USE OF MATERIALS COURSE INTRODUCTION TO METALLURGY LECTURE NOTES

INDEX Page 1. Introduction.................................................................................................4 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 Metals .........................................................................................4 Alloys ..........................................................................................7 Solid Solutions............................................................................7 Phase Mixtures............................................................................8

2.

Equi i!riu" Diagra"#...............................................................................10 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 Iron - Carbon ia!ra"...............................................................10 Slo#ly Cooled Stru$tures..........................................................12 %uen$hed Stru$tures................................................................13 Criti$al &e"'eratures................................................................1(

3.

$ot and Co d %or&ing..............................................................................17 3.1 3.2 3.3 Stress )elie*..............................................................................17 )e$rystallisation........................................................................17 +rain +ro#th.............................................................................18

4.

$ardne## and Strengt'............................................................................1, 4.1 4.2 4.3 In*luen$e o* +rain Si-e..............................................................20 &he e**e$ts o* Stru$tural Chan!es.............................................20 .ardenability.............................................................................21

(.

$eat Treat"ent..........................................................................................24 (.1 .ardenin! Me$hanis"s.............................................................24 (.1.1 (.1.2 (.1.3 (.1.4 Solid Solution .ardenin!.........................................24 Pre$i'itation .ardenin!...........................................2( /or0 .ardenin!......................................................21 Strain A!ein!...........................................................28

(.2

Isother"al &rans*or"ations.......................................................2, (.2.1 (.2.2 (.2.3 &&& Cur2es..............................................................2, Continuous Coolin! &rans*or"ation Cur2es............30 3**e$ts o* Alloys on &rans*or"ations........................30

(.3 (.4 (.( (.1 (.7

4or"alisin!...............................................................................31 5ull Annealin!...........................................................................31 %uen$hin! and &e"'erin!........................................................34 I"'ortan$e o* +rain Si-e...........................................................3( +rain Si-e eter"ination..........................................................37

1.

A o(ing......................................................................................................3, 1.1 Alloyin! 3le"ents in Steel.........................................................3, 1.1.1 1.1.2 1.1.3 1.1.4 1.2 Carbide 5or"ers......................................................40 Crystal +ro#th.........................................................41 Corrosion )esistan$e..............................................42 Stren!th...................................................................42

3**e$ts o* Alloyin! on Steel........................................................42 1.2.1 1.2.2 1.2.3 1.2.4 1.2.( 1.2.1 1.2.7 1.2.8 1.2., 1.2.10 1.2.11 Carbon.....................................................................42 Man!anese..............................................................42 Chro"iu"................................................................43 4i$0el.......................................................................43 Molybdenu"............................................................44 4iobiu"...................................................................44 6anadiu".................................................................4( Alu"iniu"................................................................4( Sul'hur....................................................................4( Phos'horus.............................................................41 Sili$on......................................................................47

1.3

Alloy Addition in Steel - Su""ary.............................................47

7.

Micro#tructure# in Stee Arc %e d#.........................................................4, 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 /eld Metal................................................................................4, .eat A**e$ted 7one...................................................................(1 /eldin! .eatin! Cy$le..............................................................(2 Carbon 38ui2alent.....................................................................(3

8.

Structure o) Ingot#....................................................................................(4 8.1 8.2 8.3 Pi'e...........................................................................................(4 Se!re!ation...............................................................................(( Steel &y'es...............................................................................(1 8.3.1 8.3.2 8.3.3 )i""in! Steel.........................................................(1 Se"i-0illed Steel......................................................(7 9illed Steel...............................................................(7

1. 1.1

INTRODUCTION Meta # Metals are $he"i$al ele"ents or alloys: #hi$h in !eneral exhibit the *ollo#in! 'ro'erties; +ood $ondu$ti2ity o* heat and ele$tri$ity )elati2ely hard: yet 'ossess 'ro'erties o* "alleability and du$tility Solid at nor"al te"'eratures - ex$e't Mer$ury .i!h densities <o# s'e$i*i$ heats )e*le$t li!ht and are !enerally #hite in $olour -ex$e't +old and Co''er i**i$ult to 'enetrate #ith =-rays Ma!neti$ to so"e de!ree but only Iron: 4i$0el and Cobalt are *erro "a!neti$

.o#e2er: it is the 'ro'erties o* stren!th: du$tility and tou!hness #hi$h di$tate their 'rin$i'al uses. All "etals ha2e a $rystalline stru$ture o* #hi$h there are three $o""on ty'es; *od(+centred cu!ic Face+centred cu!ic $e,agona c o#e+-ac&ed >ody-$entred $ubi$ - Iron ?*errite@ 6anadiu" &un!sten Chro"iu" 5a$e-$entred $ubi$ - Iron ?austenite@ Co''er Sil2er +old Alu"iniu" <ead 4i$0el Platinu" .exa!onal $lose 'a$0ed Ma!nesiu" &itaniu" 7in$ Cad"iu"

&he "ost e$ono"i$al 'a$0in! arran!e"ents *or the "etal ato"s are the hexa!onal $lose 'a$0ed and *a$e $entred $ubi$: *ollo#ed the body $entred $ubi$ stru$ture: #hi$h o$$u'ies a lar!er 2olu"e ?5i! 1@.

5i! 1 T'e t'ree Princi-a T(-e# o) Structure in .'ic' "eta ic e e"ent# cr(#ta i#e

5i! 2

/o u"e c'ange# in Iron .it' Te"-erature

5i! 3

T'e Ear ( Stage# in t'e Gro.t' o) a Meta ic Dendrite

&he i"'ortan$e o* di**erent 'a$0in! densities is illustrated by the *a$t that the "etal iron is allotro'i$: that is it ado'ts di**erent $rystal stru$tures a$$ordin! to its te"'erature. A' to a te"'erature o* ,10BC it has a body-$entred $ubi$ *or": *ro" ,10BC to 1400BC it is *a$e $entred $ubi$: and abo2e 1400BC it re2erts to body $entred $ubi$ until it "elts at about 1(3(BC. .eatin! the "etal #ill not only 'rodu$e an in$rease in 2olu"e by ther"al ex'ansion: but also: 2olu"e $han!es #ill be $aused by alterations in $rystal stru$ture. &he dia!ra" ?5i! 2@ de"onstrates the 2olu"e e**e$ts o* di**erent ato"i$ 'a$0in! arran!e"ents resultin! *ro" the allotro'i$ $han!es *ro" body $entred $ubi$ stru$ture to *a$e $entred $ubi$ stru$ture and ba$0 to body $entred $ubi$ stru$ture. /hen a "etal alloy solidi*ies: ea$h $rystal be!ins to *or" inde'endently *ro" a nu$leus or C$entre o* $rystallisationD. &he nu$leus #ill be a si"'le unit o* a''ro'riate $rystal latti$e: and *ro" this the $rystal #ill !ro#. It de2elo's by the addition o* ato"s a$$ordin! to the latti$e 'attern and ra'idly be!ins to assu"e 2isible 'ro'ortions in #hat is $alled a dendrite. ? endriti$-tree-li0e@. A "etalli$ $rystal !ro#s in this #ay be$ause heat is dissi'ated "ore 8ui$0ly *ro" a 'oint: leadin! to the *or"ation o* a rather elon!ated s0eleton ?5i! 3@. &he dendrite ar"s $ontinue to !ro# and "eet nei!hbourin! dendrites #hi$h #ill be orientated di**erently o#in! to their inde'endent *or"ationE that is: their latti$es #ill "eet at odd an!les. .en$e the inde'endent *or"ation o* ea$h $rystal leads to the irre!ular o2erall sha'e o* $rystals and to the $hara$teristi$ !rain stru$ture o* "etals #hen in the Cas $astD $ondition.

1.2

A o(# An alloy is essentially a "ixture o* t#o or "ore ele"ents: the 'rin$i'al $o"'onent bein! a "etalli$ ele"ent ?the F'arent "etalF or Fsol2entF@: so that the resultant "ixture exhibits "etalli$ 'ro'erties. A #ide 2ariety o* "e$hani$al and 'hysi$al 'ro'erties "ay be obtained by alloyin!: so that alloys: rather than 'ure "etals: are o* the !reatest i"'ortan$e *or en!ineerin!. I* the $onstituent "etalli$ ato"s are $he"i$ally si"ilar to one another: they #ill $rystallise as a sin!le set o* $rystals: sin$e all the ato"s #ill beha2e as i* they belon!ed to the sa"e s'e$ies. A sin!le-'hase #o id #o ution is then said to *or": and its "i$rostru$ture is o*ten indistin!uishable *ro" that o* a 'ure "etal. .o#e2er: there "ay be a tenden$y *or the ele"ents to $rystallise se'arately to *or" distin$t and di**erent $rystals Goined at "utual !rain boundaries. Su$h a stru$ture is an exa"'le o* a -'a#e "i,ture: #hi$h $an usually be distin!uished *ro" a sin!le-'hase solid by "etallo!ra'hi$ exa"ination. 4ote that this $ould in$lude the *or"ation o* an inter"etalli$ $o"'ound. &hese $o"'ounds are in the"sel2es o* little 'ra$ti$al 2alue: sin$e they tend to be hard and brittle: but they $an be i"'ortant as $onstituents o* alloy syste"s.

1.3

So id So ution# Initially #hen a solid solution is *or"ed the $rystal stru$ture is the sa"e as that o* the 'arent "etal - the ato"s o* the solute or alloyin! ele"ent are distributed throu!hout ea$h $rystal: and a ran!e o* $o"'osition is 'ossible. &he solution "ay be *or"ed in t#o #ays; ?a@ In #u!#titutiona #o id #o ution# the ato"s share a sin!le $o""on array o* ato"i$ sites ?5i! 4a@. In so"e syste"s the 'arent "etal #ill dissol2e any 'ro'ortion o* the solute and retain its ori!inal $rystal stru$ture. .o#e2er: in "any $ases there is a li"ited solubility and in order to a$$o""odate a lar!er 'ro'ortion o* the added alloyin! ele"ent a $han!e in the initial $rystal stru$ture be$o"es ne$essary to *or" a di**erent solid solution: that is: another 'hase. In this #ay t#o solid solutions "ay exist to!ether o2er a ran!e o* $o"'osition. ?b@ In inter#titia #o id #o ution# the ato"s o* the solute ele"ent are s"all enou!h to *it into the s'a$es bet#een the 'arent "etal ato"s: as illustrated ?5i! 4b@.

0a1

#u!#titutiona

0!1

inter#titia

5i! 4 T'e )or"ation o) #o id #o ution# >e$ause o* the ato" si-e li"itation: interstitial solid solutions are less $o""on than substitutional solutions: althou!h Car!on ato"s $an dissol2e in iron $rystals in this #ay in steel. Si"ilarly Nitrogen $an dissol2e in steel and this is the basis o* the 4itridin! sur*a$e hardenin! 'ro$ess. &he 2ery s"all ato"s o* $(drogen #ill dissol2e interstitially in *errous alloys: usually 'rodu$in! brittleness. 1.4 P'a#e Mi,ture# A 'hase: 'resent in an alloy as a se'arate entity: $an be 'ure "etal: a solid solution or an inter"etalli$ $o"'ound. Any "ixtures o* t#o or "ore o* these $an o$$ur. In binary syste"s: that is those o* t#o ele"ents: !enerally not "ore than t#o 'hases $an exist to!ether.

2.

E2UILI*RIUM DIAGRAMS &her"al e8uilibriu" ?also 0no#n as P'a#e or Con#titutiona @ dia!ra"s are o* !reat i"'ortan$e in "etallur!y *or #ith their aid it is 'ossible to deter"ine exa$tly the stru$ture o* a 'arti$ular alloy at any !i2en te"'erature: 'ro2ided the alloy has been allo#ed to rea$h a state o* e8uilibriu". &hus the 'hases 'resent: their 8uantities and the $he"i$al $o"'osition o* ea$h 'hase $an be sho#n #ith 're$ision. &he dia!ra"s are $onstru$ted 'rin$i'ally by ther"al analysis but also #ith "i$ros$o'i$ studies: the exa"ination o* 2olu"e $han!es: =-ray di**ra$tion and other te$hni8ues. 38uilibriu" $an be $onsidered as a state o* balan$e ulti"ately arri2ed at by the $o"'onents at the te"'erature o* the syste" $on$erned. .o#e2er: in so"e $ases su$h a state #ould ta0e a 2ery lon! ti"e to be rea$hed #hile in others it "ay ne2er be rea$hed at the te"'erature in 8uestion. 5or exa"'le: i* an alloy is ra'idly $ooled by 8uen$hin! to roo" te"'erature: $he"i$al and 'hysi$al $han!es "ay be su''ressed su$h that they #ill ne2er ta0e 'la$e unless the alloy is reheated to allo# the" to o$$ur. 6ery slo# $oolin! "ust then *ollo#.

345

Iron+Car!on Equi i!riu" Diagra" ?5i! (@ Steel "ay be de*ined as an alloy o* Iron and Carbon ?u' to about 1.7HC@. .ere it "ay be hel'*ul to re$all the allotro'i$ nature o* iron and that u' to ,10BC it has a body $entred $ubi$ $rystalline *or" 0no#n as al'ha Iron: *ro" ,10BC-1400BC a *a$e $entred $ubi$ stru$ture: !a""a Iron: re2ertin! to body $entred $ubi$ delta . Iron abo2e that te"'erature. &hese ter"s are "odi*ied in steel to Ferrite: Au#tenite and Ferrite. Ither 'hases in the e8uilibriu" stru$ture are Ce"entite the inter-"etalli$ $o"'ound 5e 3C: and: Pear ite a 'hase "ixture 0no#n as a 3ute$toid $onsistin! in this $ase o* alternate layers o* Ce"entite and 5errite. Pearlite $ontains about 0.83HC. 5errite and 5errite: the body $entred $ubi$ stru$tures dissol2e only 2ery s"all a"ounts o* $arbon; less than 0.01H at roo" te"'erature. &he *a$e $entred $ubi$ Austenite ho#e2er: is $a'able o* dissol2in! u' to nearly 2HC at 11(0BC althou!h this stru$ture #ill $han!e on rea$hin! the <o#er Criti$al &e"'erature 723BC belo# #hi$h the 3ute$toid rea$tion #ill be $o"'lete. ?5i! 1@

5i! (

T'e Iron+Car!on -'a#e diagra"

10

5i! 1

Part o) t'e Iron+Car!on T'er"a +equi i!riu" diagra"

4ote that the <o#er Criti$al &e"'erature 723BC belo# #hi$h all Austenite has been $on2erted to 5errite and Ce"entite is $o""only 0no#n as the A 1 te"'erature. &he te"'erature abo2e #hi$h the stru$ture #ill be #holly Austenite: the A''er Criti$al &e"'erature: is 0no#n as the A3 te"'erature. Also the te"'erature abo2e #hi$h the steel re2erts to a #holly body $entred $ubi$ *errite is 0no#n as the A4 te"'erature. 2.2 S o. ( Coo ed Structure# &he "ost i"'ortant rea$tion in steel is the de$o"'osition o* austenite on $oolin!. Consider the slo# $oolin! o* a steel o* 0.83HC $ontent ?i.e. o* the eutectoid $o"'osition@ ?5i! 7a@E at 723BC the stru$ture #ill trans*or" to an eute$toid "ixture $onsistin! o* alternate la"ellae or 'lates o* *errite and $e"entite. A steel o* hi!her $arbon $ontent ?0no#n as a F '(-er+eutectoidF steel@ ?5i! 7b@: 1.20HC: #ill re"ain austeniti$ do#n to the te"'erature around: say: 870BC at #hi$h the #o 6u# ine is $rossed: so that 5e3C #ill start to be 're$i'itated at the austenite !rain boundaries. Continued $oolin! and 're$i'itation o* $e"entite 5e 3C #ill redu$e the $arbon $ontent o* the austenite until it rea$hes that o* the eute$toid 0.83HC. /hen the te"'erature *alls to belo# 723BC: this residual austenite #ill trans*or" to 'earlite: and the *inal "i$rostru$ture #ill be $e"entite 'lus 'earlite. A lo#er $arbon steel ?i.e. a F '(-oeutectoid #tee @ o* 0.4HC ?5i! 7$@ #ill be!in to trans*or" #hen the te"'erature *alls belo# the sol2us line by the 're$i'itation o* *errite at the austenite !rain boundaries. 11

Continued $oolin! and 're$i'itation o* *errite #ill in$rease the $arbon $ontent o* the austenite until it rea$hes that o* the eute$toid 0.83HC. At 723BC this re"ainin! austenite #ill trans*or" to 'earlite resultin! in a *inal stru$ture o* *errite 'lus 'earlite. 2.3 2uenc'ed Structure# &he 're2ious "i$rostru$tures *or" in 'lain $arbon steels #hi$h ha2e been "oderately slo#ly $ooled ?e.!. by $oolin! in air@ *ro" te"'eratures #ithin the austeniti$ 'hase *ield: say *ro" (0BC abo2e the lo#er boundary line C3 . &his is $alled a Fnor"a i#ingF heat treat"ent: but "ediu" and hi!h-$arbon steels are 2ery $o""only subGe$ted to "ore $o"'lex treat"ents in order *ully to ex'loit their 'ro'erties. &hese treat"ents in2ol2e: *irst: heatin! the alloy into the austenite 'hase *ield: as be*ore: but then 8uen$hin! it in #ater or brine #hi$h su''resses di**usion and thus the *or"ation o* *errite and $e"entite. Ander these $onditions the austenite trans*or"s by a 'ro$ess not in2ol2in! di**usion into a "etastable distorted *or" o* body-$entred iron 0no#n as FMarten#iteF ?5i! 7d@. &his 'ro$ess is extre"ely ra'id and the trans*or"ation "ay be $o"'leted in a *e# "i$rose$onds.

5i! 7a

Structure o) Eutectoid Stee 05777X1 0Pear ite1

5i! 7b

Structure o) $(-ereutectoid Stee 05777X1

12

5i! 7$

Structure o) $(-oeutectoid Stee 05777X1

5i! 7d

Marten#ite 03777X1

All the $arbon ori!inally dissol2ed in the Austenite at hi!h te"'erature re"ains a*ter 8uen$hin! in interstitial solution in the Martensite $rystals. &his has the e**e$t o* distortin! the latti$e *ro" $ubi$ to tetra!onal sy""etry. &his latti$e distortion by the dissol2ed $arbon has the e))ect o) 'ardening t'e #tructure and the resultin! steels #ill not only be hard but brittle: *or #hi$h there is little 'ra$ti$al a''li$ation. A se$ond heat treat"ent $alled te"-ering is there*ore re8uired and this #ill redu$e hardness and brittleness. I* Martensiti$ steel is reheated to the te"'erature ran!e 200-100BC ?belo# the Austenite *or"in! te"'erature@ it ra'idly de$o"'oses to *or" body $entred $ubi$ *errite and 'arti$les o* Ce"entite. &his stru$ture is on an extre"ely *ine s$ale: the si-e o* the $arbide 'arti$les bein! de'endent on the ti"e and te"'erature o* the treat"ent. &he hi!her the te"'erature and the lon!er the ti"e: the so*ter and less brittle the 'rodu$t.

13

2.4

Critica Te"-erature# &here has been re*eren$e to the A1 lo#er $riti$al te"'erature: the A3 u''er $riti$al te"'erature and the A4 te"'erature abo2e #hi$h austenite re2erts to *errite. 3xa"ination o* the Iron-Carbon e8uilibriu" dia!ra" sho#s that the latter $han!e #ill not o$$ur #hen the $arbon $ontent a''roa$hes and ex$eeds 0.(HC. In su$h $ases li8uid steel #ill solidi*y dire$tly to austenite. Con$ern "ay be *elt re!ardin! the non-a''earan$e o* an A 2 te"'erature and also the absen$e o* a beta 'hase in the e8uilibriu" dia!ra". Iri!inally the desi!nation A2 #as !i2en to the te"'erature 71,BC: the Curie 'oint: at #hi$h iron $eases to be "a!neti$: a *a$t that #as ex'e$ted to be a$$o"'anied by a 'hase $han!e. &his 'ro2ed not to be the $ase and the A2 has no stru$tural si!ni*i$an$e. It $annot be e"'hasised too stron!ly that the stru$tural $han!es in the dia!ra" and the te"'eratures at #hi$h they o$$ur re*er to $onditions o* e8uilibriu". In 'ra$ti$e it is *ound that: on heatin!: it is ne$essary to ex$eed the e8uilibriu" te"'eratures to a$hie2e the ex'e$ted stru$tural $han!es. Su$h te"'eratures #ould nor"ally be about (0BC abo2e the A 1 and A3 and $an be deter"ined #ith reasonable a$$ura$y *or 'arti$ular $onditions o* heatin!. .ere the lo#er $riti$al 'oint is ter"ed the Ac5 and the u''er $riti$al 'oint the Ac8 te"'erature. &he su**ix C has been deri2ed *ro" the 5ren$h C$hau**a!eD "eanin! heatin!. In a si"ilar #ay it "ay be ex'e$ted that on $oolin! it is ne$essary to rea$h te"'eratures lo#er than those o* the e8uilibriu" dia!ra" to obtain the a''ro'riate stru$tural $han!es. &hus: *or exa"'le: in hot rollin! o'erations: #hi$h are a$$o"'anied by $ontinuous $oolin!: te"'eratures o* 100-1(0BC belo# e8uilibriu" be$o"e ne$essary *or the ex'e$ted stru$tural $han!es. In su$h $ases AR5 and AR8 te"'eratures are re*erred to: the su**ix ) a!ain bein! 5ren$h: deri2ed *ro" C)e*roidisse"entD: $oolin!. T'e E))ect o) $eating Rate# on Lo.er and U--er Critica Te"-erature# Steel AISI 104( ?0.4(HC@ 38uilibriu" &e"'erature Ac5 Ac8 723 770 .3A&I4+ )A&3S BCJS3C 5)IM 700-1000BC 3 780 820 30 7,0 830 300 800 810 1400 840 ,3(

14

3.

$OT AND COLD %OR9ING In a 'ro$ess su$h as rollin!: the $rystals "a0in! u' a "etal are de*or"ed in the dire$tion o* rollin!. I* the te"'erature o* the o'eration is su$h that the de*or"ation is a$$o"'anied by si"ultaneous re$rystallisation the 'ro$ess is $ot %or&ing. .ere relati2ely "inor du$tility $han!es $an be ex'e$ted and these $an be attributed lar!ely to i"'ro2ed $rystal stru$tures and better dis'ersion o* non-"etalli$ in$lusions. In the other hand i* there is no re$rystallisation and the $rystals be$o"e 'ro!ressi2ely "ore de*or"ed on #or0in! then the 'ro$ess is Co d %or&ing. In this $ase "aGor 'ro'erty $han!es arise #ith a loss o* du$tility and "ar0ed in$reases in hardness and stren!th. A co d+.or&ed "eta is in a state o* $onsiderable "e$hani$al stress: resultin! *ro" elasti$ strains internally balan$ed. &hese elasti$ strains are lar!ely due to inho"o!eneous de*or"ation ha2in! ta0en 'la$e durin! $old#or0in!. I* the "etal is heated to a su**i$iently hi!h te"'erature the strains #ill be re"o2edE at the sa"e ti"e the tensile stren!th and hardness o* the "etal #ill *all to a''roxi"ately their ori!inal 2alues and the $a'a$ity *or $old#or0 return. &his *or" o* heat-treat"ent is 0no#n as annea ing: and is e"'loyed #hen the "etal is re8uired *or use in a so*t but tou!h state or: alternati2ely: #hen it is to under!o *urther $old de*or"ation. Annealin! ta0es 'la$e in three sta!es as *ollo#s;

3.1

Stage 5 + Stre## Re ie) &his o$$urs at relati2ely lo# te"'eratures at #hi$h dislo$ations are able to "o2e to e8uilibriu" 'ositions in the $rystal latti$e ?see .eat treat"ent se$tion *or an ex'lanation o* dislo$ations@. Su$h s"all "o2e"ents $an redu$e internal "e$hani$al stress #ithout: ho#e2er: 'rodu$in! any 2isible alteration in the distorted sha'e o* the $old-#or0ed $rystals. Moreo2er: hardness and tensile stren!th #ill re"ain at the hi!h 2alue 'rodu$ed by $old-#or0 and "ay e2en in$rease.

3.2

Stage II + Recr(#ta i#ation As "entioned 're2iously: a lo#-te"'erature anneal to relie2e internal stress "ay so"eti"es be used: but !enerally annealin! in2ol2es a de*inite and obser2able alteration in the $rystal stru$ture o* the "etal. I* the annealin! te"'erature is in$reased a 'oint is rea$hed #hen ne# $rystals be!in to !ro# *ro" nu$lei 'rodu$ed in the de*or"ed "etal. &hese nu$lei are *or"ed at 'oints o* hi!h ener!y: su$h as $rystal boundaries. &he $rystals so *or"ed are at *irst s"all: but !ro# !radually until they absorb the entire distorted stru$ture 'rodu$ed ori!inally by $old-#or0. &he ne# $rystals are e8ui-axed in *or": that is: they do not sho# any dire$tional elon!ation: as did the distorted $old#or0ed $rystals #hi$h they re'la$e. &his 'heno"enon is 0no#n as recr(#ta i#ation: and it is a "ethod e"'loyed: in $onGun$tion #ith $old-#or0: o* $ourse: to 'rodu$e a *ine-!rained stru$ture in non-*errous "etals and alloys. Inly in so"e $ases - notably in

15

steels and alu"iniu" bron-e: #here $ertain stru$tural $han!es ta0e 'la$e in the solid state - is it 'ossible to re*ine the !rain si-e by heat-treat"ent alone. 3.3 Stage III + Grain Gro.t' &he te"'erature at #hi$h re$rystallisation #ill ta0e 'la$e is $alled the re$rystallisation te"'erature and i* the annealin! te"'erature is abo2e this: the $rystals #ill $ontinue to !ro# until the stru$ture is relati2ely $oarse !rained. &he a"ount o* !rain !ro#th is !o2erned to a lar!e extent by the annealin! te"'erature: the duration o* annealin! and the de!ree o* 're2ious $old-#or0. A hi!h annealin! te"'erature or a lon! annealin! ti"e #ill en$oura!e !rain !ro#th. .ea2y de*or"ation #ill lead to a s"all !rain si-e: li!ht de*or"ation #ill !i2e rise to a lar!er !rain si-e on annealin! sin$e there #ill be *e#er nu$lei *or $rystal !ro#th.

16

4.

$ARDNESS AND STRENGT$ Althou!h hardness is a 'ro'erty di**i$ult to des$ribe 're$isely: tests ha2e been de2ised #hi$h are 8ui$0 and easy to a''ly. Su$h tests are nondestru$ti2e: unli0e tensile and i"'a$t deter"inations: and they are there*ore attra$ti2e "eans o* assessin! the "e$hani$al 'ro'erties o* "etals. In 'ra$ti$e: routine hardness tests on "anu*a$tured 'arts #ill be a''lied o2er li"ited 'ro'erty ran!es and reliable $orrelations bet#een hardness: ulti"ate tensile stren!th: yield stren!th: elon!ation and redu$tion o* area $an be established. As su$h they #ill 'ro2ide ex$ellent !uides to the a$$e'tability o* the ite"s $on$erned ?and 'ossibly their $he"i$al $o"'ositions@: the suitability o* the "anu*a$turin! 'ro$esses and heat treat"ent to #hi$h they ha2e been subGe$ted. In$reases in hardness 2alues ?#hi$h results *ro" an in$rease in C $ontent@ #ill usually be asso$iated #ith in$reases in ulti"ate tensile and yield stren!th: but there #ill be redu$tions in du$tility ?elon!ation@ ex'ressed as redu$tion o* area and elon!ation ?5i! 8@. 4ote that an in$rease in C $ontent #ill also be a$$o"'anied by a redu$tion in i"'a$t ?Char'y@ tou!hness.

5i! 8 Diagra" #'o.ing t'e Re ation#'i- !et.een Car!on Content: Mec'anica Pro-ertie#: Micro#tructure and U#e# o) P ain Car!on Stee # in t'e Nor"a i#ed Condition

17

4.1

In) uence o) Grain Si;e on $ardne## Asually in "etals a s"aller !rain si-e #ill lead to so"e in$rease in hardness and tensile stren!th. &his stren!thenin! e**e$t is due not only to the $o"'lex interse$tin! sli' 'ro$ess in the 2arious !rains but also to the !rain boundaries #hi$h are the"sel2es obsta$les to the "o2e"ent o* sli' 'lanes #hi$h there*ore $annot 'ro'a!ate *reely *ro" !rain to !rain. In stru$tural steels: 'ro$essin! *or o'ti"u" 'ro'erties is ai"ed at 'rodu$in! 2ery s"all si-ed relati2ely so*t !rains. In this #ay Kield Stren!th is enhan$ed and the I"'a$t 'ro'erties "ar0edly i"'ro2ed es'e$ially at lo# te"'eratures.

4.2

T'e E))ect# o) Structura C'ange# on t'e $ardne## o) Stee # It "ust be e"'hasised that in steels the "ost 'ro*ound $han!es in "e$hani$al 'ro'erties o$$ur as a result o* $han!es in "i$rostru$ture. &hese are illustrated in the table belo# relatin! to the di**erent stru$tures obtained in a 'lain $arbon eute$toid steel ?0.83H@ #hi$h has been subGe$ted to isother"al trans*or"ations. ?See later se$tion@. Structure<$ardne## $ARDNESS STRUCTURE *$N Coarse 'earlite 5ine 'earlite 5eathery bainite ?u''er@ A$i$ular bainite ?lo#er@ >ainite L Martensite Martensite 170 2,3 388 401 41( ((( (78 101 182 $ARDNESS ROC9%ELL C ( 31 41 42 44 (1 (8 10 11 TEMPERATURE OF TRANSFORMATION = C 720 110 (80 (00 400 280 230 17( )&

18

4.3

$ardena!i it( .ardenability is a "easure o* the de'th a steel #ill harden on 8uen$hin!. &he uni*or" ra'id $oolin! o* a hea2y steel se$tion is i"'ossible e2en #ith drasti$ 8uen$hin!. Su$h a se$tion #ill not harden $o"'letely to its $ore #hereas a thin se$tion #ould be #holly "artensiti$. &his di**i$ulty $an ho#e2er be o2er$o"e by the addition to the steel o* alloyin! ele"ents #hi$h #ill in !eneral in$rease the ti"e a2ailable to be!in and $o"'lete trans*or"ation. &hus a "artensiti$ stru$ture be$o"es 'ossible #ith the lo#er $oolin! rates *ound in hea2ier se$tions. &his is one o* the "ost i"'ortant *un$tions o* alloyin! and to ensure the $orre$t a''li$ation o* su$h steels: *ro" both the te$hni$al and e$ono"i$ as'e$ts: so"e "easure o* hardenability be$o"es ne$essary. &o deter"ine this: tests ha2e been de2ised to esti"ate the "axi"u" dia"eter at #hi$h the re8uired stru$tures $an be 'rodu$ed by 8uen$hin!. I* this dia"eter is ex$eeded: hardenin! at the $ore #ill be in$o"'lete resultin! in non-uni*or" 'ro'erties. &he Mo"iny end-8uen$h test ?5i! ,@ is #idely used in e2aluatin! the hardenability o* steel. .ere a standard test 'ie$e is heated to its austeniti$ re!ion: dro''ed into a *ra"e and 8uen$hed: at one end only: by a "easured Get o* #ater at 2(BC. &hus di**erent rates o* $oolin! are obtained alon! the len!th o* the bar and the resultin! hardness 2alues $an be deter"ined. &he dra#in!s illustrate the test and the !ra'hs sho# ty'i$al hardness 2alues *ro" the tests o* three steels o* di**erin! $o"'ositions ?5i! 10@. It #ill be noted that the de'th o* hardenin! in$reases "ar0edly #ith !ro#in! alloy $ontent e2en thou!h the 'ro'ortion o* $arbon at 0.4(H is the sa"e in ea$h $ase. Asin! the Mo"iny test results as a basis it is 'ossible: *or a 'arti$ular steel: to $al$ulate a "axi"u" dia"eter at #hi$h uni*or" 'ro'erties $an be obtained. Su$h a "easure is 0no#n as the ideal dia"eter or rulin! se$tion. &he ideal dia"eter here re'resents the se$tion at #hi$h a stru$ture o* (0H "artensite is a$hie2ed.

19

?A@

T'e #tandard )or" o) te#t -iece u#ed

?>@

Diagra""atic re-re#entation o) t'e a--aratu# u#ed in t'e te#t

5i! ,

T'e >o"in( End+2uenc' Te#t

20

5i! 10 T'e De-t' o) $ardening o) T'ree Di))erent Stee # a# indicated !( t'e >o"in( Te#t

21

(. (.1

$EAT TREATMENT $ardening Mec'ani#"# It has been $al$ulated that the theoreti$al stren!ths o* 'ure "etals should be "u$h !reater than those obser2ed. &hese di**eren$es ha2e been $on2in$in!ly ex'lained by Cdi# ocation t'eor(D. &his theory has been li0ened to a situation #here one $ar'et lyin! on to' o* another is 2ery di**i$ult to "o2e by 'ullin! at one end. .o#e2er a ru$0 in the u''er $ar'et #ill "o2e a$ross it 2ery easily. &his ru$0 re'resents the dislo$ation "o2in! bet#een sli' 'lanes in a "etal !i2in! rise to 'lasti$ de*or"ation: #hi$h other#ise $ould not o$$ur. Cal$ulations $on*ir" that the stress re8uired to "a0e the dislo$ation lines "o2e is in !ood a!ree"ent #ith the "easured yield stress so that su$h *aults $an a$$ount *or the #ea0ness o* "etals. &he dislo$ation lines *inish only #hen they rea$h a "etal sur*a$e or !rain boundary. I* dislo$ation "otion is i"'eded: *or exa"'le by intera$tion #ith other dislo$ations: there #ill usually be an in$rease in hardness and stren!th. It should be e"'hasised that dislo$ation theory is "u$h "ore $o"'lex than this !rossly o2er-si"'li*ied 2ersion ?5i! 11@.

5i! 11 (.1.1

T'e Mo6e"ent o) a Di# ocation During S i-

So id So ution $ardening &he "ost $o""on reason *or alloyin! is to in$rease the yield stren!th o* a "etal. &his re8uires the "o2e"ent o* dislo$ations to be i"'eded by "a0in! alterations to the stru$ture on an ato"i$ s$ale. &he e**e$ti2eness o* *orei!n ato"s as barriers to the "o2e"ent o* dislo$ations de'ends *irst u'on the si-e di**eren$e bet#een the solute ato"s and those o* the 'arent "etal and se$ond u'on the 'ro'ortion o* *orei!n ato"s 'resent in the $rystal. 3lasti$ strain *ields #ill be set u' around the "is*ittin! ato"s "a0in! dislo$ation "otion "ore di**i$ult. Inter#titia #o ute ato"s su$h as $arbon and nitro!en in body $entred $ubi$ $rystals 'ro2ide an i"'ortant exa"'le o* solute hardenin! alloys. &hus $arbon or nitro!en dissol2ed in iron 'rodu$es a lo$al strain #hi$h $auses a 22

2ery stee' rise in yield stren!th #ith in$reasin! solute. I* only a 2ery s"all 8uantity o* su$h a solute is 'resent one e**e$t o* this hi!h lo$al strain is that the solute ele"ent #ill tend to "i!rate to the s'a$e 'ro2ided alon! the dislo$ations 'resent rather than bein! uni*or"ly distributed in solution in ea$h $rystal. &his has the e**e$t o* C-inningD ?holdin!@ the dislo$ations in 'la$e: a 'heno"enon #hi$h is re2ealed by the 'resen$e o* a Kield Point #hen 'lasti$ *lo# sets in durin! a tensile test. Su!#titutiona solute addition is the $o""onest #ay o* solution-hardenin! a "etal. >rass ?$o''er--in$@ and bron-e ?$o''er-tin@ are t#o *a"iliar "aterials #hi$h "a0e use o* this hardenin! e**e$t. (.1.2 Preci-itation $ardening &her"al treat"ent $an be used to $ontrol the si-e and distribution o* se$ond 'hase 'arti$les in any alloy #hi$h under!oes a 'hase trans*or"ation in the solid state. Alloy syste"s #hi$h ha2e a 'hase dia!ra" sho#in! a de$reasin! solid solubility li"it #ith de$reasin! te"'erature are 'arti$ularly a''ro'riate *or su$h treat"ents and 'arti$les o* the se$ond 'hase $an o*ten be "ade to 're$i'itate in a 2ery *inely dis'ersed *or". In 5i!ure 12: an alloy C exists as a sin!le 'hase solid solution ?@ at hi!h te"'eratures but on slo# $oolin! it be$o"es su'ersaturated #ith res'e$t to the se$ond 'hase: #hi$h there*ore se'arates out. &he distribution o* the 'hase "ay be $ontrolled as *ollo#s. &he alloy is *irst solution heat-treated at the hi!h te"'erature and then ra'idly $ooled by 8uen$hin! into #ater or other $oolin! *luid. Solid-state di**usion is su''ressed in this #ay: so that the 'hase $annot se'arate and the alloy exists at the lo# te"'erature in an unstable su'ersaturated state. I* the te"'erature is no# in$reased: so that di**usion $an ta0e 'la$e at a "easurable rate: the se$ond 'hase #ill nu$leate and !ro#. In alloys o* relati2ely lo# "eltin!-'oint: there #ill be an a''re$iable di**usion rate o* solute ato"s at roo" te"'erature: so that o2er a su**i$ient len!th o* ti"e: the se$ond 'hase #ill 're$i'itate out. &his e**e$t is 0no#n as FageingF: but in "ost alloys the te"'erature has to be raised in order to $ause 're$i'itation to o$$ur and the "aterial is said to be F arti)icia ( agedF. &he rate o* !ro#th o* the 're$i'itate is $ontrolled by the rate o* ato"i$ di**usion: so that the 're$i'itation in$reases #ith in$reasin! a!ein! te"'erature. &he si-e o* the 're$i'itate be$o"es $oarser as the a!ein! te"'erature is in$reased: as sho#n s$he"ati$ally in 5i! 12. I*: at any te"'erature: the ti"e o* heat treat"ent is 2ery 'rolon!ed: $oa!ulation or $oarsenin! o* the 'arti$les o$$ursE the s"all ones tend to redissol2e and the lar!e ones to !ro# at their ex'ense. Preci-itation 'ardening is the ter" no# used to des$ribe a!ein!. Must as heatin! #ill a$$elerate 're$i'itation hardenin!: re*ri!eration #ill i"'ede the 'ro$ess. 23

5i! 12

/ariation o) -reci-itate #i;e .it' ageing te"-erature

24

(.1.3

%or& $ardening I#in! to the intera$tion o* dislo$ations #ithin the !rains: 'lasti$ de*or"ation #ill 'ro!ressi2ely harden a "etal. &he dislo$ations #ill "ulti'ly #ith strain and their density #ill $ontinually rise #ith in$reasin! de*or"ation and thus the nu"ber o* intera$tions 'er unit 2olu"e #ill rise as the strain $ontinues. /hen a 'oly$rystalline "etal is stressed: ea$h !rain is de*or"ed into a sha'e that is di$tated by the de*or"ation o* its nei!hbours #hi$h re8uires the o'eration o* se2eral sli' syste"s. &he *ollo#in! !ra'hs !i2en in 5i!s 13: 14 and 1( sho# the e**e$ts o* $old #or0 on "e$hani$al 'ro'erties. Alti"ate tensile stren!th $an be in$reased by u' to 1040 4J""2 by redu$in! the $ross-se$tion by $old #or0in! by ,0H. A redu$tion in $ross-se$tion by 10H #ill redu$e 'er$enta!e elon!ation *ro" about 30H to 4H. &herea*ter there #ill be little de$rease to about 2H.

5i! 13 Stre##+#train cur6e# )or "eta #u!#equent to 6ar(ing degree# o) -rior co d+.or&ing4 It .i !e o!#er6ed t'at co d .or&ing !ring# a!out an increa#e in ten#i e and (ie d #trengt'# and a decrea#e in e ongation -rior to )racture4

25

5i! 14 E))ect o) co d de)or"ation on t'e #trengt' and 'ardne## o) "eta 4 It .i !e #een t'at t'e #-read !et.een t'e (ie d #trengt' and ten#i e #trengt' cur6e# !eco"e# e## .it' greater a"ount# o) de)or"ation and a con#equent reduction in ducti it(4

5i! 1( Stre##+#train cur6e# )or "eta #u!#equent to 6ar(ing degree# o) -rior co d+.or&ing4 It .i !e o!#er6ed t'at co d .or&ing !ring# a!out an increa#e in ten#i e and (ie d #trengt'# and a decrea#e in e ongation -rior to )racture4

26

+ain in A&S ?4J""2@ H )edu$tion in Cross-Se$tion 30 (0 80 0.20HC 140 280 4(0 0.80HC 200 3(0 700

(.1.4

Strain Ageing Strain a!ein! is obser2ed #hen lo# $arbon steel has been subGe$ted to a s"all a"ount o* de*or"ation and then allo#ed to a!e *or a 'eriod. &his results in an in$rease in hardness and stren!th #ith redu$ed du$tility and a drasti$ redu$tion o* tou!hness as "easured by i"'a$t tests. 32en less than 1H $old redu$tion $an 'rodu$e su$h a!ein! #hi$h $an be attributed lar!ely to the "o2e"ent o* nitro!en ato"s in the steel to sites #hi$h allo# dislo$ations to be 'inned in 'la$e. &he "axi"u" e**e$t is #ith about 1(H redu$tion. Su$h a!ein! 'ro$eeds 2ery slo#ly at roo" te"'eratures and "ay ta0e se2eral "onths to rea$h a 'ea0. &e"'erature in$reases #ill ho#e2er ra'idly in$rease the rate o* hardenin! and at 300BC this #ill rea$h the "axi"u" 2alue in a *e# se$onds.

(.2

I#ot'er"a Tran#)or"ation# So *ar $onsideration has been !i2en to 2ery slo# $oolin!: #hen $onditions #ill a''roa$h e8uilibriu": or 2ery *ast $oolin! to a"bient te"'eratures. 6ariations in $oolin! rates bet#een these extre"es are 'ossible and the results $an be sho#n in isother"al trans*or"ation $ur2es: also 0no#n as S $ur2es: or ti"e-te"'erature-trans*or"ation ?&&&@ $ur2es. &hese are $onstru$ted by ta0in! a nu"ber o* s'e$i"ens o* the steel in 8uestion: heatin! the" into the austeniti$ ran!e and then 8uen$hin! the" in baths o* di**erent te"'eratures. At 'redeter"ined ti"e inter2als indi2idual s'e$i"ens are ta0en *ro" their baths and 8uen$hed in #ater. &hey are then exa"ined "i$ros$o'i$ally to e2aluate the extent o* the trans*or"ation that has o$$urred.

(.2.1

TTT Cur6e# )or Stee 5i!ure 11 sho#s &&& Cur2es *or a eute$toid 'lain $arbon steel i.e. 0.83HC. 5irst to be noted is the hori-ontal bro0en line at 723BC #hi$h is the te"'erature abo2e #hi$h a eute$toid steel #ill be #holly stable austenite. >elo# this line the austenite is unstable and the t#o C sha'ed $ur2es indi$ate the ti"es ne$essary *or the trans*or"ation o* this austenite to *errite 'lus $e"entite to be!in and !o to $o"'letion *ollo#in! 8uen$hin! to a 'arti$ular te"'erature. &he hori-ontal lines at the *oot o* the &&& dia!ra": stri$tly s'ea0in!: are not 'art o* the &&& $ur2es but re'resent the te"'eratures at #hi$h the *or"ation o* "artensite #ill be!in MS: and end M5: durin! the $oolin! o* unstable austenite throu!h this ran!e. Anli0e the *or"ation o* 'earlite and bainite the trans*or"ation o* unstable austenite to "artensite is not de'endent on ti"e as

27

it o$$urs al"ost instantly. &he de!ree to #hi$h this $han!e ta0es 'la$e is deter"ined si"'ly by the te"'erature to #hi$h the steel is $ooled. In$e a trans*or"ation has !one to $o"'letion a steel #ill usually be #ater 8uen$hed #ith no *urther $han!e in its $onstitution.

5i! 11 Ti"e + Te"-erature + Tran#)or"ation 0TTT1 Cur6e# )or a P ain Car!on Stee o) Eutectoid Co"-o#ition (.2.2 Continuou# Coo ing Tran#)or"ation Cur6e# &he &&& $ur2es indi$ate stru$tures #hi$h are 'rodu$ed by trans*or"ations #hi$h ta0e 'la$e at a *ixed te"'erature and s'e$i*y a !i2en Cin$ubationD 'eriod be*ore the trans*or"ation be!ins. It is i"'ortant to realise that there $an be no dire$t $onne$tion bet#een su$h isother"al trans*or"ations and those #hi$h ta0e 'la$e under $ontinuous $oolin! at a $onstant rate *ro" 723BC to roo" te"'erature. &here*ore it is not 'ossible to su'er-i"'ose $ur2es #hi$h re'resent $ontinuous $oolin! onto a &&& dia!ra". .o#e2er: "odi*ied &&& $ur2es #hi$h are related to $ontinuous $oolin! $an be 'rodu$ed. &hey are o* a si"ilar sha'e to the &&& $ur2es but are dis'la$ed to the ri!ht.

28

(.2.3

T'e E))ect# o) A o( Addition# on I#ot'er"a Tran#)or"ation# /ith the ex$e'tion o* the "etal $obalt: all alloy additions to steel #ill in$rease both the in$ubation 'eriod and the ti"e ne$essary *or trans*or"ations at s'e$i*i$ te"'eratures. In e**e$t this #ill in$rease hardenability. &hese $han!es are illustrated in the atta$hed series o* &&& dia!ra"s ?5i! 17@. It should be noted that alterations in $o"'osition #ill be a$$o"'anied by 2ariations in the te"'eratures A1: A3 and A4 and also those o* MS and M5. Attention is dra#n to the *a$t that the dia!ra"s are based on a lo!arith"i$ s$ale so that e2en a''arently "inor "o2e"ents o* the &&& $ur2es to the ri!ht #ill result in "aGor in$reases in in$ubation and trans*or"ation 'eriods. &hese #ill be re*le$ted in the $ontinuous $oolin! trans*or"ation dia!ra"s a''ro'riate to these alloys.

(.3

Nor"a i#ing &he 'ro$ess re*ers only to steel and $onsists o* heatin! the "etal to a te"'erature about (0BC abo2e its A''er Criti$al Point ?A$3 te"'erature@ or austenitisin! te"'erature and ha2in! !i2en ade8uate ti"e *or *ull $on2ersion to Austenite allo#in! it to $ool in Cstill airD. In heatin!: the $han!e *ro" body $entred to *a$e $entred $ubi$ stru$ture #ill result in s"all austenite $rystals #hose si-es #ill deter"ine those o* the body $entred $ubi$ $rystals *or"ed on $oolin!. &he 'ro$ess is there*ore i"'ortant in 'rodu$in! a re*ined !rain si-e. I* too hi!h a te"'erature is e"'loyed: !rain !ro#th o* the austenite #ill o$$ur #hi$h #ill be re*le$ted in the *inal $ooled stru$ture.

(.4

Fu Annea ing &his 'ro$ess is also a''li$able only to steel and $onsists o* heatin! the "aterial to the a''ro'riate nor"alisin! te"'erature and then $oolin! it 2ery slo#ly ?5i! 18@: usually in the *urna$e. &he resultin! stru$ture: as #ith nor"alised steel: #ill $onsist o* *errite or $e"entite #ith !rains o* 'earlite but *ull annealed steel #ill be ex'e$ted to ha2e a so"e#hat lar!er !rain si-e. More i"'ortant is the e**e$t o* slo# $oolin! on the stru$ture o* 'earlite and this #ill be$o"e "ore $oarsely la"ellar #ith de$reasin! $oolin! rate #hi$h "ay e2en lead to 2ery $oarse la"ellae ballin! u' into $oales$ed 'arti$les o* $e"entite in a !round"ass o* *errite. Steel subGe$ted to *ull annealin! treat"ent #ill ha2e lo#er tensile stren!th: i"'a$t stren!th and yield 'oint but hi!her elon!ation 2alues than those o* nor"alised steel.

29

5i! 17 TTT+cur6e# )or a o( #tee # 0a)ter US Stee Cor-1

30

5i! 18 ?A@ ?>@ ?C@ ? @ Nor"a i#ed Fu ( Annea ed %ater+quenc'ed %ater+quenc'ed and te"-ered

31

(.(

2uenc'ing and Te"-ering I* a 'lain $arbon steel is su**i$iently ra'idly $ooled *ro" abo2e its u''er $riti$al te"'erature: i.e. #ithin the #holly austeniti$ area: "artensite #ill be *or"ed. &his 'hase be$o"es harder and "ore brittle as the $arbon $ontent in$reases u' to the eute$toid 2alue: 0.83HC. &he hardness so attained #ill 2ary so"e#hat #ith the rate o* $oolin!. &he u''er set o* 2alues sho#n in 5i! 1, are the result o* ra'id $oolin! #hile those belo# are o* a2era!e rates.

5i! 1, T'e e))ect o) car!on content on 'ardne## o) "arten#ite I$$asionally su$h hi!h "artensiti$ hardnesses are use*ul *or a''li$ations re8uirin! !ood #ear resistan$e but "ore o*ten they are the essential startin! 'oints *or te"'ered stru$tures. &hus a steel "ay be hardened by heatin! it to 30-(0 de!rees C abo2e its u''er $riti$al te"'erature and 8uen$hin! it in so"e "ediu" to 'rodu$e the desired rate o* $oolin!. In this $ondition: a tool steel *or exa"'le: #ill be hard and brittle and so"e treat"ent to relie2e internal stresses and to redu$e brittleness is needed. &e"'erin! #ill $ause "artensite to trans*or" and the hi!her the te"'erature the nearer #ill the stru$ture re2ert to the stable 'earliti$ ty'e a''ro'riate to that te"'erature. &e"'erin! is al#ays $arried out belo# the lo#er $riti$al le2el and #hen the desired te"'erature is rea$hed "ay be *ollo#ed by an i""ediate #ater 8uen$h: i* the alloy is sus$e'tible to te"'er e"brittle"ent. )ate o* $oolin! *ro" the te"'erin! te"'erature has little other e**e$t. A' to 200BC te"'erin! #ill 'ro2ide only so"e stress relie* but *ro" 230400BC the "artensite #ill $han!e to *or" a ne# $onstituent $onsistin! o* a 2ery *inely dis'ersed !ranular "ixture o* *errite and $e"entite. &his 'hase is "u$h tou!her than "artensite and so"e#hat so*ter and less brittle. &ou!hness "ay be de*ined as the resistan$e to *ra$ture by i"'a$t. In$reasin! te"'erin! te"'eratures $auses $oales$en$e o* the $e"entite 'arti$les until at about 400BC they be$o"e 2isible at "a!ni*i$ations o* about 32

(00 ti"es. Subse8uent in$reases o* te"'erin! te"'erature to abo2e ((0BC #ill $ause stren!th to *all a#ay #ith no rise in du$tility. &he i"'ortan$e o* the *a$t that steels $an be heat treated to !i2e "ar0ed $han!es in 'ro'erties $annot be o2er-e"'hasised. &hus it is 'ossible by $orre$t treat"ent to 'rodu$e a relati2ely so*t and du$tile "aterial that $an be $old #or0ed and "a$hined to the desired sha'e and si-e and then to $han!e its 'ro'erties: drasti$ally in$reasin! its hardness and stren!th: "a0in! it *ar "ore suitable *or its e2entual ser2i$e li*e. Co"'ared #ith the 'earliti$ and bainiti$ stru$tures o* the sa"e hardness: te"'ered "artensites #ill ha2e hi!her yield: tensile and i"'a$t stren!ths $o"'atible #ith a hi!h le2el o* du$tility. 5or "ost 'ur'oses there*ore they are the "ost desirable stru$tures. &e"'erin! and /ater %uen$h 0.40HC Steel .ardness .6 &ensile 4J""2 3lon!ation H Char'y I"'a$t ?M@ As %uen$hed 170 18(0 ( 11 200BC 120 1700 12 1, 3(0BC 440 1420 14 14 4(0BC 370 1200 11 30 100BC 220 880 24 7(

(.1

T'e i"-ortance o) grain #i;e As steel is heated throu!h the $riti$al ran!e it is re$rystallised #ith the *or"ation o* *ine !rains ?5i! 20@.

5i! 20 Sc'e"atic re-re#entation o) t'e e))ect o) te"-erature and grain+ re)ining e e"ent# on grain #i;e

33

These grains tend to grow as the temperature is raised, but the growth is more or less abrupt at a characteristic temperature with the !ormation o! !irst some coarse and some !ine grains and !inall" all coarse grains, as indicated abo#e$ %rolonged heating also tends to increase the grain si&e$ 3a$h steel has a $hara$teristi$ $oarsenin!-te"'erature ran!e and i* that te"'erature is belo# the "axi"u" $o""only used *or hardenin!: the steel is $lassed as coar#e grained. I* the steel is treated #ith e**e$ti2e a"ounts o* alu"iniu": niobiu": 2anadiu" or titaniu": or a $o"bination o* these ele"ents: it does not $oarsen at the usual hardenin! te"'eratures and is $lassed as )ine grained. Coarse-!rained steels ?AS&M !rain si-e 1-(@ ha2e so"e ad2anta!es in easier "a$hinin!: hi!her $ree' stren!th at ele2ated te"'eratures: !reater hardenability: and 'ossibly less not$h sensiti2ity in *ati!ue: but they ha2e lo#er not$hed-bar i"'a$t stren!th and the i"'a$t resistan$e *alls o** ra'idly at subnor"al te"'eratures. 5ine-!rained steels ?AS&M !rain si-e (-8 'lus@ ha2e "u$h better tou!hness: and 2irtually all heat-treatin! alloy steels used in "a$hine $onstru$tion are treated durin! "eltin! so that they #ill be *ine !rained. Steels that de2elo' a "ixture o* $oarse and *ine !rains tend to !i2e errati$ 'ro'erties: and are unli0ely to be used. &he !rain-$oarsenin! te"'erature o* *ine-!rained steels 2aries so"e#hat but $an be ex'e$ted to be in the nei!hbourhood o* ,80BC *or alu"iniu"-treated steel. &his te"'erature "ay: ho#e2er: 2ary #idely #ith the $o"'osition and 'rior treat"ent. &he $oarsenin! te"'erature o* hi!h-$arbon steels tends to be relati2ely lo# but !rain !ro#th "ay be restrained by undissol2ed $arbides. (.7 Grain Si;e Deter"ination +rain si-e is $o""only "easured a$$ordin! to AS&M Standard Method 3 112: eter"inin! &he A2era!e +rain Si-e. In "aterials ha2in! t#o or "ore $onstituents: the !rain si-e usually re*ers to that o* the "atrix. Minor $onstituent 'hases: in$lusions: and additi2es are not nor"ally $onsidered. It is i"'ortant in usin! these "ethods to re$o!nise that the "easure"ent o* !rain si-e is not 're$ise: but an esti"ate. A "etal !rain is a threedi"ensional sha'e o* 2aryin! si-es. &he !rain $ross se$tion 'rodu$ed by a rando" 'lane ?sur*a$e o* obser2ation@ is de'endent u'on #here the 'lane $uts ea$h indi2idual !rain. &hus: no t#o *ields o* obser2ation $an be exa$tly e8ual.

34

I* the three "ethods listed in the standard: the $o"'arison 'ro$edure is "ost 'o'ular sin$e it ta0es the least ti"e to $arry out. &his "ethod in2ol2es 2ie#in! !rains in a "i$ros$o'e and $o"'arin! the" at the sa"e "a!ni*i$ation: 7(= or 100=: to $harts de*ined in AS&M 3112: #ith t#o exa"'les sho#n in 5i!ure 21. &he AS&M +rain Si-e 4u"ber $orres'onds to a $ertain nu"ber o* !rainsJin 2 a$$ordin! to &able belo#; 0 0.( 1 1 2 2 3 4 4 8 ( 11 1 32 7 14 8 128 , 2(1 10 (12

&he relationshi' bet#een the +rain Si-e 4u"ber and the nu"ber o* !rainsJin 2 is !i2en by the ex'ression; /here; 4 N AS&M +rain Si-e 4u"ber n N 2 ?4 O 1@ n N nu"ber o* !rainsJin2 at the s'e$i*ied "a!ni*i$ation

5i!.21 E,a"- e# o) ASTME E 553 Co"-ari#on -rocedure grain #i;e c'art# )or No4 ? and @ &hus they "ay be added to i"'ro2e "e$hani$al 'ro'erties. &hey "ay be used to enhan$e resistan$e to $orrosion or hi!h te"'erature oxidation. 5urther: they "ay be 'resent to de2elo' s'e$ial $hara$teristi$s su$h as those o* an ele$tri$al or "a!neti$ nature: stren!th at hi!h te"'eratures or *or the steel to re"ain austeniti$ at roo" te"'eratures.

35

1. 1.1

ALLOYING A o(ing E e"ent# in Stee &he 'rin$i'al *un$tion o* alloyin! ele"ents in steel is to i"'ro2e its 'ro'erties. &hus they "ay be added to i"'ro2e "e$hani$al 'ro'erties. &hey "ay be used to enhan$e resistan$e to $orrosion or hi!h te"'erature oxidation. 5urther: they "ay be 'resent to de2elo' s'e$ial $hara$teristi$s su$h as those o* an ele$tri$al or "a!neti$ nature: stren!th at hi!h te"'eratures or *or the steel to re"ain austeniti$ at roo" te"'eratures. &he alloyin! ele"ents added "ay either si"'ly dissol2e in the *errite or they "ay $o"bine #ith so"e o* the $arbon: *or"in! $arbides. &he 'rin$i'al e**e$ts #hi$h these alloyin! ele"ents ha2e on the "i$rostru$ture and 'ro'erties o* a steel in$lude those on the allotro'i$ trans*or"ation te"'eratures. So"e ele"ents: notably ni$0el: "an!anese: $obalt and $o''er: raise the A4 te"'erature and lo#er the A3 te"'erature: as sho#n in 5i!ure 22 ?A@. In this #ay these ele"ents: #hen added to a $arbon steel: tend to stabilise austenite and in$rease the ran!e o* te"'erature o2er #hi$h austenite $an exist as a stable 'hase. Ither ele"ents: the "ost i"'ortant o* #hi$h in$lude $hro"iu": tun!sten: 2anadiu": "olybdenu": alu"iniu" and sili$on: ha2e the re2erse e**e$t: in that they tend to stabilise *errite by raisin! the A3 te"'erature and lo#erin! the A4: as indi$ated in 5i!ure 22 ?>@. Su$h ele"ents restri$t the *ield o2er #hi$h austenite "ay exist: and thus *or" #hat is o*ten $alled a C loo'D. &he ele"ents o* the -stabilisin! !rou' !enerally ha2e a *a$e-$entred $ubi$ latti$e. Sin$e this is the sa"e as austenite: these ele"ents #ill retard the trans*or"ation o* austenite to *errite. At the sa"e ti"e these ele"ents retard the 're$i'itation o* $arbides: and a!ain this has the e**e$t o* stabilisin! austenite. &he a-stabilisin! ele"ents are usually those #ith a body-$entred $ubi$ latti$e. &hese #ill dissol2e "ore readily in *errite than in austenite: and at the sa"e ti"e di"inish the solubility o* $arbon in austenite. In this #ay they stabilise *errite. As sho#n in 5i!ure >: 'ro!ressi2e in$rease in one or "ore o* the -stabilisin! ele"ents #ill $ause a 'oint to be rea$hed beyond the $on*ines o* the -loo': #here the austenite $annot exist at any te"'erature.

36

5i! 22 Re ati6e e))ect# o) t'e addition o) an a o(ing e e"ent on t'e a otro-ic tran#)or"ation te"-erature at A8 and AA ?A@ Tending to #ta!i i#e ?>@ Tending to #ta!i i#e

1.1.1

Car!ide or Gra-'ite For"er# ?5i! 23@ So"e alloyin! ele"ents *or" 2ery stable $arbides #hen added to a 'lain $arbon steel. &his !enerally has as hardenin! e**e$t es'e$ially #hen the $arbides *or"ed are harder than iron $arbide. Su$h ele"ents in$lude $hro"iu": tun!sten: "olybdenu": titaniu" and "an!anese. /hen one or "ore o* these ele"ents is 'resent: a stru$ture $ontainin! $o"'lex $arbides is o*ten *or"ed.

37

5i! 23 T'e condition in .'ic' a o(ing e e"ent# are -re#ent in #tee Ither ele"ents ha2e a !ra'hitisin! e**e$t on the iron $arbideE that is: they tend to "a0e it unstable so that it brea0s u': releasin! *ree !ra'hiti$ $arbon. &his e**e$t is "ore e2ident i* no $arbide stabilisers are 'resent. 3le"ents #hi$h tend to $ause !ra'hitisation in$lude sili$on: ni$0el and alu"iniu". &here*ore: i* it is ne$essary to add a''re$iable a"ounts o* the" to a steel: it $an be done only #hen the $arbon $ontent is extre"ely lo#. Alternati2ely: i* the $arbon $ontent needs to be hi!h: one or "ore o* the ele"ents o* the *irst !rou': na"ely the $arbide stabilisers: "ust be added in order to $ountera$t the e**e$ts o* the !ra'hitisin! ele"ent. 1.1.2. Cr(#ta Gro.t' &he rate o* $rystal !ro#th is a$$elerated: 'arti$ularly at hi!h te"'eratures: by the 'resen$e o* so"e alloy additions: notably $hro"iu". Care "ust there*ore be ta0en that steels $ontainin! ele"ents in this $ate!ory are not o2erheated or: indeed: 0e't *or too lon! at an ele2ated te"'erature: or brittleness: #hi$h is usually asso$iated #ith a $oarse !rain si-e: #ill result. 5ortunately: !rain !ro#th is retarded by other ele"ents: notably niobiu" and 2anadiu": #hose 'resen$e thus 'rodu$e a steel #hi$h is less sensiti2e to the te"'erature $onditions o* heat-treat"ent.

38

1.1.3

Corro#ion Re#i#tance &he $orrosion-resistan$e o* steels is substantially i"'ro2ed by the addition o* alu"iniu": sili$on and $hro"iu". &hese "etals *or" thin but dense and adherent oxide *il"s #hi$h 'rote$t the sur*a$e o* the steel *ro" *urther atta$0. I* the ele"ents "entioned $hro"iu" is the "ost use*ul #hen "e$hani$al 'ro'erties ha2e to be $onsidered. /hen ni$0el also is added in su**i$ient 8uantities: the austeniti$ stru$ture is "aintained at roo" te"'erature.

1.1.4

Strengt' Ine o* the "ain reasons *or alloyin! is to e**e$t i"'ro2e"ents in the "e$hani$al 'ro'erties o* steel. &hese i"'ro2e"ents are !enerally the result o* 'hysi$al $han!es already re*erred to. 5or exa"'le: hardness is in$reased by stabilisin! the $arbidesE stren!th is in$reased #hen alloyin! ele"ents dissol2e in the *erriteE and tou!hness is i"'ro2ed by re*ine"ent o* the !rain si-e.

1.2 1.2.1

T'e E))ect# o) A o(ing on Stee Strengt' and $ardena!i it( Car!on It has been sho#n that in$reasin! $arbon $ontent in 'lain $arbon steels #ill lead to in$reases in hardness and: u' to the eute$toid $o"'osition ?0.83HC@ in$reases the tensile and yield stren!ths. Corres'ondin! to these $han!es #ill be de$reases in du$tility: "alleability and i"'a$t stren!th. In$reasin! the $arbon $ontent o* "artensiti$ steels "ay be ex'e$ted to sho# in$reases in hardness u' to the eute$toid 'oint. &e"'ered "artensiti$ stru$tures #ill sho# in$reases in hardness and brittleness u' to about 1.4HC. .ardenability in 'lain $arbon steels is at a "axi"u" at the eute$toid $o"'osition. In$reasin! or de$reasin! the $arbon $ontent *ro" the eute$toid $o"'osition #ill lead to lo#er hardenability: i.e. it be$o"es in$reasin!ly "ore di**i$ult to obtain "artensiti$ stru$tures: and in$reasin!ly ra'id 8uen$hin! is re8uired.

1.2.2

Mangane#e So"e "an!anese is 'resent in nearly all steels. It is usually belo# 1H and it is only #hen this a"ount is ex$eeded that it is re!arded as a deliberately added alloyin! ele"ent. <i0e ni$0el: "an!anese stabilises austenite but unli0e ni$0el it also has the e**e$t o* stabilisin! the $arbides: by itsel* *or"in! Mn3C. It has a $onsiderable stren!thenin! e**e$t on *errite and in$reases hardenability.

39

1.2.3

C'ro"iu" 6ery s"all a"ounts o* $hro"iu" #hen added to $arbon steel #ill $ause a $onsiderable in$rease in hardness. At the sa"e ti"e stren!th is raised #ith so"e loss o* du$tility #hi$h is not a''arent #ith less than 1.0HCr. &he in$rease in hardness is "ainly due to the *a$t that $hro"iu" is a $arbide stabiliser *or"in! hard $arbides itsel* or double $arbides #ith 5e 3C. Chro"iu" is a *errite stabiliser and austenite "ay be eli"inated entirely #hen "ore than 11HCr is added to 'ure iron. &he "ain disad2anta!es in the use o* $hro"iu" as an alloyin! ele"ent is its tenden$y to 'ro"ote !rain !ro#th: #ith its attendant brittleness. Care "ust there*ore be ta0en to a2oid o2erheatin! or holdin! *or too lon! at the nor"al heat-treat"ent te"'erature. Steels $ontainin! s"all a"ounts o* $hro"iu" and u' to 0.4(H $arbon are used *or axle sha*ts: $onne$tin!-rods and !earsE #hilst those $ontainin! "ore than 1.0H $arbon are extre"ely hard and are use*ul *or the "anu*a$ture o* ball-bearin!s: dra#in! dies and 'arts *or !rindin! "a$hines. Chro"iu" is also added in lar!er a"ounts - u' to 21H - and has a 'ronoun$ed e**e$t in i"'ro2in! $orrosion-resistan$e: due to the 'rote$ti2e layer o* oxide *or"ed. &his oxide layer is extre"ely thin: and these steels ta0e a 2ery hi!h 'olish. &hey $ontain little or no $arbon and are there*ore $o"'letely *erriti$ and non-hardenin! ?ex$e't by $old-#or0@. Stainless steels #hi$h ha2e only $hro"iu" as the "ain alloyin! ele"ent and ha2e C le2els that ex$eed 0.1H are o* the "artensiti$ ty'e: the stru$ture bein! obtained by ra'id $oolin!. I* these steels are allo#ed to $ool slo#ly: $arbides #ill be 're$i'itated: #ith $onse8uent loss in $orrosion-resistan$e ?sensitisation@.

1.2.4

Nic&e &he addition o* ni$0el to a 'lain $arbon steel tends to stabilise the austenite 'hase. 5or exa"'le: the addition o* 2(H ni$0el to 'ure iron renders it austeniti$: and so non-"a!neti$: e2en a*ter slo# $oolin! to roo" te"'erature. 4i$0el "a0es the $arbides unstable and tends to $ause the" to de$o"'ose to !ra'hite. It is there*ore inad2isable to add ni$0el by itsel* to hi!h $arbon steels and "ost ni$0el steels are o* the lo# $arbon ty'e. +enerally the 3.(H ni$0el steels are the "ost #idely e"'loyed: those #ith about 0.12HC bein! used "ainly *or $ase hardenin!: #hile the 0.30HC ty'es are used *or stru$tural 'ur'oses and in en!ines *or sha*tin! and axles et$. 4i$0el also has a !rain re*inin! e**e$t enablin! the alloys to be e"'loyed in $ase hardenin! as !rain !ro#th #ill be li"ited durin! 'rolon!ed treat"ent at about ,00BC.

40

4i$0el #as one o* the *irst ele"ents added to 'lain $arbon steels: its "ain ad2anta!e bein! to in$rease tensile stren!ths #ithout ad2ersely a**e$tin! du$tility. Its e**e$t o* lo#erin! $riti$al te"'eratures *or heat treat"ent is also an ad2anta!e in $ost redu$tion. 4i$0el in "oderate a"ounts also in$reases hardenability allo#in! slo#er 8uen$h rates than in 'lain $arbon steels. 1.2.( Mo (!denu" Molybdenu" is a stron! $arbide stabiliser and relati2ely s"all a"ounts #ill "ar0edly enhan$e the 'ro'erties o* 'lain $arbon steels. Asually it is added in 8uantities ran!in! *ro" 0.12-0.1(H de'endin! on the intended a''li$ation o* the steel. More o*ten it is used in $o"bination #ith "an!anese: ni$0el andJor $hro"iu" to !i2e a noti$eable i"'ro2e"ent in 'ro'erties. .ardenability is in$reased es'e$ially #hen used in $onGun$tion #ith $hro"iu". Ine o* the "etalFs ad2anta!es is that it #ill redu$e the tenden$y to te"-er !ritt ene## in lo# ni$0el lo# $hro"iu" steels #hen heat treated at 2(0-400BC. In !eneral 4i-Cr-Mo alloy steels 'ossess the best all-round $o"bination o* 'ro'erties: es'e$ially #hen hi!h tensile stren!th and !ood du$tility are re8uired in lar!e $o"'onents. Su$h steels are relati2ely *ree *ro" the "ass e**e$ts o* heat treat"ent: the trans*or"ation rates o* the 4i-Cr steels bein! e2en *urther redu$ed by the 'resen$e o* "olybdenu" #hi$h $ontributes $onsiderably to hardenability. Its 'resen$e #ill also raise the hi!h te"'erature stren!th and $ree' resistan$e o* hi!h te"'erature alloys and it is added to stainless steels in 'ro'ortions o* u' to 3.0H to i"'ro2e $orrosion resistan$e es'e$ially in $hlorides and a$ids. &he disad2anta!es o* "olybdenu" steels are that they re8uire hi!her te"'erin! te"'eratures to obtain 'ro'erties $o"'arable to 'lain $arbon steels and they need a lon!er holdin! 'eriod at 8uen$hin! and nor"alisin! te"'erature to ensure $o"'lete solid solution o* the "olybdenu" iron $arbide. 1.2.1 Nio!iu" 0US Co u"!iu"1 Plain lo# $arbon steels *or stru$tural 'ur'oses bene*it !reatly *ro" s"all additions o* niobiu" and 8uantities as lo# as 0.02-0.04H #ill in$rease Kield Point by 12-1104J""2 and Alti"ate &ensile Stren!th (4-8(4J""2. &his #ill !i2e a hi!her Kield to Alti"ate &ensile Stren!th ratio than in 'lain $arbon steels. Abo2e 0.04H4b this stren!thenin! e**e$t *alls a#ay ra'idly. 4iobiu" is a stron! $arbide *or"er but its e**e$t on lo# $arbon steels is thou!ht to be "ainly by 're$i'itation hardenin!. It has a "ar0ed grain re)ining *un$tion so"eti"es rein*or$ed by alu"iniu" andJor 2anadiu" additions. Su$h re*ined !rain stru$tures !i2e hi!h i"'a$t 2alues. 4iobiu" as a 2ery stron! $arbide stabiliser: is also added to so"e stainless $orrosion resistin! steels ?ty'e 347@ o* the 18J8 $hro"iu"-ni$0el 2ariety to 're2ent .e d deca( #en#iti6it(.

41

1.2.7

/anadiu" Plain 2anadiu" steels are "anu*a$tured to a 2ery li"ited extent: but $hro"iu"-2anadiu" steels $ontainin! u' to 0.2H 2anadiu" are #idely used *or s"all and "ediu" se$tions. &he "e$hani$al 'ro'erties rese"ble those o* ni$0el-$hro"iu" steels: but usually sho# an ad2anta!e in res'e$t o* the li"it o* 'ro'ortionality and 'er$enta!e redu$tion in area. Chro"iu"-2anadiu" steels are also easier to *or!e: sta"' and "a$hine: but are "ore sus$e'tible to "ass e**e$ts o* heat-treat"ent than the $orres'ondin! ni$0el-$hro"iu" steels. 6anadiu" has a stron! $arbide-*or"in! tenden$y. It also stabilises "artensite and lo# te"'erature te"'ered "artensite on heat-treat"ent and in$reases hardenability. <i0e ni$0el: it restrains !rain !ro#th o* the austenite. Ine o* the "ost i"'ortant e**e$ts o* 2anadiu" is that it indu$es resistan$e to so*tenin! at hi!h te"'eratures 'ro2ided that the steel is *irst heat-treated to absorb so"e o* the 2anadiu" $arbide into solid solution. Conse8uently 2anadiu" steels are used *or hot-*or!in! dies: extrusion dies: die-$astin! dies and other tools o'eratin! at ele2ated te"'eratures.

1.2.8

A u"iniu" &he 'resen$e o* alu"iniu" in 'lain $arbon and lo# alloy steels #ill tend to stabilise *errite but as it #ill nor"ally be in 2ery lo# $on$entrations ?P0.0(0H@ its dire$t e**e$t on hardenability #ill be ne!li!ible. It $an ho#e2er a$t as a #trong grain re)iner ?le2els Q0.01(H@ #hi$h "ay redu$e hardenability so"e#hat althou!h i"'ro2in! tensile and i"'a$t stren!ths. It is #idely used as a deoxidant in lo# $arbon "ild steels #here du$tility is the 'rin$i'al 8uality. In su$h steels the 'resen$e o* s"all a"ounts o* nitro!en introdu$ed durin! steel "a0in! #ill $ause strain a!ein! to the detri"ent o* their 'ro'erties. A s"all a"ount: u' to about 0.08H: o* residual alu"iniu" by *or"in! alu"iniu" nitride #ill su''ress this 'heno"enon in $old rolled annealed te"'ered !rades. In o**shore stru$tures a Al to 4 ratio o* at least 2;1 is so"eti"es s'e$i*ied to o2er$o"e strain a!ein! durin! #eldin!.

1.2.,

Su -'ur &he ele"ent sul'hur #ill tend to de$rease hardenability so"e#hat: but as: #ith a *e# ex$e'tions: $onsiderable e**orts are "ade to eli"inate it *ro" 'lain $arbon and alloy steels: it is usually 'resent only in s"all a"ounts and its e**e$t in this res'e$t "ay be ne!le$ted. It is the "ost deleterious i"'urity $o""only 'resent in steel. I* 're$autions are not ta0en to render it har"less it #ill *or" the brittle sul'hide: 5eS. &his is soluble in "olten steel: but #hen solidi*i$ation ta0es 'la$e the solid solubility *alls to an e8ui2alent o* 0.03H sul'hur. I* the e**e$ts o* extensi2e $orin! are also ta0en into a$$ount a"ounts as lo# as 0.01H sul'hur "ay $ause 're$i'itation o* the sul'hide at the !rain boundaries. In this #ay the austenite !rains #ill be$o"e 2irtually $oated #ith brittle *il"s o* *errous sul'hide. Sin$e this sul'hide has a *airly lo# "eltin! 'oint: the steel #ill tend to $ru"ble durin! hot-#or0in!. >ein! brittle at ordinary te"'eratures: *errous sul'hide

42

#ill also render steel unsuitable *or $old-#or0in! 'ro$esses: or: indeed: *or subse8uent ser2i$e o* any ty'e. &he sul'hur is rendered har"less by the 'resen$e o* "an!anese #ith #hi$h it $o"bines 're*erentially to *or" "an!anese sul'hide MnS. &his MnS is insoluble in "olten steel and so"e #ill be lost in the sla! #hile the rest #ill be 'resent as !lobules distributed throu!hout the steel and not asso$iated #ith the stru$ture #hen solidi*i$ation ta0es 'la$e. &hese !lobules are 'lasti$ at hot #or0in! te"'eratures and the tenden$y o* the steel to $ru"ble is thus re"o2ed #hile the !lobules #ill be rolled out as threads in subse8uent o'erations. /ith "odern steel "a0in! 'ra$ti$es le2els o* P0.01HS and 0.02HP are $o""only a$hie2ed. &he de"and *or hi!h !rade #eldable steels *or strin!ent a''li$ations su$h as o**-shore 'i'elines has led to the a2ailability o* !rades #ith less than 0.01HS and 0.01HP. &hese ha2e be$o"e 'ossible lar!ely by the sele$tion o* hi!h-!rade ra# "aterials #hi$h the"sel2es ha2e lo# 'ro'ortions o* these ele"ents and the introdu$tion o* ne# steel"a0in! te$hni8ues the "ost notable bein! 2a$uu" de!assin!. /ith su$h steels MnS #ill also be lo# #hi$h #ill redu$e the extent o* non-"etalli$ in$lusions #ith $onse8uent bene*its to #eldable steels *or $riti$al stru$tural a''li$ations. 5ree $uttin! steels are "ade #ith a deliberately hi!h le2el o* sul'hur: *ro" 0.1(-0.2(HS in 'lain $arbon steels: #ith about *i2e ti"es the "an!anese $ontent to ensure its 'resen$e a !lobular MnS. &his sul'hide is #idely distributed so that on "a$hinin! the $uttin! tool *or"s s"all $hi's #hi$h are easily handled. 1.2.10 P'o#-'oru# In the sa"e #ay as sul'hur: 'hos'horus is al"ost al#ays $onsidered an undesirable ele"ent in steel and its 'ro'ortion is usually 0e't to a "ini"u". It #ill in$rease hardenability but as it is 'resent in su$h a s"all a"ount its e**e$t and that o* sul'hur are !enerally thou!ht to $an$el ea$h other out. Phos'horus *or"s the brittle 'hos'hide 5e 3P: #hi$h is soluble in *errite. In solution: it has a $onsiderable hardenin! e**e$t but it "ust be ri!idly $ontrolled to a"ounts in the re!ion o* 0.0(H or less be$ause o* the brittleness also introdu$ed: 'arti$ularly i* 5e3P should a''ear as a se'arate $onstituent in the "i$rostru$ture. 4o#adays 0.02H is $o""only 'rodu$ed and hi!h !rade "aterials #ith 0.01HP are a2ailable.

43

1.2.11

Si icon Sili$on is #idely used as a deoxidant in steel"a0in! and it is o*ten 'resent in 8uantities o* 0.2-0.(H. <i0e ni$0el it en$oura!es !ra'hite *or"ation and it "ust there*ore be 0e't lo# in hi!h $arbon steels. It dissol2es in *errite #here it has a substantial stren!thenin! e**e$t. .ardenability is only "oderately a**e$ted by the ele"ent. Sili$on is in$luded in so"e heat resistin! steels in a"ounts u' to 1.(H as it aids hi!h te"'erature resistan$e to oxidation.

1.3

A o(ing Addition# in Stee + Su""ar( &he e**e$ts o* indi2idual alloyin! ele"ents are sho#n in tabular *or" belo#; 3**e$t on 3**e$t in 3**e$t on Stren!thenin 5or"in! &rans*or"ation ! 5errite Carbides &e"'eratures Man!anese Stron! /ea0 <o#ers Sili$on Stron! 4one )aises Phos'horus Stron! 4one <o#ers 4i$0el Moderate 4one <o#ers Chro"iu" /ea0 Moderate R Co''er Moderate 4one <o#ers Molybdenu" Stron! Stron! )aises 6anadiu" /ea0 Stron! )aises &un!sten Moderate Stron! )aises R )aises or lo#ers de'endin! on $arbon $ontent 1. 2. Alloyin! 3le"ent 3**e$t on .ardenability Stron! Moderate Moderate Moderate Stron! /ea0 Stron! Mild Moderate

3le"ents #hi$h tend to *or" $arbides - Cr: /: &i: 6: 4b: Mo: Mn. 3le"ents #hi$h tend to !ra'hitise the $arbide - Si: Co: Al: 4i. 3le"ents *ro" $ate!ory 1. should be 'resent to a2oid !ra'hitisation #hen s"all additions o* the abo2e are ex$eeded. 3le"ents #hi$h tend to stabilise the Austenite - Mn: 4i: Co: Cu. 3le"ents #hi$h tend to stabilise the 5errite - Cr: /: Mo: 6: Si.

3. 4.

&he Austenite 'hase "ay disa''ear #hen a $losed loo' is *or"ed. I* no $arbon is 'resent in the alloy the loo' #ill disa''ear #hen the *ollo#in! ele"ents are 'resent in these a''roxi"ate 'er$enta!es. Cr 12.8H: S 2.0H: / 1.0H: P 0.(H: Al 1.1H: &i 0.7(H: Mo 4.0H

44

7. 7.1

MICROSTRUCTURES IN STEEL ARC %ELDS %e d Meta &he lar!e nu"ber o* 2ariables inherent in #eldin! su$h as the #eldin! 'ro$ess itsel*: the *inal $o"'osition o* the "elt: #eldin! s'eed and ther"al $y$le "a0e it unrealisti$ e2en to atte"'t to 'redi$t #ith any 're$ision the "i$rostru$tures that $an arise. 4e2ertheless: so"e !eneral 'oints $an be "ade. In the #eldin! o'eration itsel* a 'ool o* "olten "etal is retained #ithin the #or0 'ie$e. &his "ay be li0ened to "olten "etal #ithin an in!ot "ould: and on *ree-in!: lar!e $olu"nar $rystals #ill *or" and sin$e the #eld 'ool is s"all: and in the $ase o* a sin!le ar$ #eld: solidi*i$ation ra'id: they #ill usually o$$u'y the $o"'lete $rossse$tion o* #eld "etal. &his "etal has a $hara$teristi$ $ellular-dendriti$ stru$ture o* $ast "etal $onsistin! o* the rather $oarse $olu"nar austeniti$ !rains #hi$h $ur2e into the #eld $entre line and a *ine $ellular net#or0 #ithin the !rains. &he trans*or"ation 'rodu$ts resultin! *ro" the de$o"'osition o* these !rains is de'endant "ainly on the rate o* $oolin! o* the #eld "etal. Althou!h it has been 'ointed out that a$$urate 'redi$tions o* #eld "etal stru$ture are not 'ossible a s$he"ati$ CC& ?Continuous Coolin! &i"e@ ?5i! 24@ in #hi$h !eneral $han!es arisin! #ith di**erin! $oolin! rates and the e**e$ts o* heat in'ut: alloyin! ele"ents and sla! in$lusions are related in a 8ualitati2e #ay. &hus C: 4: Mn et$ tend to "o2e the dia!ra" to the ri!ht to !i2e "ore ti"e *or trans*or"ations. I* $oolin! $ur2es are su'eri"'osed on su$h a dia!ra" it #ill be $lear that ra'id $oolin! rate $ur2es #ill a''roa$h the 2erti$al #hereas slo# $oolin! rate $ur2es #ill a''roa$h the hori-ontal. All 'hases interse$ted by su$h $ur2es #ill be 'resent in the *inal stru$ture. It "ay be ex'e$ted that the stren!th and hardness o* #elds #ould be !enerally hi!h as ra'id $oolin! rates tend to 'ro"ote lo#er te"'eratures o* trans*or"ation and there are usually lar!e 8uantities o* i"'urities and alloyin! ele"ents. In the other hand the i"'a$t 'ro'erties and tou!hness o* su$h steel #elds $an be i"'aired es'e$ially at the #eld $entre line #hi$h is the area o* "axi"u" se!re!ation #here the $olu"nar $rystals "eet. &o this "ust be added the deleterious e**e$ts o* the $oarse $olu"nar stru$ture #ith "ixtures o* trans*or"ation 'rodu$ts #hi$h "ay result in the 're$i'itation o* $arbides #hi$h on i"'a$t tend to ru'ture to 'rodu$e brittle *ra$tures o* the 'ro-eute$toid *errite.

45

5i! 24 Continuou# Coo ing Ti"e. Sc'e"atic CCT diagra" )or #tee .e d "eta : #u""ari#ing t'e -o##i! e e))ect o) "icro#tructure and a o(ing on t'e tran#)or"ation -roduct# )or a gi6en .e d coo ing ti"e In a 'lain $arbon steel o* 0.1(-0.20HC #ith slo# $oolin! and s"all under$oolin! belo# A3: a stru$ture o* Cblo$0yD *errite #ith 'earlite #ill be *or"ed. A "ediu"-slo# $oolin! rate #ith lar!er under$oolin! belo# A3 #ill result in a *or" o* *errite 0no#n as CPro-eute$toidD *errite and on *urther $oolin! the 'rodu$tion o* *errite needles 0no#n as C/id"anstattenD side 'lates and the re"ainin! austenite at e2en lo#er te"'eratures trans*or"in! into 'earlite and $e"entite. Another 'ossible 'hase in su$h #eld "etals at under$oolin! near A 1 is CAcicu ar FerriteB the trans*or"ation to #hi$h is enhan$ed by the 'resen$e o* stron! $arbide *or"ers su$h as Mo or Cr. &he 'resen$e o* a$i$ular *errite !i2es i"'ro2ed tou!hness to su$h #elds. &he a$i$ular *errite is *or"ed intra!ranularly resultin! in rando"ly orientated short *errite needles #ith a bas0et #ea2e *eature. &his interlo$0in! nature to!ether #ith the *ine !rain si-e 'ro2ides "axi"u" resistan$e to $ra$0 'ro'a!ation by $lea2a!e. 4ot$h tou!hness in$reases #ith in$reasin! 2olu"e *ra$tion o* a$i$ular *errite in the #eld "etal. &he *or"ation o* either !rain boundary *errite: *errite side 'lates or u''er bainite is detri"ental to #eld "etal tou!hness sin$e these "i$rostru$tures 'ro2ide easy $ra$0 'ro'a!ation 'aths. Mediu" hi!h $oolin! rates result in the trans*or"ation o$$urrin! belo# A1 #ith a *ast initial *errite !ro#th resultin! in ra'id $arbide $on$entration at the austenite*errite inter*a$e $ausin! the 're$i'itation o* $e"entite #hi$h is a!ain *ollo#ed by 2ery ra'id *errite !ro#th #ith the sa"e $onse8uen$es. &his is 0no#n as the CPeriodi$ PearliteD rea$tion. A *ast $oolin! rate results in the *or"ation o* the 'hase CA''er >ainiteD: #hile a 2ery *ast $oolin! rate "ay 'rodu$e C<o#er >ainiteD or C<ath "artensiteD.

46

7.2.

$eat A))ected Cone 0$AC1 &o be satis*a$tory: dilution o* a #eld "etal "ust o$$ur by "eltin! 'art o* the base "etal #hi$h in the re!ion o* the "elt #ill be ex'osed to si"ilar hi!h te"'eratures. Subse8uently: $onditions o* ra'id $oolin! under $onditions o* se2ere restraint #ill be i"'osed and as a result o* this ther"al $y$le the ori!inal "i$rostru$ture and 'ro'erties o* the "etal $lose to the #eld #ill be $han!ed. &his re!ion is nor"ally re*erred to as the .A7. &he .A7 $an be $on2eniently di2ided into a series o* sub--ones and illustrated in *i! 2( are those o* a 0.1(HC trans*or"able steel.

5i! 2( /ariou# region# o) t'e $AC in a #ing e -a## .e d Chan!es ta0in! 'la$e in the Solid-li8uid transition -one de'end lar!ely on the $o"'osition o* the "etal and #hether the austenite "elts dire$tly or is trans*or"ed to delta *errite. In the latter $ase boundary se!re!ation #ill result in redu$ed !rain !ro#th and a layer o* s"all $rystals: but in the *or"er there #ill be no su$h $han!es. In the !rain-$oarsened .A7 'ro-eute$toid *errite net#or0s *eature 'ro"inently *or lo#er $arbon e8ui2alent x 2 !rades but #ith hi!her steels this #ill be redu$ed in *a2our o* lo#er te"'erature trans*or"ation 'rodu$ts su$h as /id"anstatten side 'lates #ith 'ossibly so"e "artensite "ainly in the "id-!rains. In the !rain re*ined .A7 the stru$ture tends to be *ine !rained *errite-'earlite. &he inter$riti$al .A7 $an yield a #ide ran!e o* 'robable stru$tures: de'endin! on the $oolin! rate: and "ay be 'earlite: u''er bainite: autote"'ered "artensite or hi!h $arbon "artensite. &he sub$riti$al .A7 'rodu$es its "ost notable $han!e in the de!radation o* 'earlite to s'heroidal 'arti$les o* $e"entite. &he -one o* una**e$ted base "aterial at lo#er te"'eratures "ay result in e"brittle"ent o* the stru$ture $aused by d(na"ic #train ageing. &he 'rodu$tion o* hi!h stren!th stru$tural "aterials is "ainly based on de2elo'in! a 'rodu$t #ith as s"all a !rain si-e as 'ossible but the se2erity o* the #eld ther"al $y$le is su$h that the stru$ture is $o"'letely "odi*ied near the #eld. In hi!h ener!y 'ro$essin! su$h as sub"er!ed ar$ it is not un$o""on *or the !rain si-e to be in$reased ten*old or "ore in the -one $losest to the *usion line. In steels o* hi!h Carbon e8ui2alent ?abo2e 0.40@ it is li0ely that the !rain !ro#th -one #ill $ontain "artensite. &hus the "i$rostru$ture o* the !rain !ro#th -one "ore than other -ones in the .A7 #ill deter"ine the 'ro'erties o* the #eld. 47

&he ther"al $y$le that is to say the heatin! ti"e: the ti"e at te"'eratures or d#ell ti"e: and the $oolin! ti"e are i"'ortant and "ust be $onsidered to!ether #ith the 'resen$e o* 're$i'itates and their solubility at hi!h te"'eratures. Moreo2er the 're2ious ther"al and "e$hani$al history is also i"'ortant. &hus *or exa"'le the ori!inal steel "ay ha2e been in the $old rolled $ondition: it "ay ha2e been annealed or nor"alised or subGe$ted to other treat"ents. /ith these as'e$ts in "ind the sub--ones "ay be $onsidered se'arately sin$e ea$h one #ill ha2e a di**erent ty'e o* "i$rostru$ture #ith a''ro'riately di**erent 'ro'erties. 4ot#ithstandin! the $o"'lexities in2ol2ed su$h stru$ture $an be 'redi$ted #ith !reater $ertainty then those arisin! in the #eld "etal. 7.3 %e ding $eating C(c e &he i"'ortan$e o* the #eldin! heatin! $y$le is not al#ays *ully re$o!nised. &he te"'erature in$reases $an be 200-300BCJse$ and thus to trans*or"ations #ill be abo2e that o* e8uilibriu" and the 'hase #ill be substantially su'erheated be*ore the $han!e o$$urs. &he de!ree o* su'erheatin! #ill be a**e$ted by the #eldin! 'ro$ess and the ther"al $y$le is su$h that in "ost "etals so"e !rain !ro#th #ill o$$ur in the .A7 #hi$h not only a**e$ts stren!th and tou!hness but also in*luen$es !rain si-e in the #eld "etal. In "ost steels the 'resen$e o* $arbide or nitride 'arti$les tends to hinder !rain !ro#th and it has been sho#n that su$h !ro#th o$$urs 'redo"inantly at te"'eratures abo2e the e8uilibriu"-solubility li"its o* su$h 'arti$les. Also it has been obser2ed that "ost !rain !ro#th o$$urs durin! the heatin! 'art o* the ther"al $y$le and in so"e steels ex'eri"ents indi$ate that only about 20H o* !ro#th o$$urs in the $oolin! $y$le. In !eneral so"e de!ree o* !rain !ro#th $ontrol $an be exerted either by li"itin! the duration o* the #eld ther"al $y$le or by 're$i'itate 'innin!: that is: "ainly by Carbides and 4itrides in steels. &he best #ay to $ontrol !rain si-e is to use lar!e 8uantities o* 2ery s"all 're$i'itates but this is not al#ays easy to a$hie2e. &he e"'loy"ent o* "ulti-run #elds #ill result in a re*ine"ent o* "i$rostru$ture and i"'ro2e"ents in tou!hness #ith redu$tions in residual stress #hen $o"'ared #ith a sin!le run o* the sa"e $ross-se$tion.

48

7.4

Car!on Equi6a ent 0Ceq1 /eldable stru$tural steels are nor"ally $a'able o* bein! #elded #ithout the need *or any 're-heat be$ause the *e$tors #hi$h $ause hi!h hardness and the li0ely 'resen$e o* "artensite #ould be absent in su$h #elds. &hese $hara$teristi$s are usually ex'ressed by re*eren$e to the Carbon 38ui2alent 2alue. &his is assessed in ter"s o* ho# the alloyin! ele"ents a**e$t the trans*or"ation $hara$teristi$s in$ludin! the "artensite start te"'erature Ms o* the steel. An e"'iri$al *or"ula has been de2ised *or Carbon 38ui2alent ?C3@ and ado'ted by the International Institute o* /eldin! as *ollo#s;

A #eldable stru$tural steel #ill nor"ally ha2e a C3 2alue not !reater than 0.40H. Ither *or"ulae su$h as PCM used in Ma'an are also a2ailable. It should be realised that su$h *or"ulae and the 2alues $al$ulated *ro" the" are 'rin$i'ally !uides and $ir$u"stan$es "ay arise #hen de'artures *ro" the" are Gusti*ied. 3ssentially a Carbon 38ui2alent is a "easure o* the hardenability o* a steel.

49

8.

STRUCTURE OF INGOTS /hen "olten "etal is 'oured into a "etal in!ot "ould: solidi*i$ation #ill usually be!in #ith the *or"ation o* s"all $hill $rystals at the "ould-"etal inter*a$e ?5i! 21@. &hese are *ollo#ed by lon! $olu"nar $rystals !ro#in! at ri!ht an!les to the "ould sur*a$e. &he si-e o* these $rystals #ill de'end on the rate o* solidi*i$ation and they #ill be s"all i* this is ra'id: in$reasin! in si-e #ith slo#er rates. /ith 2ery slo# solidi*i$ation: as #ith a sand "ould *or exa"'le: the $olu"nar and $hill $rystals #ill not !enerally *or" but dendrites #ill de2elo' into irre!ular e8ui-axed !rains. /here $olu"nar $rystals ha2e *or"ed: 'lanes o* #ea0ness $an be ex'e$ted at shar' $orners and in extre"e $ases e2en at the in!ot $entre.

5i! 21 Ingot So idi)ication 8.1 Pi-e As a layer o* $ooled "etal *or"s around the in!ot #alls: $ontra$tion o$$urs resultin! in a *all o* the le2el o* li8uid. Su$$essi2e layers o* solid *or": ea$h a$$o"'anied by a *all in the li8uid le2el: the *all in$reasin! as the 2olu"e o* li8uid de$reases. In this "anner a $entral $a2ity is *or"ed: 0no#n as Pri"ar( Pi-e. /ith the in!ot "ould desi!ned Dnarro. end u-B ?5i! 27@ a $oni$al 2olu"e o* "etal still re"ains li8uid a*ter the to' 'ortion o* the in!ot is solid. Solidi*i$ation o* this "etal #ill !i2e rise to *urther $a2ities 0no#n as Secondar( Pi-e.

50

5i! 27 E))ect# o) Ingot Ta-er and $ot To-<Feeder $ead &his $an be 're2ented by usin! a "ould C.ide end u-D #hen shrin0a!e #ill be $ountera$ted by "olten "etal *eedin! do#n *ro" the to'. &he 'ri"ary 'i'e $an also be redu$ed by usin! a bri$0-lined to' on the "ould - $alled a hot to' or *eeder head: in #hi$h the "etal #ill re"ain "olten *or a 'rolon!ed 'eriod a$tin! as a reser2oir o* "olten "etal: #hi$h #ill $onse8uently *eed the in!ot. 8.2 Segregation ?*i!.28@ Molten steel $ontains soluble i"'urities - sul'hur and 'hos'horus - and soluble alloyin! ele"ents to!ether #ith insoluble i"'urities or sla! 'arti$les in sus'ension. &he *irst $rystals to se'arate $ontain less i"'urity than the a2era!e $o"'osition and those ele"ents #hi$h lo#er the *ree-in! 'oint: su$h as sul'hur: 'hos'horus: $arbon: sili$on and "an!anese $olle$t in the last 'ortions to solidi*y. &his 'heno"enon is 0no#n as se!re!ation and in the $ase o* steel in!ots "eans that there is a $on$entration o* sul'hur: 'hos'horus and $arbon in the $entre and u''er 'ortions o* the in!ot. Asso$iated #ith the 'i'e they are lar!ely re"o2ed #hen it is dis$arded. Se!re!ation also o$$urs as the "i$ros$o'i$ s$ale. I"'urities and soluble alloyin! ele"ents are reGe$ted by the solidi*yin! $rystal #ith the result that an alloy ri$h area surrounds ea$h $rystal. &his $an be $learly seen in $arbon steel $astin!s: the ori!inal $rystal lo#er in alloy $ontent tends to be *erriti$ #hilst the "ore hi!hly alloyed $rystal surround is 'earliti$.

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5i! 28 Segregation in Stee 8.3 Stee T(-e# Steel: "anu*a$tured *ro" i"'ure 'i!-iron or s$ra': is *irst 'uri*ied to a !reat extent by a 'ro$ess o* oxidation #hi$h ine2itably lea2es the "olten "aterial #ith ex$essi2e oxy!en #hi$h "ust be redu$ed to render it suitable *or $astin! to an in!ot. &he steel ty'e is de*ined by the de!ree o* deoxidation. 8.3.1 Ri""ing Stee ?5i! 2,@ &he stru$ture o* this ty'e o* in!ot is $hara$terised by an outer en2elo'e or ri" o* solid: $o"'arati2ely 'ure steel: #ith the inner $ore o* less solid or 'ure $hara$ter. Su$h in!ots are "ade *ro" steel o* an e**er2es$in! nature: i.e. steel in #hi$h deoxidation either in the ladle or in the "ould has been intentionally li"ited #ith the result that a *ree e2olution o* !as 'ro!ressi2ely ta0es 'la$e durin! *ree-in!. &he e2olution o* !as to#ards the $entre o* the in!ot 'rodu$es !lobular blo#holes #hi$h $ountera$t $oolin! and solidi*i$ation shrin0a!e and are subse8uently #elded to!ether durin! rollin!. &he thi$0ness o* the ri" and the 'ro'ortion o* blo#holes #ill both de$rease #ith in$reasin! $arbon $ontent. &his ty'e o* steel i"'ro2es the yield o* in!ot to *inished 'rodu$t and #ill 'ro2ide rolled "aterial o* !ood sur*a$e *inish es'e$ially i"'ortant in a''li$ations *or lo# $arbon !rades su$h as $old rolled sheets and stri'. )i""in! steel is not usually a2ailable #ith $arbon $ontents ex$eedin! 0.3(H and is not a$$e'table *or $riti$al stru$tural a''li$ations.

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5i! 2, Ri""ing Stee 8.3.2 *a anced or Se"i+&i ed #tee A balan$ed steel is a non-'i'in! steel in #hi$h no obser2able !as e2olution ta0es 'la$e but #here su**i$ient !as is *or"ed durin! solidi*i$ation to balan$e or o**set nor"al shrin0a!e. 4u"erous blo#-holes are 'rodu$ed so the $entral shrin0a!e $a2ity or 'i'e is 're2ented or $onsiderably redu$ed in extent. >alan$ed steels are only 'artially deoxidised and s"all additions o* alu"iniu" are "ade to the "oulds: i* ne$essary: to redu$e the oxy!en $ontent to that a"ount #hi$h #ill !i2e an in!ot #ith a *lat or sli!htly bul!in! to'. 8.3.3 9i ed #tee 9illed steel is steel that has been $o"'letely deoxidised by additions o* "an!anese: sili$on and so"eti"es alu"iniu": be*ore $astin!: so that there is 'ra$ti$ally no e2olution o* !as durin! solidi*i$ation and sound in!ots are obtained. &he shrin0a!e $a2ity or 'i'e is li"ited to u''er 'ortions o* the in!ot or in the C*eeder headD #ith #hi$h su$h in!ots are usually 'ro2ided. Steel used *or $ontinuous $astin! is al#ays *ully 0illed.

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