her than acce table limit! 5ere $roundwater also -rsenic# hence there mi$ht be contamination! Cree from chemical contamination!

"urbidity# 5ardness and iron are above ermissible limit in 6 er cent to 60 er cent of the sam les! Cree from chemical contamination!

Hone ?

Hone 6

Cree from chemical contamination!

Hone &

Cree from chemical contamination! "urbidity# 5ardness and iron are above ermissible limit in 6 er cent to 60 er cent of the sam les!

Hone .

Hone (

"he <one e+tends from eastern bank of 5oo$ly# /trand road (north) to "aratala road# %arden 0each (south)# "aratala 0oad (west) to @es ran /asmal road (east)

"urbidity# "@/ and iron were resent in hi$her than ermissible limits!

"urbidity# 5ardness and iron are above ermissible limit in 6 er cent to 60 er cent of the sam les!

/ource> Better Business Bureau Arsenic in Kolkata "he civic authorities have sealed the dee tubewells at Iictoria ,emorial 5all after all the test re orts from the laboratories of the /chool of "ro ical ,edicine# Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration (K,C) and the @e artment of 7ublic 5ealth En$ineers confirmed arsenic contamination beyond ermissible limits! "he concentration of arsenic was found to be four times hi$her than *5) rescribed benchmark! "he K,C has made alternative arran$ements to su ly safe water to Iictoria! (/ource> The Telegraph# -u$ust# 1# 600') 9':)15"AT&' (C&1A'%: %1 K:+KATA 0istory of #roundwater e-traction .; "he first move to ta sub=surface water in Kolkata was made as early as 1.04! Between 1(1. and 1(40# nearly 600 medium diameter tubewells with an avera$e yield of 6&#6&? litres er hour were set u in what is known today as Kokata ,etor olitan @istrict! ,any more tubewells were drilled durin$ the *orld *ar II to ensure water su ly durin$ emer$ency! "he o ulation $rowth after artition made it necessary to install heavy=duty tubewells to su lement "allah= 7alta water su ly# articularly in southern Kolkata! "hou$h initially conceived as an emer$ency and sto $a measure# the system has now come to stay for $ood! 7resently# Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration runs 4?? lar$e diameter dee tubewells and &.6? small diameter tubewells contributin$ about 1'6 million litres of water er day! -n unaccounted number of dee tubewells by rivate industries and business establishments# housin$ estates and hi$hrise a artment blocks have also been functionin$! "here are also several thousand small diameter tubewells owned by rivate households! 9roundwater resource @ue to lar$e=scale withdrawal of $roundwater from the confined a9uifers# a de ression of ie<ometric surface in Central and /outh Central Kolkata has develo ed! "he ma$nitude of the de ression is 6=. metres# and has develo ed over a eriod of about 40 years (1(?.=(.) in the core sector coverin$ 8arkeldan$a= 7ark Circus D Bhowani ur! -s a result# the $eneral southerly flow in the confined a9uifers has become radial in a much lar$er area surroundin$ the cone of de ression! "he central art of Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration area is drawin$ water from all directions resultin$ in its radial flow! "he total 9uantity enterin$ form the immediate vicinity of K,C area into the central de ression <one comes to 604 ,A@ in the absence of recise Census data of the withdrawal structures it is difficult to evaluate recise $round water draft in K,C area! 9roundwater withdrawal status as on .7<< /ource 8umbers -vera$e dischar$e Aar$er diameter tubewells /mall rivate tubewells (4!? inch diameter) '6? 4.'4 6. cubic metres er hour 6& cubic metres er hour -ssumed hours of um in$ & hours & hours "otal er day withdrawal 1?' ,A@ (14 ,A@

/hallow hand um s 16#000 0!6. cubic metres Total (ource: Central 9round "ater /oard =C9"/>

& hours

?6!& ,A@ 116'!&0 ,A@

-ccordin$ to the Central %round *ater Board (C%*B) the withdrawal is 116'!&0 ,A@ but the inflow is only 604 ,A@# which results in the fall in the ie<ometric head! In 600'=04 accordin$ to K,C the number of lar$er diameter tubewells has increased to 4??# and smaller diameter borewells to (.&? and the number of shallow hand um s is 1&#01(! 5ence the current $roundwater based on the withdrawal fi$ure by C%*B will be about 6160!? ,A@! 5ence it is clear that between 1((. and 600' the $roundwater e+traction has increased by 1!( times in five years eriod! 9roundwater !uality =C9"/> "he chemical 9uality of $roundwater in the Kolkata area in the de th ran$e of 60=6?0 mb$l is de icted throu$h isochloride and isoconductance ma s (based on the data for the - ril 1((( to understand the nature of chemical characteristics of $roundwater! Crom the isochloride contour ma it is seen that in the e+treme northern art (8orth of /hyamba<ar area) chloride concentration in $roundwater is above ?00 m$Jl! /imilarly in the western art of -li ur i!e! in %arden 0each and ad3acent area# the chloride concentration in $roundwater is above ?00 m$Jl! In the area lyin$ between Bel$achia and 7ark /treet# chloride concentration in $roundwater is between 6?0 and ?00 m$Jl! In %aria=1adav ur sector# chloride concentration in $roundwater is within 6?0 m$Jl! Crom isoconductance ma # it is seen that e+treme northern art of K,C area isoconductance value is above 6000 micro siemenJ cm at 6?0 C! In /ealdah=Bele$hata=8arkeldana$a area and %aria=7utiari=Behala area in conductance value is between 1000=1?00 micro siemenJ cm at 6?0 C! In %arden 0each area# isoconductance value is more than 1000 micro siemenJcm chemical character! "anneries situated in the eastern art of Kolkata ("an$ra# "il3ala# "a sia# etc!) are a cause for concern as industrial effluents from these units ollute the Bheris# wetlands and a$ricultural fields! "o+ic trace elements like# Chromium and Cobalt are found (above 0!01 m$Jl) in the shallow a9uifer (within 60 m b$l) in the area# which is not suitable for drinkin$ ur oses! 5owever analysis of water sam les from dee er a9uifer (.0 to 600m de th) shows that concentration of chromium# cobalt and other heavy metals is below ermissible limit! 0ydro #eolo#ical conse!uences of unplanned #roundwater e-traction2 "he im act of $roundwater e+ loitation needs closer e+amination! "ests reveal that northern arts of Kolkata ,etro olitan @istrict have much $reater value of $roundwater transmissivity! Bet# it is southern Kolkata that is most reliant on $roundwater sources! "his lower availability and $reater e+ loitation of $roundwater roduces conse9uences reflected in a number of surveys relatin$ to the level of ie<ometric surface! - survey conducted in 1(?6 showed the de th of ie<ometric surface in the ost=monsoon eriod descendin$ from 4!6& metres in the northern suburbs to ?!46 metres in the southern city area! - much wider survey in 1(.? showed the ie<ometric surface to be only 1!&. to 6!6? metres in the far north and 11 to 1'!'. metres in the south=central area!

By collatin$ the results of two surveys# a ro$ressive decline in the $roundwater levels towards the south can be seen! "his clearly indicates that the southern art of K,@ has a much lower otential for $roundwater e+ loitation! ,ore crucial# however# is the overall decline in such water levels all over the K,@! -t any $iven oint# 1(.? level was markedly lower than the 1(?6# the e+tent varyin$ from '!.4 meters to (!&? meters! "his decline has obviously been caused by reckless and un lanned e+ loitation of $roundwater resources durin$ the last three decades! "his can lead to $radual subsistence in land in the deltaic area as has been seen in "e+as# Ban$kok and some cities in China! -s has been ointed out in the Basic @evelo ment lan# the oor 9uality of $roundwater should also be taken into account in develo in$ any rational lan of water resource mana$ement for the Kolkata ,etro olitan @istrict es ecially in the eastern and southern arts! 5raina#e and sewera#e Kolkata has been la$ued by severe roblems of draina$e due to its $eo$ra hical location! "he city has been notorious for water lo$$in$ durin$ the rainy months ever since it was founded! /ituated between the tidal river 5oo$hly on the west and surrounded by swam s and marshes on the east and south# the city has suffered chronic draina$e con$estion durin$ the monsoons# when the 5oo$hly 0iver# the tidal creek# and the swam s over flow! Aack of draina$e and the resultin$ unhealthy conditions articularly durin$ the hot and humid monsoon moths makes the city2s environment a allin$!

"he situation was so bad durin$ the early years that a lar$e number of eo le succumbed durin$ the rains# every year# throu$hout the ei$hteenth century! "his state of affairs continued u to the middle of 1( th century when efforts were initiated to im rove the draina$e! "he draina$e systems of the city have been desi$ned as a combined system for the dis osal of storm water as well as sewa$e and dry weather flow! "he core of the system had been ro osed in 1.?? and constructed durin$ 1.60=1.&? to cover ori$inally an area of 1(60 hectares! /ubse9uent modifications and au$mentations durin$ 1.(1=1(06 brou$ht another '600 hectares in the newer southern areas of the city under the sewera$e system! "he sewa$e from the combined draina$e system flowed into the creek of the tidal river# Iidyadhari# on the east of the city! Burdened with the entire city2s draina$e system 0iver Iidyadhari be$an to show si$ns of ra id deterioration! In 1(4'# a new scheme for both the outfall and the internal draina$e system was commissioned! /ince then# the system has under$one ma3or modifications and e+ ansion to meet the city2s ra id $rowth! "he ,aster lan re ared by the *5) for the Kolkata ,etro olitan @istrict in the 1(60s dealt with these issues and has rovided the $uidin$ framework since then! 9eo#raphical and hydrolo#ical factors Kolkata2s draina$e roblem is a$$ravated by the to o$ra hy (west to east= away from 0iver 5oo$hly) and the tidal nature of the rivers and streams around it! "he remature reclamation# which interru ted the natural land buildin$ rocess# resulted in the $eneral $round elevation# which is lower that the hi$h water level in 5oo$hly! @ischar$e of draina$e# therefore would re9uire constructin$ dee under$round drains and um in$ out the waste water at very hi$h ca acity and recurrin$ costs! "he tidal rise of water level in the water bodies (' metres durin$ winter and ? meters durin$ monsoon) im oses yet another constraint on the s eedy and effective dis osal of Kolkata2s draina$e! "ater bodies of Kolkata *ater bodies of Kolkata re9uires ur$ent mana$ement initiatives# says ,ohit 0ay of Iasundhara'# 8%) that works for wetland develo ment! -ccordin$ to 0ay# the water bodies are water resources for oor eo le! 5ence# efforts to im rove eo le2s 9uality of life must include a lan to use these water bodies wisely! "he encroachment and fillin$ of water bodies in the urban areas are takin$ lace because of lack of lannin$# information and mana$ement! "here is no database on these '#000 water bodies# which serve about 400#000 eo le! "here are no studies on mana$ement issues of urban and eri=urban water bodies# which are considered as a s ecial $rou of natural resources! Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration does not have any s ecific section to deal with these water bodies! Conservation efforts for these water bodies become useless if there is no ro$ramme for its future reservation! Kolkata needs a s ecial institution for ro er mana$ement of these urban water resources! Kolkata still has about '#000 onds# which rovide about 1? er cent of water re9uirement of the city but no city lannin$ e+ercise has ever mentioned these im ortant water resources! Iasundhara has been workin$ to s read awareness throu$h direct artici ation and research for last several years! %nade!uate treatment capacity It is to be re$retted that Kolkata does not yet have a full=fled$ed sewa$e treatment lant! "here is only a rimary treatment lant at Bantala to treat a art of the sewa$e! It contains two sediments tanks# each

containin$ two sedimentation tanks# each havin$ a ca acity of 6&' million litres er day# two slud$e um = house and 16 slud$e la$oons! Even this lant has ceased to function! It needs to be recommissioned ur$ently and laced under the Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration! -t resent# it is bein$ o erated by the irri$ation and waterways directorate! (ewa#e fed a!uaculture in wetlands Kolkata has a uni9ue system for the utilisation of sewa$e in the eastern suburbs of the city! Cor a lon$ time now# the vast wetland there has su orted sewa$e fed fisheries# which su ly a considerable 9uantity of fish to the Kolkata market! /ewa$e irri$ation is also racticed to roduce ve$etables for bulk su ly to the city! -ccordin$ to @hruba3yoti %hosh# the wetland roduces 10#000 tonnes of fresh and relatively chea er fish and 14& tonnes of ve$etables daily! Bonani Kakkar of 7:BAIC# a local 8%)# says# K/ince the wetland is near to Kolkata# the ve$etables and fish are available at a chea er rate# due to less trans ortation cost!L "he wetlands in Kolkata ori$inated lar$ely from the inter=distributory marshes# created by the shiftin$ of the main river# 5oo$hly! It is estimated that out of 10#160 hectares of wetland e+istin$ in 1(4?# an area of about 4&00 hectares of land were used for sewa$e fed fisheries that yielded an avera$e of .!40 9uintals er hectare! By 1(.?# the wetland area under sewa$e fed fisheries has declined to '#600 hectare! "he domestic sewa$e $enerated by the city# estimated to be 1'(4!46 ,A@# $ets artly urified as it flows throu$h the east Kolkata wetlands by means of a system of rinci al and ancillary channels! "hese flows are utilised in sewa$e=fed fisheries havin$ an avera$e roduction of about '!44 ,"J hectaresJyear and ve$etable roduction! -t resent about '.(.!6& hectares (out of this 6(&!&6 hectares are seasonal) are covered with sewa$e=fed fisheries! "here are about ?. fisheries in east Kolkata wetland area# rovidin$ direct em loyment to 1?#&00 eo le and indirect em loyment to 6'#600! "he em loyment $eneration is for the o ulation livin$ below the overty line! "he fish are marketed throu$h different auction markets! Chin$ri$hata market is the most im ortant one with an avera$e daily sale of 16!6 metric tonnes! &ast Kolkata wetland1 "he East Kolkata wetlands is an urban facility that treats the city2s hu$e wastewater and utilises the treated water for isciculture and a$riculture# throu$h recovery of wastewater nutrients in an efficient manner! 5ere# wastewater is used in fisheries and a$riculture coverin$ about 16#?00 hectares that has been desi$nated as conservation area by an order of the Kolkata hi$h court! "he conservation area# also described as the waste recyclin$ re$ion# has three ma3or sub=re$ions of economic activity D fish onds &bheris)# $arba$e farms and addy lands! "he smallest recyclin$ sub=re$ion on the ed$e of the city covers the ve$etable fields that $row ve$etables on a $arba$e substrate and are uni9uely lanned with alternate bands of $arba$e filled lands and elon$ated trench=like onds locally known as 'heels! /ewa$e is detained in these 'heels for sometime# after which the treated effluent is used for irri$atin$ the $arba$e fields for $rowin$ ve$etables! In the fish onds# the city2s wastewater is made to flow throu$h a network of draina$e channels! "he wastewater fish onds act as solar reactors and com lete most of their biochemical reactions with the hel of solar ener$y! 0eduction of B)@ (biochemical o+y$en demand) takes lace due to the uni9ue henomenon of al$ae=bacteria symbiosis where ener$y is drawn from al$al hotosynthesis! In this way# re9uirement and consum tion of ener$y remains the minimum! :nlike conventional mechanical sewa$e treatment lants# wastewater onds can ensure efficient removal of coliforms that are rone to be atho$enic (Turning (round# 1((6)!

"he fish onds drain out the used water to irri$ate addy fields! "he fish ond ecosystem of east Kolkata is one of the rare e+am les of environmental rotection and develo ment mana$ement where the fish roducers and farmers have ado ted a com le+ ecolo$ical rocess for masterin$ the resource recovery activities! *hat is remarkable is that the fish yield rate attained is amon$ the best in any freshwater isciculture in the country! "he east Kolkata wetland has the lar$est number of sewa$e=fed fish onds in the world that are located in one lace! "he knowled$e that has emer$ed based on traditional skill# enter rise and innovation rovides an alternative to the conventional o tion of wastewater treatment by an ecolo$ically sustainable and wise use of wetlands! 5ere the task of reusin$ nutrients is linked with the enhancement of food security and develo ment of livelihood of the local community usin$ nutrient rich effluent in fisheries and a$riculture! "he conventional sewa$e treatment lant is considered an e+ternality in the basic social and economic of Kolkata and its frin$e! Interestin$ly# a lar$e art of this Efolk2 technolo$y is art of an oral tradition! 8ew $eneration environment= friendly en$ineerin$ has been 9uick to incor orate the advanta$es of natural biolo$ical rocesses and rinci les of ecolo$ical re$ulation! In this conte+t# usin$ wetland functions for reducin$ wastewater ollution and reuse of nutrients is an e+am le of an effort that has o ened new areas of research and a lication in other arts of the world too! In 1(.0# on an initiative of the %overnment of *est Ben$al# the wetland area and its reuse ractices were assessed! By 1(.'# the first scientific document on this ecosystem was ublished which enabled the rest of the world to know about the ecolo$ical si$nificance of this outstandin$ wetland area! In 1(.?# the ma of the waste recyclin$ re$ion that forms the basis of all lannin$ and develo ment activities on this wetland area was re ared! In the same year# the state $overnment ut forward a ro osal to introduce a resource efficient stabilisation tank (0E/") system for the treatment and reuse of city sewa$e! "he %an$a 7ro3ect @irectorate as an alternative to conventional ener$y e+ ensive and ca ital=intensive mechanical treatment lants acce ted this! - number of such ro3ects under the %an$a -ction 7lan have now been com leted and are workin$! "owards the end of the ei$hties real estate interest reached a new hi$h and there was a stron$ tendency to convert water bodies and wetlands into housin$ com le+es! "o combat this# the %overnment of *est Ben$al initiated a number of develo ment control measures! Cor a com rehensive lannin$ and develo ment of the entire re$ion# a baseline document for mana$ement action lan usin$ 0amsar $uidelines has been com leted! %ndustrial pollution in wetland - lar$e number of small and medium scale industries are availin$ of the draina$e system laid by munici ality since last cou le of decades to release their untreated effluent! "hese draina$e channels are linked with the main outfall channels leadin$ to the river Kulti! "his industrial wastewater can cause undesirable im act on the fish and ve$etables $rown usin$ the same! It is im erative to identify such industrial units which dischar$e contaminated effluent to brin$ them under the urview of ollution control re$ulations! Common in=situ effluent treatment lants for the ollutin$ industries are considered to be the likely solution to this emer$in$ roblem!

?uality of wetland' "he re ort on #nvironmental scenario of sewage fed fisheries of Kolkata# contains the results obtained from analysis of the inlet and settled water of Ca tain Bhery# which was collected by the Cisheries @e artment fortni$htly throu$hout the year! "he atho$enic bacterial count was found to be much less in settled water com ared with inlet water! (ewa#e outflow from Chowbha#a pumpin# station.. "he B)@ in the raw sewa$e has been found to vary between '0=116 m$Jl while the same in the settled onds is as low as 6!1 D?!& m$Jl! C)@ also drastically fell from a concentration of 1?0=1.0 m$Jl to .4=(& m$Jl! @) increased from 0!. m$Jl in the raw sewa$e to '=16 m$Jl in the settled onds! 5 at inlet oints varied from &!6 D.!6# but at the $rowin$ ond it was between .!& D (!?! -mmonical nitro$en and nitrate nitro$en concentrations in the inlet were 0!10& D0!'6 and 0!?6 D0!. m$Jl res ectively while the same in the settled onds were 0!001 D 0!00? and 0!106 D 0!46 m$Jl res ectively! Bioaccumulation of heavy metals in the sewa$e fed system was confirmed! -mon$ the heavy metals# <inc seems to be the dominant one with its concentration in the inlet bein$ 0!( m$Jl# followed by lead (0!6 m$Jl)# co er ( 0!6 m$Jl)# chromium ( 0!1? m$Jl) and cadmium ( 0!06 m$Jl)! 5owever# resence of heavy metal in fish tissues was found to be insi$nificant! In s ite of that# it has been su$$ested that instead of allowin$ the raw wastewater to directly enter the fish onds# as is sometimes done# it should ass throu$h a water hyacinth tank where some amount of heavy metals may be observed! 0e$ardin$ disease and arasites the# bhery fish are ractically free from any ma3or disease! 'ainwater harvestin# in Kolkata 0ainwater harvestin$ will be an ideal o tion to revent the alarmin$ fall in the water level in the city! "he study of the rainfall attern and sub surface $eolo$y shows that both stora$e and rechar$e methods can be successful a lied in the city! 'ainfall pattern in Kolkata "he city lies in a monsoon re$ion# with most of its avera$e annual rainfall of 1?00 mm fallin$ from 1une throu$h /e tember! "hou$h winters are mild# with an avera$e 1anuary tem erature of 1(M C (6&M C)# the tem erature sometimes di s to 10M C (?0M C)! Crom ,arch throu$h /e tember# Kolkata is hot and humid# with an avera$e 1uly tem erature of 6(M C (.?M C)N in the months of ,ay and 1une the tem erature may rise as hi$h as '.M C (100M C)! "ater harvestin# potential of the city Kolkata ,unici al -rea O 1.& s9 km -nnual avera$e rainfall O 1?00 mm "otal rainwater fallin$ over the city O 1.& + 1#000#000 + 1?00 O 6.0#?00#000#000 litres O &6. ,A@ 7resent water su ly O 160(!6 ,A@

Even if we assume &0 er cent of the area to be develo ed# ?0 er cent of it to be roofed and we collect &0 er cent of the water fallin$ over it# the 9uantity of rainwater that can be harvested works out to 1.. ,A@! "his is a si<eable 9uantity com ared to current water su ly! 0ow much water can be harvested from individual houses If a house in Kolkata has a roofto area of 100 s9 m# one can harvest about 1#60#000 litres of water! "he formula for calculatin$ the amount of rainwater that can be harvested is as follows! 'unoff @A - ' - C -O-rea 0O0ainfall in millimetres CO0unoff coefficient (0!.) 5ere2s how> -rea (-)O100 m6 0ainfall O 1?00 millimetres 0unoff coefficient O 0!. 0unoff (100 + 1?00 + 0!.) O 1#60#000 litres (torin# rainwater "he desi$n arameter for stora$e de ends on the number of dry days and re9uirement! "he details for calculation an o timum stora$e tank is $iven below! 'ainy days in the city

"he above $ra h shows that the number of dry s ell or non=rainy days in a year is 600! /o# we have to desi$n the si<e of our stora$e tank in such a way that durin$ the dry eriods# water is available for drinkin$ ur ose! "he below mentioned calculation can be a lied to determine the si<e of the stora$e tank! 8o! of ersons in a household 8o! of dry days in a year 7er ca ita consum tion (l cd) -vera$e annual rainfall (mm) 0oofto area (s9m) 0unoff coefficient /i<e of the stora$e tank > > 10 > 600 6 > 1?00 > 60 > 0!.0 10 + 600 + 6 O 16#000 litres

>

Check > *ater available from roofto

>

1?00 + 60 + 0!. O 64#000

0ence, sufficient water is available to meet the demand of .2,;;; litres "he stora$e tank can be ferrocement tank# lastic tank or brickwork tank! "he tanks can be laced of surface or below the $round level also!

Case study 'echar#in# in Kolkata 0echar$in$ is also viable in Kolkata# but for rechar$in$ the under $round a9uifers# knowled$e of 5ydro$eol$y of the city is essential! 0ydro#eolo#y of Kolkata2 - succession of 9uaternary sediments com risin$ clay# silt# fine to coarse sand and occasional $ravel lie underneath Kolkata! Below these sediments at de ths beyond 6(6 m# there is a thick se9uence of 7liocene clay at least down to a de th of 614 m below the land surface! "he thickness of the to clay bed varies from lace to lace with an avera$e thickness of around 40 m! "he ma+imum thickness of over .0m of this bed is encountered at Bele$hata! "he clay bed thins out to about 60m towards east of Kolkata! In the central art of the city# the thickness of the to clay bed is over ?0m! )ccurrence of $roundwater is Kolkata is controlled by this $eolo$ical set u ! -n a9uiclude re resented by clay and silty clay with an avera$e thickness of 40m occurs in the u er art of the sedimentary se9uence revents natural rechar$e!

"here to divert the rainwater in 1orth Kolkata and 0owrah2 (l 1o. 1 +ocation -kra 0oad (ub surface #eolo#y in meters below #round level =mb#l> 0=64 clay 64 D'6 fine sand '6= 4. clay 4.= 104 coarse sand 6 ' %arden 0each 5astin$s 0=?6 clay below ?6 coarse sand 0='6 m fine sand '6 D ?6 m clay below ?6 m coarse sand 4 7ark /treet 0=4. clay Below 4. fine and coarse sand ? 6 & . ( 10 /eal Aane /ubhas /orovar Ba$mari ark ,anicktala Baksara "ikia ara /ovaba<ar 0=40 clay below 40 fine and coarse sand 0= ?6 clay below ?6 find and coarse sand 0=40 m clay Below 40 fine and coarse sand 0='6 clay below '6 fine and coarse sand 0=4. clay below 4. fine and coarse sand 0= ?6 clay below ?6 sand 60 ?0 '? 4? 60 40 ?0 /hallow rechar$e structures u to '6m and dee er structures below 60 m 60m 5epth of the rechar#e well in mb#l ?0m

"here to divert the rainwater in (outh Kolkata 2

(l 1o. 1 6

+ocation -li ur Aansdown 0oad

(ub surface #eolo#y in meters below #round level =mb#l> 0=64 clay below 64 fine and coarse sand 0=4. clay below 4. coarse sand 0=?6 m below ?6 coarse sand 0=40 clay 40 D 160 sand below 160 clay

5epth of the rechar#e well in mb#l 6? ?0

' 4

,andivilla %arden Barisha

4?

K 7 0oy 0oad

0=. clay .= 4. fine sand 4. D ?6 clay below ?6 coarse sand

/hallow structures to de th of 1?m and dee er structure to a de th of 60m

-shok 8a$ar

0= '6 fine sand '6 = &6 clay

/hallow structures u to a de th of 1?m and dee er structures to a de th of &?m

below &6 fine and coarse sand & 1adav ur 0=16 clay 16= '6 fine sand '6 D '6 clay below '6 fine and coarse sand . @hakuria 0=16 clay 16=40 fine sand below 40 coarse sand ( 10 1odh ur 7ark "il3aya 0=4. clay below 4. coarse sand 0='6 clay below '6 m coarse sand Case studies %. /idhan na#ar 9overnment Colle#e, (alt +ake. '?m @ee er structures u to a de th of ?0m /hallow structures at 60m and dee er structures for a de th of 40m /hallow structures to de th of 60m and dee er structures to a de th of 40

Case /ack#round "he colle$e# which is of &!? acres ('0#000 s9 m)# is located in /alt Aake! "he daily water re9uirement is fulfilled by munici al su ly and from its own tubewell! 6easures taken for rainwater harvestin# 7art of the roofto rainwater is diverted to stora$e tank of 16#000 litres ca acity (see site lan)! "he a ro+imate cost for constructin$ the ferrocement tank was about 0s '0#000! "he ro3ect was im lemented in 1anuary 6004 and *est Ben$al 7ollution Control Board funded the ro3ect! 'ooftop rainwater harvestin# I! /torin$ rainwater "he rainwater $enerated at a roofto area of about ?0 s9m from a total roofto area of 6#000 s9m is harvested! "he roofto rainwater flow to the stora$e tank throu$h the down takes i e of 6=inch diameter! "he filterin$ tank rovided in the to of the stora$e tank filters the silt from the roofto ! "he stored water is utilised for non= otable ur oses like $ardenin$ and washin$ ur oses! "he cross section view of the stora$e tank is $iven below! %%. All %ndia (oil and +and )se (urvey = A%(+)(>, *atuli /aishanab#hata.

Case /ack#round

"his is the first rainwater harvestin$ ro3ect of Kolkata at -I/A:/ com le+! "he ro3ect was funded by C%*B# desi$ned and im lemented by -rdem Centre for 0esource @evelo ment and Environmental ,ana$ement! "he annual water harvestin$ otential of the site is about .11 cubic meters! 'ainwater harvestin# measures "he roofto rainwater from an area of 6&6 s9 m is harvested throu$h rechar$e well with two rechar$e borewells! "he a ro+imate cost for constructin$ the ferrocement tank was about 0s ? lakh! "he ro3ect was im lemented in 6004! 'ooftop rainwater harvestin# I! 0echar$in$ $roundwater "he rainwater $enerated at a roofto is collected in series of collection chamber! "he collection chambers are interconnected by under$round i e and the water is finally diverted to the rechar$e well (see icture of rechar$e well)! "he well is 11!?& m in len$th# 1!6? m in width and ' m in de th! "he rechar$e well is rovided with two rechar$e borewells of 1?0 mm diameter to a de th of 11( m! "he rechar$e well is rovided with $ravel and sand for filterin$ ur oses!

'eferences: 1! *etlands of Kolkata (/ource> Kolkata D "he city of wetlands# @e t of Cisheries# %ovt of * Ben$al) 6! %roundwater in urban environment of India# C%*B# Caridabad# @ec 6000! '! -nnual survey of Environment# Iasundhara# 6004 4! -nnual survey of Environment# Iasundhara# 600' ?! @hruban3oti %hosh# Institute of wetland mana$ement and ecolo$ical @esi$n! 6! 8isitendra 8ath /om, @irector# 7hysical lannin$ :nit# K,@&! Kolkata ,unici al Cor oration .! -nnual re orts 6001=6006# *est Ben$al 7ollution Control Board! (! Better Business Bureau# Kolkata! 10! *ater of west Ben$al> /ouvenir 11! "he city of wetlands= Edited by ,adhumita ,ukher3ee # @e artment of Cisheries# %ovt of *est Ben$al!

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