Form 4 Bio Diagram

According to the latest Biology Form 4 syllabus.
Contents are presented in the form of mind maps, annotated

diagrams and tables to help reinforce conceptual understanding.
Provides detailed information with diagrams which makes
process of learning and teaching more interesting.
Suitable for all classes, remedial class, additional class and
discussion class before the examination.
Price Per Set

West Malaysia: RM 450.00
East Malaysia: RM 480.00
Dawn Carmel Paul

Nor Hasidah Ishak (B.Sc)
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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY
Scientific Method
Scientific Method
An orderly method which used to investigate a problem
or an event.
DEFINE THE
PROBLEM
FORM A
HYPOTHESIS
PLAN THE
INVESTIGATION
CONTROL THE
VARIABLES
COLLECT THE
DATA
WRITE A
REPORT
MAKE A
CONCLUSION
INTERPRET
THE DATA
SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES AND MORAL VALUES

Have a keen interest in studying about
nature.
Appreciate the nature and the
contributions of Science and Technology.
Think critically and analytically.
Think rationally.
Hardworking and responsible.
Cooperative, systematic, confident and
independent.
ANALYSE
THE DATA
Golgi
body
Lysosome
Endoplasmic
reticulum
(smooth)
Cytoplasm
Centriole
Microfilament
Mitochondria
Nucleus
Microtuble
Plasma
membrane
Endoplasmic
reticulum
(rough)
Nucleolus
Chromatin
Nuclear
Membrane
Flagellum
2
CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION
Ultrastructure Of An Animal Cell
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Ultrastructure Of A Plant Cell
Vacuole
Mitochondrion
Cytoplasm
Cell Wall
Microtubule
Chromatin
Nuclear
Membrane
Nucleolus
Nucleus
Endoplasmic
reticulum
(rough)
Chloroplast
Ribosome
Endoplasmic
reticulum
(smooth)
Microfilament
Golgi Body
Plasma Membrane

Structure And Function Of Animal Cells And Plant Cells (i)
4
Nucleus
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Controls all the all activities in the cell

Responsible for all cellular structure,
chemical function, growth and
reproduction.
Nucleolus
Chromatin
cristae
matrix
Mitochondrion
Produce all the cells

chemical energy
(ATP) and the
components that
structure nucleic outer membrane
acids
inner membrane
Golgi Body
Changes protein into

glycoprotein
Completes synthesis of
carbohydrate from hormone
Vesicle
Endoplasmic reticulum
Synthesis of protein,
steroids, lipids
Storage of Ca 2+ ion
Chloroplast
Conversion of light energy into

chemical energy
Storage of food and pigments

Structure And Function Of Animal Cells And Plant Cells (ii)
5
RIBOSOME
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Synthesis of protein
The smallest cellular organelles
VACUOLE
Filled with cell sap in plants
Protects the plant cell

Maintains the shape of the cell
Stores water and nutrients which

are required for chemical
processes in the cell.
Forms a protective outer

barries for the living cell
Consists of phospholipids
with protein molecules
placed between it.
PLASMA MEMBRANE

Similarities And Differences of Animal Cell And Plant Cell
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Plant Cell
Animal cell
SIMILARITIES
Both have nucleus
Both have cell
membrane
Both have cytoplasm
DIFFERENCES
No chloroplast
Chloroplast
Has chloroplast
No cell wall
Cell wall
Cell wall made

of cellulose
Only temporary
vocuole
Vacuole
Permanent sap
vacuole
Has various
shapes
Shape
Has few
shapes
Usually smaller
Size
Usually larger
Has centriole
Centriole
No centriole
Granule stored
mainly as
glycogen
Granule stored
Granule stored
mainly as starch
Outside cell
Glycolipid
The structure of the plasma membrane

Consists of lipid bilayer and globular proteins.
The globular proteins float like icebergs in an
ocean of lipid molecules.
Phospholipid
bilayer
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Nucleus
Plasma Membrane
Cytoplasm
Carrier
protein
CHAPTER 3 : MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS

THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Functions of the plasma membrane:

cts as a boundry between the inside and outside of cell
ontrols movement of substances into and out of cell
otects cells
Extracellular
space
carrier protein
Phospholipid
bilayer
lipid
Na+
ADP
Cytoplasm
Na+
ATP
Na
2 ATP is hydrolyzed
and phosphate is
produced.
3 The shape or
structure of
protein changes
and causes sodium
ions to be expelled
to the external
space.
Active Transport
ACTIVE
TRANSPORT
K+
P
K+
5 Protein will change back quickly

to its original shape or structure
following the removal of the
phosphate group.
4 Potassium ions
bind to the protein.
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6 Potassium ions move to

the inside of the cell.
CHAPTER 3 : MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS

THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
1 Sodium ions
bind to
the protein
inside the
plasma
membrane.
PASSIVE TRANSPORT
Simple Diffusion
Facilitated Diffusion
The transport of molecules
across the outer membrane of
living cell by process that
involves carrier protein within
Solute molecule
Strong Sucrose
Solution
(less water = low
water potential)
Weak Sucrose
Solution
(more water = high
water potential)
Carrier
protein
changes
shape
Lower
concen- Carrier
tration protein
Water
molecule
Sucrose
molecule
dient
Copper (ll) sulphate particle
r
Wate
pote
gra
ntial
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Carrier
protein snaps
back to its
original
conformation
Semipermeable
membrane
The Passive Transport
Hydrophilic
groups
(Specific binding
site)
CHAPTER 3 : MOVEMENT OF SUBTANCES ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE
Higher
concentration
Molecules transport randomly

from a dilute solution to a more
concentrated solution.
Osmosis
The passage of a solvent (eg.
water) from a dilute solution
to a more concentrated
solution across a
semipermeable membrane.
10
TYPES OF SOLUTIONS
Isotonic
Hiypotonic
Description
water concentration outside the

cell is higher than that of in the
cytoplasm.
water concentration inside and

out of cell is equal.
flow of water into and out of cell
through plasma is balanced.
shape and cell size is definite.
H 2O
water concentration outside the

cell is lower than that of inside
the cell.
water leaves the cell by osmosis.
cell shrinks and becomes soft and
dehydrated.
H 2O
H 2O
Implication
on animal
cell
H 2O
H 2O
H 2O
water enters the cell by osmosis.
cell expands and becomes firm or
turgid. The rigid cellulose cell wall
expands slightly only and so prevents cell from bursting.
Implication
on plant cell H 2 O
No change because flow of water

into and out of cell through plasma
is balanced.
H 2O
flaccid
water leaves the cell by osmosis.
cell plasmolyses
H 2O
H 2O
H 2O H O
2
H 2O
cell sap
H 2O
H 2O
cell surface
membrane
H 2O
H 2O
cellulose
cell wall
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H 2O
H 2O
H 2O
CHAPTER 3: THE MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS PLASMA

MEMBRANE
The Behaviour Of Cell In Solutions Of Different Concentrations
water enters the cell.

cell expands and eventually bursts
(haemolisis).
Hypertonic
CHAPTER 4 : CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN CELLS

Charateristics Of Enzymes
11
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Specific
substrate
non
specific
substrate
+
Reactions are
reversible
Specific
Action
Some enzymes may need to

be bound with coenzyme
before they can catalyse
reactions
May need cofactors/

coenzymes
Optimum
Temperature
amylase
trypsin
CHARACTERISTICS
OF
ENZYMES
Rate of reaction
enzyme reaction rate
optimum pH
pepsin
1 2 3 4 5
6 7 8 9 10 11 12 p H
Temperature/o C
Sensitive towards
changes in pH
Sensitive towards
changes in temperature
Enzymes are made of

protein and can become
denatured.
(three - dimensional
structure )
Can be reused
Protein molecule
A minor quantity of an
enzyme is capable of
catalysing a major
chemical reaction.
Minute amounts
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Extracellular Enzymes
12
Rough
endoplasmic
reticulum
Secretory
vesicle
Membrane
fusion
occuring
Ribosomes
Transition
vesicle
Golgi
complex
Discharge by
exocytosis
Cytoplasm
of cell
Production of Extracellular Enzyme By Organelle
Ribosome
Synthesizes the protein
Rough endoplasmic reticulum

transported
to
transported
to
Plasma membrane
Glycoprotein is secreted as
non-active extracellular
enzyme.
Secretion happens by
formation of secretory
vesicle.
Protein is changed into

glycoprotein.
Golgi body
transported
to
Glycoprotein go through
changes and becomes a
proenzyme.

The Mechanism Of Enzymes Action
13
1 A building up reaction
(synthesis)
Two substrate molecules (A and

B)which can fit into the active
site.
substrate
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2 A breaking down reaction

(hydrolysis)
A substrate
molecule
(sucrose)
B
A
enzyme
molecule
active
(sucrase)
sites
Substrate molecule aligning itself
at the enzyme molecule active
site.
enzyme
molecule
active
sites
enzyme substrate
complex
enzyme-substrate complex
glucose
product
fructose
A
A new
substance
(product)
AB leaves
the active
site
Enzyme molecule free to take

part in another reaction.
Two products
(glucose and
fructose) leave
the active sites
Enzyme free to take

part in next reaction
14
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Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity
TEMPERATURE
pH
T < 37C
optimum pH
12
trypsin
pepsin
1 2
T >37 C
optimum
temperature
10
amylase
T = 37C
T = 60C
enzyme
denatures
6
4
2
10 20 30 40 50 60
Temperature(C)
9 10 11 12 p H
each 10 C increment (until 40 C)

reaction rate doubles.
37 C - 40 C, optimum range for
animal enzyme.
denaturation begins
when T>40 C, lowers
Affect binding of substrate.
different enzymes, different

optimum pH.
pH changes, protein
conformation changes.
reduced ability to
bind substrate.
Factors That
Enzyme Activity
SUBSTRATE
ENZYME CONCENTRATION
CONCENTRATION
[enzyme] 0.1%
[enzyme] 0.2%
substrate concentration
substrate concentration ,
reaction rate
maximum rate is reached due to
limited amount of enzyme.
enzyme concentration
enzyme concentration ,
reaction rate
maximum rate is reached due to
limited amount of substrate.
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CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION

The Cell Cycle
15
INTERPHASE
G1
DNA replication
Chromosome
duplication
G2
Cell grows and

carries out normal
metabolism.
Organelles duplicate.
Synthesis of enzyme
and protein for cell
division.
Cell grows and
prepares for mitosis.
e
as
ph
ta
Me
Anaphase
Te
lophas
e
Cy
tok
Pr
op
ine
s
ha
se
is
M PH AS E
The cell cycle refers to the stages of a cell from the time of its
formation until the completion of mitosis.
Cell cycle is divided into interphase and M phase.
The interphase consists of the G1, S, and G2 phases.
The M phase comprises of mitosis and cytokinesis.
Mitosis is subdivided into prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase.
Cytokinesis is the division of the cytoplasm.
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CHAPTER 5 :
CELL DIVISION
Changes Of The DNA Content Of A Cell
16
CHANGES OF THE DNA CONTENT OF A CELL
DNA Content
Of Cell
F
E
4n
D
3n
B
G
2n
A
n
CELL CYCLE
Sequence Of Cellular Event
A
Formation of gamete
Union of DNA during fertilization.
Synthesis of RNA, ribosome and protein
DNA replication during the synthesis phase (S) during

the first growth phase.
Synthesis of organelle during the second growth

phase (G2).
DNA moves to the opposite poles during anaphase.
Telophase and cytokinesis

Mitosis
17
INTERPHASE
Prophase
METAPHASE
The periods between cell

divisons.
Chromosomes are in the
form of fine threads and
uncondensed.
Chromosomes condense.
Spindle microtubules
form between the
centrioles.
Nucleolus and nucleus
membrane disappear.
Chromosomes align at the
equator.
The centromeres attach to
the spindle microtubules.
Chromosomes can be seen
clearly.
ANAPHASE
The centromeres split.

Chromatids move to
opposite spindle poles.
telephase
and
Cytokinesis
Nucleus membrane forms.

Spindle microtubules
dissapear.
2 daughter cells produced.

Meiosis
18
MEIOSIS I
INTERPHASE
The periods between cell

divisons.
Chromosomes are in the
form of fine threads and
uncondensed.
PROPHASE I
Chromosomes condense.
Homologous chromosomes
synapse to form a tetrad.
Crossing over occurs at
chiasma.
Nucleus membrane dissapears.
Spindle is formed.
METAPHASE I
Chromosomes line up in
pairs across the cell.
They are held by the spindle
and closely aligned.
ANAPHASE I
Chromosomes separate.
Homologous chromosomes
move to opposite spindle
poles.
TELOPHASE I
Spindle fibres disappear

Nucleus membranes and
nucleolus reform around
chromosome cluster.
Cytokinesis produces two
daughter cells.

Meiosis
19
INTERPHASE
MEIOSIS II
Prophase ii
Chromosomes become thick

and short.
Nucleolus and nuclear
membrane disappear.
METAPHASE II
Chromosomes line up singly

across the centre of each
cell.
ANAPHASE II
Chromosomes divide
longitudinally at their
centromeres and separate.
TELOPHASE II
Each cell has separated into

two cells.
Nuclear membranes and
nucleolus have reformed.
Cytokinesis separates
haploid daughter cells.
Four danghter cells produced.

Comparison Of Mitosis And Meiosis
20
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INTERPHASE
MEIOSIS
MITOSIS
Centromere
Chromatids
Centriole
Prophase
Prophase I
Spindle
Metaphase I
Meiosis I
Metaphase
Pole
Anaphase I
Equator
Anaphase
Telophase I and
Cytokinesis
Telophase and
Cytokinesis
Meiosis II
2 daughter cells
4 daughter cells
21
MOLECULE
CELL
Units of living
matter
surrounded by a
plasma membrane.
e.g. smooth muscle
cell
Subcellular compartments
specialised for specific
cellular functions.
e.g. mitochondria
TISSUE
LEVEL OF
ORGANIZATION
A group of cell that perform a particular function.
ORGAN SYSTEM
ORGANISM
Contains
various body
systems
e.g human
A group of
organs or
tissues working
in a coordinated
way to perform a
gross function
e.g. digestive system
ORGAN
A group of
physically
assosiated
tissues that
perform a major
function.
e.g. small intestive
CHAPTER 6 : THE ORGANIZATION OF LIVING ORGANISMA

Cell, tissues and Organs
Building blocks of all organisms

e.g simple molecule: Amino acid
complex molecule: Protein
ORGANELLE
CHAPTER 6 : ORGANIZATION OF CELLS

Human Organ Systems
22
Nervous System
coordinates and
controls most nerve
activities
Respiratory
System
inhales oxygen and
exhales carbon dioxide
Skeletal
System
Muscular System
allows body movement
support the body

protect the organs
Blood
Circulatory
System
t ransport oxygen and
Reproductive System
produce reproductive cells, ovum (female) and
sperm (male)
food to all parts of body

transport excretory
product
Lymphatic
System
transport lymphatic
fluid to the blood
vessel
protect the body from
causing-disease
organisms
Digestive
System
digest different
classes of food
Excretory System
removes excretory
product from the body
Endocrine
System
produce hormones
and coordinates body
responses to stimuli
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Unicellular Organisms - Amoeba
Nucleus
Food vacuoles
Ectoplasm
Pseudopodia
Contractile
vacuole
Cell
membrane
Endoplasm
Feeding in Ameoba Pseudopodium engulfs
Respiration
CO2
O2
Nutrients are
absorbed
Enzyme digests bacteria
Diffusion takes place in plasma membrane
Nucleus divides
Movement
Cytoplasm
divides
Moves by extending pseudopodium
Response
Osmoregulation
Sunlight
Water
Vacoule
shrinks
Vacuole
shrinks
Water
Moves away
26
1 MATURE CELL Nucleus
2 DIVISION OF THE NUCLEUS

Cell becomes
rounded and
nucleus starts
to divide
CHAPTER 6 :
Nucleus divides
Parent cell
DAUGHTER CELLS SEPERATE

Daughter cells separate
DIVISION OF THE CYTOPLASM

Daughter
nuclei form
and cytoplasm
constricts
Cytoplasm
divides
ORGANIZATION OF CELLS
REPRODUCTION IN AMOEBA
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Unicellular Organisms - Paramecium
Cytostome
Food vacuole
Contractile
vacuole
Micronucleus
Cilium
Macronucleus
Trichocysts
O2
Respiration
Movement
CO2
Moves with the help of cilia which
continuously beat against the water
in a diagonal pattern
Absorbs oxygen from the water and in

return gives out carbon dioxide by
diffusion through its body covering.
Reproduction
A Asexual reproduction : binary fission
B Sexual reproduction : conjugation
H2O
Water enters
the vacuole
Feeding
conjugation
daughter
cells
H2O
Vacuole shrinks
Food
Vacuole shrinks
Cilium sends food to cytostome.
2 Both nuclei start to divide

Micronucleus in mitosis
Macronucleus begins elongation
Bud appears on cytostome
3 Cell contents divide

Micronucleus divides
Macronucleus pulls in two
New gullet forms
Two new contractile appear
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
IN PARAMECIUM
Unicellular Organisms - Asexual Reproduction
1 Mature Cell
Micronucleus begins mitosis
Paramecium
28
macronucleus
micronucleus
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4 Daughter cells form
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8 Each ex-cojungant divides

twice to form four new
young paramecia.
1 The conjugants come to lie

side by side.
2
The macronuclei
disintegrate and the
micronuclei divide.
macronucleus
The zygotic
7 nucleus
divides into
eight.
The cojugants separate.

Each ex-conjugant
contains zygotic nucleus.
Migratory nucleus fuses

with stationary nucleus of
other conjugant.
Each
micronucleus
divides twice
to form 4
nuclei and 3
of these
disintegrate.
4 Each remaining
micronucleus
divides into 2.
One of these
migrate into the
adjacent cell.
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Unicellular organisms - Sexual Reproduction
SEXUAL
REPRODUCTION
IN PARAMECIUM
micronucleus
C H 2O H
C H 2O H
30
o
o
o
DISACCHARIDES
MONOSACCHARIDES
C:H:O=1:2:1
)y
( H2 O
Cx
Formula : C6 H12 O6
Simple carbohydrates
Consists of glucose,
fructose galactose
Formula : C12 H22 O11

Complex carbohydrates
Formed when two monosaccharide
molecules are combined and
one H 2O molecule is removed
away through condensation
TY
FUNCTIONS
E L E M E N T CARBOHYDRATE
ULA
FORM
CES
OUR
S
PE
Examples : Maltose
Sucrose
Lactose
Glycogen
POLYSACCARIOES
Formula:(C6 H1o O5)n

Formed when
many identical
monosaccharides
are condensed
3 types :
i) glycogen
ii) starch
iii) cellulose
Starch
Cellulose
CHAPTER 7 : NUTRITION
Classes Of Food- Carbohydrates
i
ii
Main source of energy

provide instant energy
energy storage (glycogen
in humans)
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CHAPTER 7: NUTRITION
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Classes Of Food - Lipids
Functions
LIPIDS
Give us energy
Make cell membrane
Keep us warm
Control body
temperature
Elements
C,H,O
C - Carbon
H - Hydrogen
O - Oxygen
Phospolipids
Fats And Oil

Saturated fat : - Animal fat
Unsaturated fat : - Oil products from plants
Main component of
plasma membrane
1
Glycerol
3
Fatty
acids
Fat / Oil
Phospholipid
TYPES OF LIPIDS
Steroid
Main component of
plasma membrane
Hormon- Monitors secondary
sex characteristics
- Oestrogen
-Testosterone
- Progesterone
Cholesterol
Wax
Waxy
cuticles on leaves
Cuticle
32
C, H, O, N, S and P
C
H
O
N
S
P
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
Sulphur
Phosphorus
i) Essential amino acids animal produts :

meat, egg, milk
Synthesizes enzymes,
hormones, antibodies
and haemoglobin
ii) Non-essential amino acids TYPES OF

plant products :
AMINO
(beans,nuts)
PROTEINS
FUNCTIONS
fy
C
o
u
r
a
b
e
w
h
e
n
y
nn
ad
b
s
g
v
ts
ih
i
SOURCES
ACID
Classes Of Food Protein
ELEMENT
Help to repair and build
up new cells
There are 20 amino

acids.
Can be classify as :
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Protein Structure
33
The structure of protein is characterized in 4 ways:

A
Primary Stucture
C
Tertiary Structure
B
Secondary Structure
D
Quarternary Structure
PRIMARY STUCTURE
Amino acids
The linear sequence

of amino acids in a
polypeptide chain.
Polypeptide chain
SECONDARY STRUCTURE
HELIX
The twisting of the
polypeptide chain to
form a helix.
PLEATED
SHEET
The folding of
the polypeptide
chain to form a
pleated sheet.
TERTIARY STRUCTURE
The three - dimensional structure of a

protein.
The polypeptide folds in on itself to
form a tertiary structure.
QUARTERNARY STRUCTURE
Complex structure consisting of more

than one polypeptide chain.
34
1 BODY SIZE An individual who has a

bigger build needs more calories than an
individual with a smaller build.
OCCUPATION / PHYSICAL
ACTIVITY
An individual who is physically active

needs more calories than an individual
who is inactive.
HEALTH
FACTORS THAT
AFFECT DAILY
ENERGY
REQUIREMENTS
Insufficient secretion of thyroxine

results in a lower metabolic rate.
Meanwhile over-secretion of thyroxine
causes higher metabolic rate.
2
AGE
Adolescents and young adults need

more calories than older adults.
3
GENDER
Women need less

4
calories compared
to men.
CLIMATE
ACRONYM
A person living in a cold country tends to

lose more heat to his surroundings compared
to one who is living in the desert.
B - Body size
A - Age
G - Gender
C - Climate
H - Health
O - Occupation
P - Physical activity
BAG CHOP
Factors That Affect Daily Energy Requirements
35
A Balanced Diet : Food Guide Pyramid
Food Guide Pyramid
Eat least
Fats, oils and

sweets group
Eat sparingly
Milk, yogurt and

cheese group
2-3 servings
Meat, poultry, fish,
eggs and nuts group
2-3 servings
Vegetable
group
3-5 servings
Eat most
Fruit group
2-3 servings
Bread, cereal,
rice and pasta
group
6-11 servings
Choosing to eat these amounts of different kinds of foods each

day provides a balanced diet.
CHAPTER 7CHAPTER 7 :
: NUTRITION
Human Digestive System
36
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NUTRITION
Human Digestive System
THE HUMAN DIGESTIVE SYSTEM

Teeth
Break food into

small pieces
Glands : Salivary glands

Secretion : Saliva (pH 7)
Amylase
Starch
Amino Acids
Mouth
The Digestive Process

In The Alimentary Canal
Stomach
Glands : Gastric glands
Secretion : Gastric juice (pH 1)
Rennin
Milk protein
Casein
Protease
Proteins
Peptones
Salivary
glands
Duodenum
Oesophagus
Liver
Gallbladder
Pancrease
Trachea
Glands : Liver
Secretion : Bile (pH 8)
Bile
Emulsified fats
Fats
Glands : Pancreas
Secretion : Pancreatic juice (pH 8)
Fatty Acids
Emulsified Lipase
+ Glycerol
Fats
Pancreatic
Amylase
Starch
Maltose
Protease
Proteins
Peptons
Small Intestine
Glands : Intestinal glands
Secretion : Intestinal juice (pH 8)
Complex sugars
Glucose
Colon
Ileum
Peptones
Protease
Amino Acid
Caecum
Large Intestine
Reabsorption of water
Appendix
Rectum
Anus
Egestion of faeces
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Absorption And Assimilation
37
Glucose and amino acid are transported to the whole body.

Glucose
respirated
Amino acid
hormone synthesis, enzymes and new cells
Glucose
Amino acid
Amino acid
Hepatic Vein
carries processed
nutrients from liver into
systemic circulation.
Glycogen
urea
protein
Liver
Lymphatic Vessel
carries fatty acid,
glycerol, fat-soluble
vitamins (A, D, E, K)
to lymphatic system.
Hepatic Portal Vein

carries soluble
products of
absorption
to the liver.
Blood vessel
Small Intestine
Sugar and
amino acid
absorb in the
small intestine.
Large intestine
Absorption of
water, mineral
salts and water
salts soluble
vitamins
(Vitamin B and
Vitamin C)
The Structure Of Villus
Epithelium
Nutrients
enter villi
Lacteal
Capillary
network
Epithelium
Microvilli
Fatty acids
and lipids
to lymphatic
vessels
Lymphatic
vessel
to liver
Amino acids and glucose
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Photosynthesis
38
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Process in which green plants make use of carbon

dioxide and water to make food (glucose) in the
presence of sunlight and chlorophyll.
The Equation for Photosynthesis is:

Water +
Carbon dioxide
6H2 O
6CO6
Light
Chlorophyll
Light energy split the

water molecules
into oxygen and hydrogen
Oxygen
Glucose +
C6 H12 O6
6O2
Oxygen is
released as a
waste product
Starch grains transported

to other parts of the plant
Chrophyll
molecule that
can trap light
Carbon dioxide
diffuse into the
leaf through
stomata
Hydrogen and
carbon dioxide
react to form
glucose
Water molecule
from the root
Glucose stored as
starch grains
Importance of photosynthesis
Maintains the level of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the atmosphere.
Helps in circulation of carbon and oxygen in the environment.
Supplies food directly to green plants and indirectly to all the
animals.
Mechanism Of Photosynthesis
39
MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS
6H20
6CO2
DARK
REACTIONS
LIGHT
REACTIONS
LIGHT
6O2
C6H12O6
6H2O
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN LIGHT REACTIONS AND

DARK REACTIONS
Aspect
Light Reactions
Dark Reactions
Site
Grana of Chloroplast
Stroma of Chloroplast
H2O, Light,
Chlorophyll, ADP, P
CO2, H+, e-, ATP
Products
H+, e-, O2, ATP
C6, H12, O6, H2 O, ADP, P
Balanced Equation
12H 2 O
( 24+ + 24e-) + 6H2O
6CO2 + ( 24H+ + 24e-)

C 6, H 12 O 6+ 6H 2O
Raw material
Overall equation
in presence of
light energy
6 CO 2
+ 12 H 2 O
C 6H 12O 6
chlorophyII
+ 6
CO 2
+ 6 H 2O
OR (simply as a word equation)

Carbon dioxide + water
light energy
chlorophyll
glucose + oxygen
40
Leaf Structure
Cuticle
waxy
reduce water loss by
evaporation
INTERIOR OF LEAF
Upper epidermis
protects against
water loss
transparent to
visible light
leaves
Guard cell
controls
opening/closure of
stomatal pores
LEAF STRUCTURE
Spongy mesophyll
allows diffusion of water and
gases through leaves
Palisade mesophyll
major site of
photosynthesis
Phloem sieve tubes

carry away sucrose
2 to
diffuse
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Lower epidermis
protects against
water loss
transparent to
visible light
41
MACRONUTRIENTS
MINERAL REQUlREMENTS OF PLANT
Nutrients that needed in large
How Mineral Get Into Plants

root hair cell
minerals
soil
Mineral elements
from the soil
absorbed
roots of the
plants
MICRONUTRIENTS
Nutrients that needed in small
quantities.
Required mainly for the formation
of plgments and enzymes.
Examples :
(iii) Zinc
(i)
Ferum
(ii) Molybdenum (iv) Boron
(v) Manganese
(vi) Copper
Active Transport
movement of
particles against
the concentration
gradient, through a
cell membrane,
using energy.
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Diffusion
movement of
particles from an
area of high
concentration to
an area of low
concentration.
Mineral Nutrition In Plants
MINERAL
NUTRITION IN
PLANTS
quantities
Necessary for the formation of
the cell walls and protoplasm of
cells.
Example :
(i)
Carbon
(ii) Hydrogen
non-metallic
(iii) O x y g e n
(iv) Nitrogen
(v) Phosphorus
(vi) Sulphur
(vii) Potassium
(viii) Magnesium
metallic
(ix) Calcium
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Mineral Nutrition In Plants
42
NITROGEN
Used for
: Making leaves and
growth of new cells
Necessary for : (a) Protein synthesis
(b) Synthesis of
MAGNESIUM
Used for : Formation of chlorophyll
Absence causes : (a) Poor growth
(b) Yellowing of leaves
Source : Magnesium salts in the soil
(a)
growth
(b)
(c)
Sources :
(i)
(ii)
Used for : Making roots

Necessary for :
Formation of nucleic
proteins and
co-enzymes
Absence causes:
(a) Poor root growth
(b) Purple leaves
osphates in the soil
Absence causes:
(a) Discolouration of leaves
to orange or brown
(b) Very poor growth
Source :
43
The LimitingFactors That Influences Rate Of Photosynthesis
Carbon Dioxide Concentration
plenty of light
and warmth
Photosynthesis will
go as fast as the
amount of light will
allow, when it is
warm and there is
plenty of carbon
dioxide .
Light becomes the
limiting factor.
ture increases as
much as 10 o C, the
rate of photosynthesis increases doubly.
High intensity
of light
rate of photosynthesis
light need to
be increased
When the tempera-
Temperature
Low intensity of light
Temperature(c)
amount of carbon dioxide
Light Intensity
When amount of
light increases,
the rate of photosynthesis increases to a cer0.03% CO2
tain point. Beyond
this point, amount
0.01% CO2
of light makes no
difference because of insuffiCO 2 temperature cient of CO2.
CO 2 becomes the
needs to be
limiting factor.
plenty of CO 2 increased
and warmth
amount of light
20
30
2
Carbon
dioxide is
added in
greenhouse
Light is a limiting
factor in a wood.
40
Plants
make lots
of food
on warm
sunny
days.
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The Limiting Factors That Influences Rate Of Photosynthesis
44
The Ruminants Digestive System

Ruminants have four - chambered stomach
Ruminants release large

volumes of methane from
both ends of their gut.
Mouth
Food is ingested and
chewed ready for
swallowing.
1
1 OESOPHAGUS
Digestive System Of Ruminants
2
2
Rumen
4
conditions
cellulase
sugars
cellulose
5
6
3
OMASUM
Proteins from HCI and

grass, bacteria pepsin peptides
and ciliates
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3 RETICULUM
Receives fermented grass mixture
from rumen
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Digestive System Of Rodents
45
Digestive System Of A Rabbit

Salivary glands
Oesophagus
Stomach
Duodenum
Heart
Gall-bladder
Pancrease
Ileum
Caecum
Appendix
Colon
Anus
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CHAPTER 8 : RESPIRATION
Cell Respiration
46
C6H12O6 + 6O2
6CO2 + 6H2O
ADP
ATP
+
P
Active
transport
P
Respiratory
movements
Contraction of
muscle
Macromolecule
synthesis
Cell division
Cell
Activities
CHAPTER 8 : R E S P I R A T I O N
Fish Respiratory Structure
47
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Has four pairs of gills. The gills
Gill raker
Operculum
A muscular flap
which covers
the gill chamber.
Water out
are covered by the operculum.

Each gill consists of two gill
rakers, gill arches and two
rows of gill filaments.
Gill filament
provide enourmous
surface area for
gas exchange.
Water in
Gill bar
holds out the gill
filaments into the
stream of water.
Characteristics of gill filaments

for gases exchange
- Have very thin walls which are

permeable to gases.
- Covered with many gill lamellas.
- Have a dense network of blood
capillaries.
KEY:
Flow of water
Flow of blood
Gill lamella
- Water flow over gills in one

direction while blood flows in
the opposite direction through
gill capillaries.
- Respiration gas easier to
dissolve as the gill filament
is always surrounded with water.
Capillary
network
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Breathing Mechanism In Fish
48
Breathe
in
KEY
Flowing of water
through the gills.
Breathe
out
Mouth
Water
in
Operculum
Gill
Operculum
valve
Buccal cavity
Water out
Water out
INSPIRATION
DIFFERENCES
EXPIRATION
opens
Mouth
closes
is lowered
Floor of mouth
is raised
decreases
Pressure in the
buccal cavity
increases
closes
Operculum
opens
expands
Space of operculum
relaxes
closes
Operculum valve
opens
breathe in
Breathing
breathe out
While water flows through the blood capillaries in the gill

filaments, exchange of gases takes place.
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The Respiratory System And Mechanism
49
THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM AND MECHANISM

Larynx
Trachea
Pleural cavity with
pleural fluid
External
intercostal
muscle
Pleural
membranes
Rib
Bronchus
Bronchiole
Internal
intercostal
muscle
Diaphragm
CO2
from
pulmonary
artery
Exchange Of Gases In The Alveolus

O2
to
pulmonary
vein
Capillary
network
Alveolus
O2 from
lung
From
pulmonary
artery
red
blood
cell
O2 to
lung
To
Pulmonary
Vein
blood
capillaries
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The Breathing Mechanism
50
INSPIRATION (INHALATION)
EXPIRATION (EXHALATION)
Air out
Air in
Lung
Ribs
Vertebral
column
Diaphragm
Sternum
Internal
intercostal
muscle
External
intercostal
muscle
Rib
Rib
Contracts
External intercostal muscle
Relaxes
Relaxes
Internal intercostal muscle
Contracts
Up and outwards
Movement of rib cage
Down and inwards
Contracts
Action of diaphragm muscle
Relaxes
Moves downwards
flattens
Increases
Movement/shape of
diaphragm
Volume of thoratic cavity
Curves upwards/dome
Low
Inhaled into the lungs
Air pressure of thoratic cavity

Flow of air
Decreases
High
Exhaled from the lungs
High
Internal air pressure
Low
Low
External air pressure
High
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The Regulation Of Breathing
51
Central
chemoreceptors
2 The nerve impulses
sent to
medulla oblongata.
Cerebrum
3 In medula oblongata,
information analysed
and impulses sent to
intercostal muscle
and diaphragm
muscle.
Cerebellum
1
The chemoreceptors in the carotid
body and aorta body are stimulated
when:
concentration of O 2 decreases
concentration of CO 2 increases
Blood pH changes
Medulla Oblongata
Intercostal
muscle
Carotid
body
Aorta
Diaphragm
muscle
Vena cava
4 The rate of
ventilation
increases.
Gaseous Exchange In The Alveolus And
Tissues
52
Inspired air
Expired air
Po2 160 mm Hg
Pco2 0.3 mm Hg
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Po2 120 mm Hg
Pco2 27 mm Hg
ALVEOLAR AIR
Blood
entering alveolar
capillaries
Po2 104 mm Hg
Pco2 40 mm Hg
Blood leaving
tissue capillaries
Po 2 104 mm Hg
Pco 2 40 mm Hg
Po2 40 mm Hg
Pco 2 45 mm Hg
Blood leaving
alveolar capillaries
HEART
Blood
entering tissue
capillaries
Po2 40 mm Hg
Pco2 45 mm Hg
Po2 104 mm Hg
Pco2 40 mm Hg
Tissues
Po2 < 40 mm Hg
Pco2 > 45 mm Hg
Each gas diffuses from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower
partial pressure.
O2 difusses from the alveolus into the alveolar capillaries.
CO2 diffuses out of the alveolar capillaries into the alveolus.
O2 difusses from the tissue capillaries into the tissues.
CO2 diffuses out of the tissues into the tissue capillaries.
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Site Of Photosynthesis And Respiration In Mesophyll Cells
53
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
6CO6 + 6H2 O
Light energy
chlorophyll
C6H12O6 + 6O2
CHLOROPLAST
Su
n li
gh
Chlorophyll containing
organelles that are found in
large numbers in plant cells
undergoing photosynthesis
MITOCHONDRION
A structure within the
cytoplasm that carry out
aerobic respiration
RESPIRATION
C6H12O6 + 6O2
AT
an
he
at
6CO2 + 6H2O + Energy
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN PHOTOSYNTHESIS AND RESPIRATION

PHOTOSYNTHESIS
RESPIRATION
Occurs only in cells with chlorophyll

and in the presence of the sunlight
Occurs in all cells and at all

times, without sunlight
Light energy
Chemical energy
chemical energy
ATP + heat
CO2 and H2O is used,

C6H12O6 and O2 is formed
C6H12O6 and O2 is used,

CO2 and H2O is formed
Anabolic process
Catabolic process
Water molecule is decomposed
Decomposition of food occurs
Chlorophyll pigment is needed to

absorb light energy
Chlorophyll pigment is not needed
54
Use of energy entering an animal

Respiration energy used
in activities for living 5%
10 kJ/m/year
Food eaten
10% of
energy
transmitted
100%
90% of energy
lost
Tertiary consumer
(4th trophic level)
100 kJ/m/year
1
(1 kg)
Faeces 10%
Growth 2%
Urine 3%
Respiration (movement) 10%
50
PYRAMID OF NUMBERS
Describes the number of
individuals at each link in
a food chain.
Secondary consumers (3rd trophic)
50 000
(total 100 kg)
10% of
energy
transmitted
Some energy are

lost during
excretion and
respiration
processes.
90% of energy
lost
CHAPTER 9 : DYNAMIC ECOSYSTEM

The Pyramid Of Numbers
10% of
energy
transmitted
90% of energy
lost
1 000 kJ/m/year
Respiration (heat) 70%
Primary consumers (2nd trophic)
10 000 000
10 000 kJ/m/year
10% of
energy
transmitted
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Producers (1st trophic level)
FOOD WEB
Provides energy
in the food
chain.
Primary consumers
Herbivores
Obtain energy in food
compounds obtained
from producers.
Producers
Usually green plants. They
can convert light energy
to chemical energy in food
compounds.
55
Sunlight
Secondary consumers
Carnivores
compounds obtained by
eating primary consumers.
Tertiary consumers
Carnivores
compounds obtained by
eating primary/ secondary
consumers.

Food Web
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Decomposers
Bacteria and fungi

Symbiosis
56
SYMBIOSIS : An intersection between individuals of

different species (symbionts)
Commensalism
A specific (commensal)
Parasitism
An association in
benefits from the

association with the
other (host) is not
affected significantly.
which one organism

(parasite) lives on
another body (host) to
obtain its nutrients.
1 Ectoparasite
Epiphyte
A plant that grows
upon another plant.
A parasite that lives

outside its
hostsbody.
Flea
Host
Parasite
Mutualism
An intersection
between two species
in which both
species benefit.
Both species could
not live separately
but dependent on
each other to survive.
Bacteria in root
nodules make nitrate.
Comensal
Epizoite
An animal that grows
upon another animals.
Shark
Host
Protozoans
2 Endoparasite
A parasite that lives
inside its hosts body.
Termites
Remora
fish
Tapeworm
Protozoans live in the

intestine of termites.
They help to digest
cellulose into glucose.

The Interaction Between Biotic Components
57
Saprophytism
Any organism that feeds by absorbing dead organic matter.
Saprophyte Any plants that

depends fully on dead organisms
for food.
Saprozoite Any animals that

obtain food from dead and
decaying organisms.
Prey predator
Interaction
between two
organisms in which one
will hunt and kill the
other for food.
INTERACTION
BETWEEN
BIOTIC
COMPONENTS
The animal killed for food is

prey and that which feed is the
predator .
Population of animals/
number of individual
Competition
The interaction
among living
organisms that share
the limited resources.
Intraspecies competition
A competition within the same
species of a population for
resources.
Owl
Field mouse
time(years)
Interspecies competition
A competition between
individuals from different species
for resources such as food.
CHAPTER 9 : MICROORGANISMS AND THIER EFFECT ON LIVING THINGS
58
Biodiversity - Classification of Organisms
Prokaryotae
Unicellular
Do not have nuclear
membrane
Simple organisation
without muscle
Plantae
Multicellular plants
Have chlorophyll
Have tissues and cells
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Fungi
Protoctista
Almost unicellular
Have nuclear
membrane
Simple organisation
without muscle
CLASSIFICATION
OF
ORGANISMS
Do not have chlorophyll

Have chitin wall but
not cellulose
Produce spores
Animalia
Multicellular animals
Do not have chlorophyll
Active and can move
Can reproduce
CHAPTER 9 : MICROORANISMS AND ITS EFFECT ON LIVING THINGS
59
The Classification Of Microorganisms
Protozoa
Amoeba
Fungi
Paramecium
Bacteria
Unicellular organism
Living in the soil, sea, moist
area or upon another organism.
Reproduce through cell
division.
Sexual and asexual
reproduction.
Asexual reproduction
through spores and
budding.
Do not have
chlorophyll.
Living in dark and
moist area or upon
the death or
decayed
organism.
Algae
Aquatic plant
Have chlorophyll and chloroplast
Sex and asexual reproduction
through spore or separation of
vegetative cell.
Live in moist and extremely low
light area.
OF
Unicellular organisms.
Asexual reproduction
through dual cleft.
4 ways of nutrition :
1 Photosynthesis
2 Chemosynthesis
3 Saprotroph
4 Parasitic
Virus
Simplest organism
Depends on host for nutrition,
reproduction (gets into living
cells and reproduces) and
respiration.
Lives everywhere on Earth.
60
Nucleic acid
Protein coat
Complex virus
1 Attachment
Virus attaches on the

surface of bacteria
cell.
Infection
Viral nucleic acid is
injected into bacteria

cell.
Bacterial
Chromosome
Viral nucleic acid
controls bacteria
cell to replicate
viral nucleic acid
and produce more
viral genes.
4 Synthesis of coat
proteins
The genes
instruct the
cell to produce
huge quantities
of coat protein.
Burst
Liberating viral offspring

to infect another cell.
5 Assembly of progeny viruses

The protein coats automatically aggregate around
the new strands of viral nucleic acid.
The Life Cycle Of A Typical Virus
THE LIFE CYCLE OF

A TYPICAL VIRUS
nucleic asid
CHAPTER 9 : MICROORANISMS AND ITS EFFECT ON LIVING THINGS
3 Replication of viral
61
NITROGEN CYCLE The circulation of nitrogen in the environment.

Nitrogen in the
atmosphere
Lightning
Denitrifying
bacteria
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in
roots
Plant proteins
Nitrogen
oxide
death animal
and plants
Decomposition
Decomposition
of urea and
faeces.
Ammonia and
ammonium
compounds
Nitrogen-fixing
bacteria in the
soil.
Nirates in
the soil
Nitrogen fixing bacteria and nitrifying bacteria change the nitrogen in the air to nitrates.
Nitrogen oxide produced by lightning.
Nitrogen oxide dissolves in water to form nitrate compounds in the soil.
Nitrogen is produced by animals through excretory process.
Denitrifying bacteria change ammonia and nitrates to nitrogen gas.
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Nitrifying
bacteria
Nitrates
absorbed by
roots.

Nitrogen Cycle
Animal proteins
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62
Carbon Cycle
CARBON CYCLE: The constant circulation of the element carbon through living things
and the atmosphere.
CO2 in the air

Combustion
Photosynthesis
ing
n
ur
Respiration
Burning
Respiration
ositio
mp
Deco
n
Materials produced
from animals and
plants
Death
Death
Carbon compounds in the soil decayed

by bacterial and fungi
Photosynthesis: A process where the plants take in carbon dioxide to make food.
Sunlight
Carbon + Water
dioxide
Chlorophyll
Oxygen
Glucose +
(energy needed)
Cell respiration: A process where the animals get carbon by eating plants or
other animals.
Glucose + Oxygen
Carbon
dioxide
Water
+ (energy released)
Burning: When certain things (containing carbon) such as wood, coal, gas or petrol
are burned, the carbon combines with oxygen in the air to produce carbon
dioxide.
Carbon + Oxygen
Carbon
dioxide
63
Light energy
from the sun
Sun
About 10% of the solar
energy reflected back
into space.
Some of the Earths infrared emissions are reflected

back to the Earths surface.
Solar enerngy re-emitted

in the infrared range.
Methane is released
from cattle as they
belch and break wind.
Melting of
icebergs at poles
causes sea level
to rise.
About 83% of the

solar energy
penetrates the
atmosphere.
E a r t h s atmosphere
CHAPTER 10 : PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION

CHAPTER 10 :PRESERVATION AND CONSERVATION
THE ENVIRONMENT
THE ENVIRONMENT
THE ENVIRONMENT
THE ENVIRONMENT
Greenhouse Effect
Greenhouse
gases from
combustion of
fossil fuels,
car exhaust
etc.
OF
OF
OF
OF
OF
Consequential of greenhouse effect

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The increase in the average temperature of the Earth.

Global warming
Caused by high temperature
Drought
Changes of climate zone
Flood occurs at low land areas as the level of sea rises.
Wind and rainfall patterns may change.

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CHAPTER 1 : INTRODUCTION TO BIOLOGY

SCIENTIFIC ATTITUDES AND MORAL VALUES

CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Controls all the all activities in the cell

Produce all the cells

Changes protein into

Conversion of light energy into

CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Protects the plant cell

Stores water and nutrients which

Forms a protective outer

CHAPTER 2 : CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION

Cell wall made

The structure of the plasma membrane

CHAPTER 3 : MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS

Functions of the plasma membrane:

5 Protein will change back quickly

6 Potassium ions move to

CHAPTER 3 : MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS

Copper (ll) sulphate particle

The Passive Transport

CHAPTER 3 : MOVEMENT OF SUBTANCES ACROSS THE PLASMA MEMBRANE

Molecules transport randomly

water concentration outside the

water concentration inside and

water concentration outside the

No change because flow of water

CHAPTER 3: THE MOVEMENT OF SUBSTANCES ACROSS PLASMA

water enters the cell.

CHAPTER 4 : CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN CELLS

Some enzymes may need to

May need cofactors/

enzyme reaction rate

Enzymes are made of

CHAPTER 4 : CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN CELLS

Production of Extracellular Enzyme By Organelle

Rough endoplasmic reticulum

Protein is changed into

CHAPTER 4 : CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN CELLS

Two substrate molecules (A and

2 A breaking down reaction

Enzyme molecule free to take

Enzyme free to take

CHAPTER 4 : CHEMICAL COMPOSITION IN CELLS

Factors That Affect Enzyme Activity

enzyme reaction rate

enzyme reaction rate

each 10 C increment (until 40 C)

different enzymes, different

enzyme reaction rate

enzyme reaction rate

CHAPTER 5 : CELL DIVISION

Cell grows and

CHANGES OF THE DNA CONTENT OF A CELL

Union of DNA during fertilization.

Synthesis of RNA, ribosome and protein

DNA replication during the synthesis phase (S) during

Synthesis of organelle during the second growth

DNA moves to the opposite poles during anaphase.