USE OF MATERIALS COURSE WELDING PROCESSES NOTES INDEX Page 1. Metal-Arc Weldi g !it" C#$ered Electr#de% ................................. 3 1.

1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.$ 1.' 1." 1.1+ 1.11 &. The Process .........................................................................3 Welding Positions ................................................................4 Functions of the Electrode Coating .....................................5 Types of Electrode Coating .................................................6 Electrode Classification yste!..........................................." The #nfluence of Welding Current .....................................11 %rc &ength .........................................................................12 &o( )ydrogen Electrodes .................................................14 *eep Penetration Welding ................................................15 )ard Facing .......................................................................15 ,ra-ity Welding .................................................................16 1'

S'()erged Arc Weldi g 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5

The Process .......................................................................1' .aterials /oined ................................................................1" Flu0es ................................................................................1" Welding )ead %rrange!ents ............................................1" 1perating 2aria3les ..........................................................2+ 2.5.1 2.5.2 2.5.3 2.5.4 2.5.5 2.5.6 2.5.$ Welding Current ...............................................2+ %rc 2oltage .......................................................2+ Tra-el peed ....................................................21 Electrode i4e ..................................................21 Electrode E0tension .........................................22 Type of Electrode .............................................22 Width and *epth of Flu0 ..................................22

*.

Ga%-S"ielded Metal-Arc Weldi g.................................................. 25 3.1 3.2 3.3 The Process .......................................................................25 Electrodes ..........................................................................26 Transfer .odes .................................................................2$ 3.3.1 3.3.2 3.3.3 3.3.4 3.4 3.5 pray Transfer ..................................................2$ hort Circuit or *ip Transfer ............................2' e!i5short Circuiting %rc .................................2" Pulsed %rc pray ..............................................2"

hielding ,ases.................................................................2" 1perating 2aria3les............................................................32

1

3.5.1 3.5.2 3.5.3 3.5.4 3.5.5 3.5.6 3.6 3.$ +. ,. -.

%rc 2oltage .......................................................32 %rc &ength ........................................................32 Current ..............................................................32 Tra-el peed ....................................................32 Electrode E0tension .........................................32 Electrode i4e ..................................................33

%d-antages and &i!itations of the ,.%W Process .........33 Cored and elf5 hielded Wires ........................................34

T' g%te I ert Ga% Arc Weldi g .....................................................3$ A't#)atic Weldi g ...........................................................................3" Electr#%lag Weldi g..........................................................................4+ 6.1 6.2 The Process .......................................................................4+ Welding (ith Consu!a3le ,uides or 6o44les ..................41

.. /. 2.

Electr#ga% Weldi g ...........................................................................43 O e Side Weldi g !it" 0ac1i g.......................................................44 C# %')a(le% a d P#!er S#'rce%...................................................4$ ".1 ".2 ".3 Care and storage of consu!a3les ....................................4$ Po(er ources ..................................................................4' %rc 7lo( ............................................................................4"

1. 1.1

METAL-ARC WELDING WIT3 CO4ERED ELECTRODES T"e Pr#ce%% 8no(n in the 9 % as hielded .etal %rc Welding : .%W; and else(here as !anual !etal arc (elding :..%; this (elding process is 3y far the !ost (idely used< especially for short (elds in production< !aintenance< repair and construction in the field :see Figure 1;. Welds can 3e !ade in areas of li!ited access and the e=uip!ent is relati-ely si!ple< ine0pensi-e and porta3le. Welding in any position is possi3le pro-ided appropriate electrodes are chosen. The process !ay 3e applied to the !ost co!!only used !etals and alloys such as car3on and alloy steels< stainless steels< copper< nic>el and their alloys. #t is not suita3le for lo( !elting !etals such as Tin< &ead or ?inc or the !ore o0ygen reacti-e !etals such as alu!iniu!< titaniu! and 4irconiu!.

Fig're 1 E5'i6)e t 7#r Ma 'al Metal Arc Weldi g ..% (elding is a (elding process in (hich fusion of !etals is produced 3y heat fro! an electric arc that is !aintained 3et(een the tip of a flu05coated electrode and the surface of the 3ase !etal in the @oint 3eing (elded. The core of the electrode consists of a solid !etal rod of dra(n or cast !aterial (hich conducts the electric current to the arc and pro-ides filler !etal for the @oint. The flu0 coating protects the !olten !etal fro! the at!osphere 3y for!ing a slag and a gaseous shield and sta3ilises the arc. The slag helps to s!ooth and shape the (eld 3ead< and has additional functions< depending on the type of electrode :see Figure 2;.

.ost electrodes are 22+545+ !! long 3ut !ay 3e up to "++ !! (ith core (ire dia!eters fro! 1.6 !! to '.+ !!. The arc is 3rought a3out 3y the difference in electrical potential :-oltage; 3et(een the electrode and the 3ase !etal. #n practice< the -oltage drop across the arc (ill 3e fro! a3out 1654+ 2< (ith the current set generally (ithin the range 2+555+ a!ps. 1pen circuit -oltage :1C2;< (hich !ay 3e referred to is not that across the arc 3ut that generated 3y the !achine (hen no (elding is 3eing done and it is usually 5+51++2. When the arc is struc>< the -oltage drops to the arc -oltage. The po(er supply can 3e alternating or direct current and in the latter case the electrode !ay 3e connected positi-ely or negati-ely. ,enerally %C see!s to 3e fa-oured in the 98 (hile *C is !ore co!!only e!ployed in the 9 %.

Fig're & Ma 'al Metal Arc !eldi g For flat (elding< !etal transfer across the arc is attri3uted to gra-ity< gas e0pansion< electric and !agnetic forces and surface tension 3ut in other positions gra-ity (ill (or> against the other pheno!ena. The centre of the arc has a te!perature of at least 5+++56+++A C< (ell a3o-e the !elting point of any !etal. 1.2 Weldi g P#%iti# % The specification of (elding positions is i!portant for t(o reasons. First< the !anufacturer needs to define the positions for (hich his electrodes are suita3le. econd< the (elderBs s>ills and =ualifications are to a large e0tent deter!ined 3y the position at (hich he can produce an accepta3le (eld. Thus for e0a!ple !uch greater s>ill is re=uired to (eld in an o-erhead position as co!pared (ith a flat or do(nhand position. #t should 3e pointed out that the (elding position is not li!ited 3y the process itself 3ut 3y the si4e and type of electrode.
4

There are no a3solute definitions of (elding positions< 3ut< in principle< such definitions are all si!ilar< -ariations arising only fro! !inor differences in angles. The (eld slope !ay 3e defined as the angle 3et(een the line of the root of the (eld and the hori4ontal. The (eld rotation is defined 3y dra(ing a line fro! the root of the (eld so that it 3isects the (eld profile and is at right angles to the (eld line. The angle that this line !a>es (ith the -ertical is the angle of (eld rotation. #nter!ediate positions not specified !ay 3e referred to as inclined. : ee Figure 3 and Ta3le 1;.

Fig're * Weldi g P#%iti# % Ta(le 1 Weldi g P#%iti# %

lope +55A +55A '+5"+A '+5"+A +515A Cotation +51+A 3+5"+A +51'+A +51'+A 11551'+A &C y!3ol * D 2u 2d 1 # 1 y!3ol P% PCE PF P, PEE %W y!3ol 1, 2, 3, 3, 4,

Positions for Plates Flat )ori4ontal5-ertical 2ertical up 2ertical do(n 1-erhead

E 6ote for fillet (elds< hori4ontal5-ertical has the sy!3ol P7 and o-erhead P*.

1.3

F' cti# % #7 t"e Electr#de C#ati g The functions of the electrode coating are !any and -aried 3ut the t(o of !ost significance areF :a; :3; to pro-ide a gas to shield the arc and pre-ent e0cessi-e at!ospheric conta!ination of the !olten filler !etal tra-elling across the arcG to i!pro-e the s!oothness and sta3ility of the arc.

1ther i!portant aspects areF :c; :d; :e; to produce a slag 3lan>et to protect the hot (eld !etal fro! the air< to allo( slo(er cooling and to enhance 3ead shape and surface cleanliness of the (eld !etalG to pro-ide flu0es< sca-engers and deo0idisers to cleanse the (eld and pre-ent e0cessi-e grain gro(thG to allo( alloying ele!ents to 3e added to change the co!position of the (eld !etal.

The use of %C (ill also affect the de!ands on the coating since the arc is e0tinguished and !ust 3e reignited e-ery half cycle. Therefore the arc at!osphere !ust contain a suita3le ionised gas to !a>e this possi3le. Coatings containing iron po(der !ay 3e used to increase the rate of deposition and to i!pro-e efficiency in the use of arc energy. 1.4 T86e% #7 Electr#de C#ati g There are three !ain classes of electrode coatingG The first< BCell'l#%icB< contains a large proportion< up to a3out 35H< of the organic co!pound Cellulose :C 6)1+15;n< together (ith slag for!ing ite!sF principally Cutile< a !ineral for! of Titaniu! *io0ide Ti1 2. Cellulose is a naturally occurring constituent of (ood (hich at high te!peratures (ill dissociate into o0ides of car3on and (ater. #n ferrous (elding the latter (ill react (ith iron to produce !etallic o0ide and the gas hydrogen< (hich to so!e e0tent (ill 3e a3sor3ed into the (eld. uch coatings (ill produce a li!ited a!ount of slag and they tend to 3e restricted to s!aller dia!eters and !ay 3e used for (or> in all positions. #n the second type of coating< B 0a%icB< a protecti-e gas is produced 3y the dissociation of 3asic car3onates< !ainly Calciu! Car3onate CaC1 3< (hich at high te!perature is con-erted to Calciu! 10ide Ca1 and Car3on *io0ide C12. These coatings usually include so!e Calciu! Fluoride or Fluorspar< CaF2< to gi-e fluidity to the slagG and they ha-e the ad-antage that only s!all a!ounts of )ydrogen are generated pro-ided the coating is dry< thus reducing the a3sorption of )ydrogen 3y the (eld !etal. This type of electrode is generally used (here lo( hydrogen contents need to 3e guaranteed. The third coating type< BR'tileB< is one consisting !ainly of Titaniu! *io0ide plus -arious !ineral constituents< and a s!all proportion of Cellulose 5 up to a3out 15H. Protection of the !etal as it is passed across the arc is pro-ided
6

3y the dissociation of the Cellulose and the production of large =uantities of slag (hich (ill coat the !etal droplets as they are transferred. .etal po(ders :e.g. iron; !ay 3e included in the flu0 coating to raise the efficiency of the process and 3oth 3asic and rutile coating -ariations of this type are a-aila3le. The hea-ier rutile coatings contain only a3out 5H cellulose and as 3oth -arieties produce large =uantities of !olten !etal and slag they are usually restricted to flat :do(nhand; and hori4ontal5-ertical fillet (elds. 1ther types of coating are a-aila3le such as %cid Cutile< %cid and 10idising 3ut are< ho(e-er< little used. %lthough there !ay 3e considera3le differences in the co!positions of the electrode cores depending on the properties desired in the (eld< the techni=ue of !odifying co!position 3y including alloying ele!ents in the coating can 3e of great i!portance. Electrode Coatings are su!!arised in Ta3le 2. Constituents of the coatings !ay also includeF -arious claysG silicaG o0ides and car3onates of iron< !anganese and calciu!G alu!iniu! and !agnesiu! silicatesG calciu! fluoride< or fluorsparF car3onates and silicates of sodiu! and potassiu!G and ferro5!anganese as a deo0idiser. Coating co!positions are descri3ed in general ter!s only< the proportions of the different ingredients and e-en the total nu!3er present 3eing the !anufacturerBs prerogati-e and his secret. The =uality of the product is deter!ined in the @udge!ent of the purchaser and although there are undou3ted differences 3et(een suppliers< e=ually< there are -ariations in the opinions and tastes of indi-idual (elders and their e!ployers. #t should 3e apparent that the coating on the electrode not only has an i!portant influence on the properties of the resulting (eld !etal 3ut it (ill also 3e the principle influence on the (elding characteristics the!sel-es< especially affecting such aspects as (elding positions. The functions of the indi-idual constituents in a coating are listed in Ta3le 3.

Ta(le &
Class Cellulosic :C;

Electr#de C#ati g C"aracteri%tic% a d N#r)al A66licati# %

Co!position of Co-ering 1rganic !aterial containing cellulose (ith so!e titaniu! o0ide. )ydrogen releasing. Characteristics Thin< easily re!o-a3le slag. Cather high splatter loss. Considera3le en-elope of shielding gas. Coarse ripple on (eld surface< deeply penetrating arc (ith rapid 3urn5off rate. 7ro(n slag easy to re!o-e. .ediu! ripple on (eld !etal< !ediu! penetration. Fillet profile flat or con-e0. *eposited !etal has high resistance to cold crac>ing 3ecause there is a lo( hydrogen content in the (eld. Electrodes !ust 3e stored under (ar! dry conditions and dried 3efore use. 9ses %ll classes of !ild steel (elding in all positionsF a.c. or d.c. electrode positi-e.

7asic :7;

Calciu! or other 3asic car3onates and fluorspar 3onded (ith sodiu! or potassiu! silicates. .ediu! coating. Coating co!pounds contain little hydrogen. C12 releasing.

7asic high efficiency :77;

i!ilar to 3asic electrode co-ering 3ut ha-e additional !etallic !aterials :e.g. iron po(der; in the co-ering (hich raise the efficiency to 13+H and !ore. Titaniu! dio0ide :rutile; and other hydrated !inerals andIor organic cellulose !aterials. Coating thic>ness less than 5+H of the core (ire dia!eter. i!ilar co-ering to the pre-ious rutile electrode 3ut containing< in addition !etallic su3stances :e.g. iron po(der;< (hich raises the efficiency to 13+H or !ore. Coating thic>ness at least 5+H greater than the core (ire dia!eter. 10ides and car3onates of iron and !anganese< (ith deo0idi4ers such as ferro5!anganese.

Cutile :C;

Cutile hea-y coating :CC;

uita3le for d.c. :electrode positi-e; or a.c. (ith 1C2 of $+2. 9sed for !ild< lo( alloy high tensile and structural steels< particularly for conditions of high restraint. For flat< -ertical and o-erhead positions< the latter ha-ing a flat deposit. These electrodes are suita3le for (elding in the flat and hori4ontalI-ertical position (ith a greatly increased rate of !etal deposition. Their high efficiency co-ering !a>es the! unsuita3le for (elding in the -ertical and o-erhead positions. They can 3e used either a.c. or d.c. generally (ith electrode J-e. Efficiency is indicated 3y a three5figure digit 3eginning the additional coding. Easy to use< (ith s!ooth (eld finish and !ediu! penetration. )igh le-el of hydrogen in the (eld !etal li!its their use in thic> sections or restrained @oints. uita3le for a.c. or d.c. the fast free4ing of (eld !etal and fluid slag !a>es the! suita3le for -ertical and o-erhead (elding. i!ilar characteristics to rutile electrodes 3ut generally unsuita3le for -ertical and o-erhead (elding 3ecause of increased slag. #ncreased rate of !etal deposition. Efficiency is indicated 3y a three5figure digit 3eginning the additional coding.

%cid :%;

%cid rutile :%C;

10idi4ing :1;

,enerally a thic> coating containing up to 35H rutile. #l!enite :iron o0ide; and titaniu! o0ide is also used. #ron o0ide (ith or (ithout !anganese o0ide and silicates.

,enerally a thic> coating (hich produces a fluid slag of large -olu!e and solidifies in a Kpuffed5upL !anner< is full of holes and easily detached. !ooth (eld finish (ith s!all ripples. ,ood penetration. Weld lia3le to solidification crac>ing if plate (elda3ility is not good. % fluid slag (ith other characteristics si!ilar to the acid type of co-ering. 10idi4ing slag so that the (eld !etal has a lo( car3on and !anganese content referred to as Kdead softL. Ceduction of area and i!pact -alues are lo(er than for other types of electrodes. Core (ire !elts up inside coating for!ing a cup so that the electrode can 3e used for Ktouch5 (eldingL. &o( penetrationG solid slag often self5deslagging< (ith (eld of neat appearance.

9sually in the flat position only 3ut can 3e used in other positionsG a.c. or d.c.

i!ilar to the acid type of coating. d.c. or a.c. supply (ith 1C2 as lo( as 452.

%ny 1ther Type : ;

This category is for any electrode co-erings not included in the foregoing list. #ron po(der electrodes do not co!e into this category 3ut should 3e indicated 3y their efficiency (ith a three digit figure.

Ta(le *

Ma 'al Metal Arc Electr#de Fl'9 C# %tit'e t% a d t"eir F' cti# % Constituent Pri!ary Function econdary Function #ron 10ide lag For!er %rc ta3iliser Cutile :Titaniu! *io0ide; lag For!er %rc ta3iliser .agnesia :.agnesiu! Flu0ing %gent 5 10ide; Calciu! Fluoride lag For!er Flu0ing %gent Potassiu! ilicate %rc ta3iliser 7inder 1ther ilicates lag For!ers and Flu0ing %gent 7inders Calciu! Car3onate ,as For!er %rc ta3iliser 1ther Car3onates ,as For!ers 5 Cellulose ,as For!er 5 Ferro5.anganese %lloying *eo0idiser Ferro5Chro!e %lloying 5 Ferro5 ilicon *eo0idiser 5 Electr#de Cla%%i7icati# S8%te)% Electrode specifications are usually prefi0ed (ith E follo(ed 3y se-eral digits andIor letters andIor che!ical sy!3ols. Co-ered electrodes for (elding car3on and car3on !anganese steels The European syste! :i.e. E6 standards; is principally concerned (ith the !echanical properties of deposited (eld !etal< na!ely yield and tensile strengths and i!pact toughness. %dditional infor!ation is included in the classification (hich relates to the (eld !etal co!position< type of coating< reco!!ended (elding positions< (elding current re=uire!ents< deposition efficiency and hydrogen control. :e.g. E46316i754)5; #n the %!erican syste!< electrodes are classified under the %!erican Welding ociety :%W ; specification % 5.1< (hich is less co!plicated then the European syste!. Essentially it is a four digit nu!3er (ith the prefi0 E designating an electrode. The first t(o digits define the no!inal !ini!u! tensile strength of the deposited !etal in thousands of pounds per s=uare inch :>psi;G for !ild steel. these (ill 3e 6+ or $+. The third digit indicates the reco!!ended positions :i.e. the digit 1 signifies suita3ility for all (elding positions< 2 for flat or hori4ontal fillet (elds< and 3 for the flat position only.; The fourth digit deter!ines the electrical po(er re=uire!ents. The last t(o digits together refer to the type of electrode coating as stipulated in the specification. :e.g. E$+1';

1.5

&o( %lloy Electrodes .ost of the lo( alloy steel electrode classifications are 3ased on the lo( hydrogen or 3asic type of co-ering. The co!position of the 3asic co-ering !a>es it possi3le to add a nu!3er of alloying ele!ents to produce a range
9

of (eld !etal analyses and strengths. The increased strength of the (eld !etal is o3tained 3y the addition of alloying ele!ents< (hich !ay 3e achie-ed either through the core (ire or -ia the coating. The European classifications include the che!ical sy!3ols such as .n< 6i< Cr< (hen they are present as alloying additions< together (ith an indication of the car3on content< the type of co-ering< and the hydrogen control if re=uired. %ppropriate !echanical properties are specified including tensile strength< proof stress< elongation and if re=uired i!pact tests at -arious te!peratures. :e.g. ECr.o1&7; The %W specification for these electrodes is %5.5 and is -ery si!ilar to that for car3on steels descri3ed a3o-e. The first t(o< or so!eti!es three< digits of the classification reflect the tensile strength of the (eld deposit :e.g. '+< 11+ etc.;. For e0a!ple the co-ering of E"+16 (ill 3e si!ilar to an E$+16 electrode although the tensile strength (ill 3e "+ >psi and the co-ering (ill generally contain the alloying ele!ents. :e.g. E"+16 5 C2; Electrodes for %lloy and tainless teels The trend for these electrodes is for the (eld !etal to 3e at least as high in alloy content as the 3ase !aterial< and in so!e instances !ay 3e considera3ly higher. The European standard refers to electrodes for Chro!iu! and Chro!iu!5 6ic>el steels< and the classification is indicated 3y the !a@or alloying ele!ents of the (eld deposit. The first three character sets indicate the no!inal Chro!iu!< 6ic>el and .oly3denu! contents respecti-ely. The letter & or ) is then added for lo( or high car3on content respecti-ely. 1ther che!ical sy!3ols such as .n< Cu< 63 follo( if re=uired. Finally appropriate electrode coating sy!3ols such as 7 for 3asic< C for rutile etc. appear. :e.g. 1".12.3.63.C; The %W pecification for these electrodes is %5.4. %s 3efore they are denoted 3y the prefi0 E follo(ed 3y a specification nu!3er for the (eld !etal deposit. These specification nu!3ers are the sa!e as those of the %# # series for stainless and alloy steels. :e.g. E316&; Ta3le 4 gi-es details of -arious alloy and stainless steel co!positions relating to the # 1 sy!3ol on (hich the 7ritish and European tandards are 3ased. The %W e=ui-alents are included. #t (ill 3e appreciated that the foregoing descriptions relate only to their 3arest essentials. #t cannot 3e e!phasised too strongly that (hen dealing (ith tandard pecifications it is i!portant that they are studied in their official for! and their re=uire!ents fully understood.

10

Ta(le + # 1 y!3ol

Stai le%% Steel C#)6#%iti# % Co!position of deposited !etal C .a0H Cr H 11514 1551' 1$53+ 1'521 1'521 1'521 1'521 1$52+ 1$52+ 1$52+ 1$521 22526 22526 22526 22525 22525 1$52+ 2452' 2452' 2452' 2552' 2452' 1'521 6i H .o H 1ther ele!ents E 41+ E 43+ '511 '511 '511 '511 11514 11514 11514 11515 11515 11515 11515 11515 11515 $51+ 1'522 1'522 1'522 1'522 1'522 '51+ E 3+' E 3+'& E 34$ E 316 E 316& E 31' i!ilar %W :2; standard

13 1$ 3+ 1"." 1"." & 1"." 63 1"." & 63 1".12.2 1".12.2 & 1".12.2 63 1".13.4 1".13.4 & 23.12 23.12 & 23.12 63 23.12.2 1'.' .n 25.2+ 25.2+ & 25.2+ 63 25.2+.2 25.2+ C 2+." 63

+.12 +.1+ +.1+ +.+' +.+4 +.+' +.+4 +.+' +.+4 +.+' +.+' +.+4 +.15 +.+4 +.12 +.12 +.2+ +.2+ +.+4 +.12 +.12 +.25I+.45 +.13

63 :1; 63 :1; 252.5 252.5 252.5 3.55 5.5 3.55 5.5 63 :1; 253 .n 55' 63 :1;

E 31$ E 3+"

E 31+ 63 :1; 253 +.355 +.65 63 :1; E 34"

:1;

:2;

2"." +.15 1'.36 +.25 67 content M !in replaced 3y Ta. %!erican Welding

2'532 '512 E 312 1451" 3353' '0C content and !a0. 1.2H. part of 63 can 3e ociety.

11

1.6

T"e I 7l'e ce #7 Weldi g C'rre t Ta3les are a-aila3le as guides to the appro0i!ate currents to 3e used (ith -arious types and si4es of electrodes< although the actual -alues e!ployed (ill depend to a great e0tent on the (or> to 3e done. ,enerally the higher the current in the range gi-en for a particular electrode si4e< the deeper the 6e etrati# and the faster the rate of deposition. Too high a current can lead to %6atter and ' derc'tti g 3ut too lo( a current (ill result in insufficient penetration and too s!all a deposit of (eld !etal. %s a rule the arc -oltage (ill 3e o3ser-ed to increase slightly (ith increase in electrode dia!eter. 1perating re=uire!ents are in-aria3ly clearly stated 3y the electrode !anufacturer and these are 3est adhered toG ho(e-er< as a guide< Ta3le 5 sho(s so!e suggested -alues. Ta(le ,
Electrode *ia!eter :!!; 6or!al Ceco-ery Type Electrode )igh Ceco-ery Electrode

T86ical Electr#de C'rre t%

1.6 3+55+% 2.5 5+511+% 3.25 11+5 15+% 13+5 16+% 4 14+5 2++% 1"+5 22+% 5 2++5 26+% 26+5 32+% 6 22+534+%

33+53'+%

The dia!eter of the electrode to 3e used (ill depend on the (elding position< thic>ness and the type of @oint. #n the o-erhead< -ertical and hori4ontal5-ertical positions< o(ing to the effects of gra-ity< !olten !etal tends to run out of the @oint and control 3y (ay of s!aller !olten !etal pool as pro-ided 3y lo(er currents and s!aller dia!eter electrodes is necessary. The (elding current !ay 3e DC positi-e or negati-e< or AC. o!e electrodes !ay 3e used (ith DC or AC< 3ut others (ill 3e li!ited in this respect. The energy cost is lo(er (hen (elding (ith AC 3ut as this represents only a -ery !inor part of the total (elding costs it is unli>ely to 3e a significant factor (hen choosing the current type. ,enerally all electrodes can 3e used (ith DC (hich pro-ides a steadier arc and s!oother !etal transfer than AC. #t also produces a good (etting action and a unifor! (eld 3ead shape. #t is considered 3etter for -ertical and o-erhead (or>< and (here a short arc is ad-antageous. Thin sheet is easier to (eld (ith DC. )o(e-er< there is the disad-antage of Karc 3lo(L (here !agnetic effects influence the direction of the arc !a>ing it difficult to control< especially (hen (elding near the edges of ferro !agnetic !etals using high currents. : ee ection 12;. This pro3le! does not arise (ith AC. When the electrode is connected to DC negati-e :%!erican ter!inologyF DC straight polarity< DCSP; a3out t(o thirds of the heat is at the (or>5piece (hich (ill gi-e deeper penetration. 1n the other hand if the electrode is connected to DC positi-e :USF DC re-erse polarity< DCRP; t(o thirds of the
12

heat (ill 3e at the electrode< thus increasing the electrode !elting rate 3ut reducing penetration. 1.$ Arc Le gt" The arc length is the distance fro! the !olten tip of the electrode core (ire to the surface of the !olten (eld pool. Proper arc length is i!portant in o3taining a sound (elded @oint. .etal transfer fro! the tip of the electrode to the (eld pool is not a s!ooth< unifor! action< and instantaneous arc -oltage -aries as droplets of !olten !etal are transferred across the arc< e-en (ith constant arc length. )o(e-er< any -ariation in -oltage (ill 3e !ini!al (hen (elding is done (ith the proper a!perage and arc length. The latter re=uires constant and consistent electrode feed. The correct length -aries according to the electrode classification< dia!eter< and co-ering co!positionG it also -aries (ith a!perage and (elding position. %rc length increases (ith increasing electrode dia!eter and a!perage and as a general rule< it should not e0ceed the dia!eter of the core (ire of the electrode. The arc usually is shorter than this for electrodes (ith thic> co-erings< such as iron po(der or KdragL electrodes. Too short an arc (ill 3e erratic and !ay short circuit during !etal transfer. Too long an arc (ill lac> direction and intensity< (hich (ill tend to spatter the !olten !etal as it !o-es fro! the electrode to the (eld. The spatter !ay 3e hea-y and deposition efficiency lo(. %lso< the gas and flu0 generated 3y the co-ering are not as effecti-e in shielding the arc and the (eld !etal fro! air. The poor shielding can cause porosity and conta!ination of the (eld !etal 3y o0ygen or nitrogen< or 3oth and the =uality of the (eld (ill 3e poor. Control of arc length is largely a !atter of (elder s>ill< in-ol-ing the (elderBs >no(ledge< e0perience< -isual perception and !anual de0terity. %lthough the arc length does change to so!e e0tent (ith changing conditions certain funda!ental principles can 3e gi-en as a guide to the proper arc length for a gi-en set of conditions. For do(nhand (elding< particularly (ith hea-y electrode co-erings< the tip of the electrode can 3e dragged lightly along the @oint. The arc length< in this case< is auto!atically deter!ined 3y the depth of the cup at the tip of the electrode and the !elting rate of the electrode. For -ertical or o-erhead (elding< the arc length is al(ays gauged 3y the (elder. The proper arc length< in such cases< is the one that per!its the (elder to control the si4e and !otion of the !olten (eld pool. The sa!e is true for the root passes in groo-e and fillet (elds. The -arious classifications of electrodes ha-e (idely different operating characteristics< including arc length. #t is i!portant< therefore< for the (elder to 3e fa!iliar (ith the operating characteristics of the types of electrodes he uses in order to recognise the proper arc length and to >no( the effect of different arc lengths. The effect of a long and a short arc on 3ead appearance (ith a !ild steel electrode is illustrated :see Figure 4;.
13

Fig're + E77ect% #7 $ar8i g c'rre t: arc le gt" ;arc $#ltage< a d tra$el %6eed ill'%trated (8 %'r7ace% a d cr#%%-%ecti# al $ie!% #7 %"ielded )etal-arc !eld%= le7t t# rig"t - c'rre t: arc le gt" a d tra$el %6eed #r)al> c'rre t t## l#!> c'rre t t## "ig"> arc le gt" t## %"#rt> arc le gt" t## l# g> tra$el %6eed t## %l#!> tra$el %6eed t## "ig" Ta(le I 7l'e ce #7 Arc Le gt" # Weld Metal A al8%i%
C +.+'5 +.+'+ +.+$5 +.+55 62 +.++" +.+15 +.+4' +.+6" .n +.$2 +.$1 +.64 +.63 i +.53 +.54 +.3" +.15 +.+1' +.+1$ +.+1' +.+1' P +.+16 +.+2$ +.+25 +.+1' %rc Type hort 6or!al &ong in still air &ong in (indy conditions

:*eposition (ith a nor!al 3asic5coated electrode; 1.' L#! 38dr#ge Electr#de% %t high te!peratures hydrogen< unli>e o0ygen and nitrogen< does not for! any co!pounds (ith iron and has a high solu3ility in the austenite phase. )ydrogen has a lo(er solu3ility in steel after transfor!ation at lo(er te!peratures< on cooling. This hydrogen (ill cause e!3rittle!ent in steel. #n a (eld and the surrounding regions the presence of hydrogen (ill also increase the tendency to crac>ing. #t is i!portant in all critical structures to >eep hydrogen to a !ini!u!. The pro3le! can 3e !ini!ised 3y e!ploying 3asic5coated electrodes (hich ha-e 3een 3a>ed in !anufacture and su3se=uently >ept dry. )ere the coating consists of calciu!< and other car3onates< and fluorspar 3onded (ith sodiu! or potassiu! silicate. #n the heat of the arc< the car3onates dissociate releasing car3on dio0ide (hich acts as the shielding gas. To further reduce !oisture content they are fre=uently 3a>ed i!!ediately 3efore use. &o( hydrogen electrodes are nor!ally tested to de!onstrate a (eld !etal hydrogen content of less than 15 c!3I1++g of deposited !etal. Ta3le $ indicates the effect of different coatings and 3a>ing te!peratures on hydrogen content of the (eld !etal.

14

Ta(le .

T86ical 38dr#ge C# te t% Coating type )ydrogen c!3 per 1++ g deposited !etal Cellulosic N $+ Cutile N 2+ 7asic 5 *ried 1++515+AC 1+ 5 15 7asic 5 *ried 35+545+AC 3 5 1+

% 7asic slag is relati-ely thic> and -iscous (hich !a>es the electrodes co!parati-ely difficult to use. They can ho(e-er 3e e!ployed for (elding in all positions and the (eld !etal has e0cellent !echanical properties. uch electrodes are often used for (elding structures e0posed to high stresses and are usually specified (hen there are re=uire!ents for i!pact -alues at lo( te!peratures. 7asic< lo( hydrogen coatings are used for electrodes to deposit high strength steel (eld !etal. 1." *eep Penetration Welding With co!!on (elding practices it !ay 3e e0pected that penetration (ill 3e of the order of 1 !! per 1++ a!ps of current. % deep penetration electrode is defined in 7 4"" as K% co-ered electrode in (hich the co-ering aids the production of a penetrating arc to gi-e a deeper than nor!al fusion in the root of the @oint.L uch electrodes can 3e used to produce faultless 3utt (elds in s=uare 3utt @oints (hich ha-e 3een set up correctly. The deep penetration electrodes are so!eti!es gi-en the classification P< as in E435P< and ha-e a cellulose type of co-ering. #f using a *C arc the electrode should 3e connected to the negati-e pole so that the !a0i!u! heat goes to the (or>5piece. For such electrodes an arc -oltage of 6+5$+2 is usual co!pared (ith 2+53+2 for the nor!al type of electrode. #n general the (eld !etal (ill contain a large proportion of !elted parent !etal and (ill therefore ha-e a co!position closely related to that of the parent !etal.

1.1+

3ard Faci g K..% (elding is a often used for applying surface layersL to !etals to i!pro-e the resistance to a3rasion< i!pact< corrosion and heat. The ad-antage of the !ethod is that the surface can 3e deposited on a cheaper 3ase !etal to gi-e (ear resistance or other =ualities< e0actly (here re=uired< (ith great financial sa-ings. %lso (orn parts can 3e 3uilt up (ith su3stantial reductions in ti!e and replace!ent costs. 2ery hard surfaces are nor!ally re=uired for good a3rasion resistance 3ut high hardness -alues are usually acco!panied 3y poor resistance to i!pact. Con-ersely good i!pact resistance is not allied to e0tre!e hardness and it is therefore necessary to deter!ine (hich =uality is of greater i!portance. i!ilarly consideration !ust 3e gi-en to the re=uire!ents of corrosion and heat resistance and to the co!position of the 3ase !etal< the need for pre5 heating and the possi3ility of post5(elding heat treat!ent. The tellite series of alloys (hich !ay 3e nic>el or co3alt 3ased are (ell >no(n for
15

hardfacing applications (hich !ay include caterpillar trac>s< e0ca-ator 3uc>ets< rail(ay points< roc> crushers etc. Cutting tools for lathes and !illing !achines etc. can 3e !ade 3y depositing a layer of high speed tool steel onto a shan> of lo(er car3on steel. #t (ill 3e realised that the parent !etal (ill dilute the deposited !etal and to !ini!ise this effect three hard facing layers should 3e applied (here possi3le. The total thic>ness of the hard facing layers should nor!ally not e0ceed a3out 6 !! and (here a thic>er deposit is re=uired it should first 3e 3uilt up (ith lo( hydrogen (eld !etal. 1.11 Gra$it8 Weldi g This is a si!ple !ethod for econo!ically (elding long fillets in the flat position using gra-ity to feed the electrode and to tra-erse the (eld pool along the @oint. %n operator can loo> after t(o or !ore !achines at any one ti!e< for e0a!ple< one on each side of a plate< gi-ing sy!!etrical (elds and reducing stress and distortion. The electrode holder is !ounted on a 3all5 3earing carriage and slides s!oothly do(n a guide 3ar< the angle of (hich can 3e ad@usted to gi-e faster or slo(er tra-erse and thus -ary the length of deposit of the electrode and the leg length of the (eld :see Figure 5;.

Fig're , Gra$it8 Weldi g

16

Electrodes of $++ !! and !ore in length are a-aila3le in dia!eters of 3.5< 4.+< 4.5< 5.+ and 5.5 !! using currents of 22+5315 % (ith rutile< rutile53asic and acid coatings suita3le for -arious grades of steel. ,ra-ity (elding is generally used for fillets (ith leg lengths of 55' !!< the lengths 3eing -aried 3y altering the length of deposit per electrode. %n %C po(er source is used for each unit (ith an 1C2 of 6+2 and arc -oltage a3out 4+2 (ith currents up to 3++%. ources are a-aila3le for supplying up to 6 units :3 pairs; !anagea3le 3y one (elding operator and so arranged that (hen the current setting for one unit is chosen< the re!aining units are supplied at this -alue. #n general the syste! is particularly suita3le for (elding< for e0a!ple< long parallel stiffeners on large unit panels< ena3ling one operator to !a>e three or four ti!es the deposit length co!pared (ith !anual (elding. #ts !ain application is in ship 3uilding for fillet (elding in the hori4ontal5-ertical position.

17

2. 2.1

SU0MERGED ARC WELDING T"e Pr#ce%% %33re-iated as SAW< this is a (elding process (here an arc is struc> 3et(een a continuous 3are (ire and the parent plate. The arc< electrode end and the !olten pool are su3!erged in an agglo!erated or fused po(dered flu0 (hich turns into a slag in its lo(er layers (hen su3@ected to the heat of the arc< thus protecting the (eld fro! conta!ination. The (ire electrode is fed continuously 3y a feed unit of !otor5dri-en rollers (hich usually are -oltage5controlled to ensure an arc of constant length. The flu0 is fed fro! a hopper fi0ed to the (elding head< and a tu3e fro! the hopper spreads the flu0 in a continuous elongated !ound in front of the arc along the line of the intended (eld and of sufficient depth to su3!erge the arc co!pletely so that there is no spatter< the (eld is shielded fro! the at!osphere< and there are no ultra5-iolet or infra5red radiation effects :see Figure 6;. 9n!elted flu0 is reclai!ed for use. The use of po(dered flu0 restricts the process to the flat and hori4ontal5-ertical (elding positions. u3!erged arc (elding is noted for its a3ility to e!ploy high (eld currents o(ing to the properties and functions of the flu0. uch currents gi-e deep penetration and high dilution (here t(ice as !uch parent !etal as (ire electrode is !elted. ,enerally a DC positi-e current is e!ployed up to a3out 1+++ a!ps. %t higher currents< AC is often preferred to a-oid the pro3le! of arc 3lo(. *ifficulties so!eti!es arise in ensuring confor!ity of the (eld (ith a predeter!ined line o(ing to the o3scuring effect of the flu0. Where possi3le< a guide (heel to run in the @oint preparation is positioned in front of the (elding head and flu0 hoppers. u3!erged arc (elding is (idely used in the fa3rication of ships< pressure -essels< line pipe< rail(ay (agons and any(here long (elds are re=uired. #t can 3e used to (eld thic>nesses fro! 1.5 !! up(ards.

Fig're - Sc"e)atic diagra) #7 S'()erged Arc Weldi g

18

2.2

Material% ?#i ed u3!erged arc (elding !ay 3e used for @oining !any ferrous and non5 ferrous !etals and alloys and to apply cladding to 3ase !etals to i!pro-e (ear and corrosion resistance. Electrodes are a-aila3le producing (eld !etal suita3le for use (ith plain car3on steel< special alloy steel< stainless steel< non5ferrous alloys< !ainly 6ic>el 3ased< and special alloys for surfacing applications. Co!3inations of car3on steel electrodes and flu0es are specified to gi-e the desired properties to the resulting (eld !etal. %lloy steels can 3e (elded (ith alloy steel electrodes using neutral flu0es or (ith car3on steel electrodes using flu0es containing the alloying ele!ents.

2.3

Fl'9e% The flu0es !ay 3e defined as granular !ineral co!pounds !i0ed to -arious for!ulations. The so called fused flu0es are produced (hen the constituents are dry !i0ed and !elted in an electric furnace and thereafter granulated 3y pouring the !olten !i0ture into (ater. u3se=uently< these particles are crushed and screened to yield a unifor! glass5li>e product. uch flu0es ha-e the ad-antages of ho!ogeneity and they are less hygroscopic than other types. They allo( fines :fine po(ders; to 3e re!o-ed (ithout changes in co!position and they can easily 3e recycled through the syste!. There are ho(e-er li!itations in co!position as so!e co!ponents such as 3asic car3onates (ould 3e una3le to (ithstand the !elting process. %lternati-ely< the po(dered flu0 constituents !ay 3e 3onded 3y !i0ing the dry constituents (ith Potassiu! or odiu! ilicate. This (et !i0ture is then pelletised< dried< crushed and screened to si4e. This !ethod has the ad-antage that deo0idisers and alloying ele!ents can easily 3e added to the flu0 to ad@ust the (eld !etal co!position. #t (ill allo( a thic>er flu0 layer (hen (elding and it can 3e identified 3y colour coding. #ts disad-antages are that it is generally !ore hygroscopic< that gas !ay 3e e-ol-ed fro! the slag as it is !elted< and there !ay 3e changes in (eld !etal che!ical co!position fro! the segregation of fine particles produced 3y the !echanical handling of the granulated flu0.

2.4

Weldi g 3ead Arra ge)e t% There are se-eral -ariations of !achine and auto!atic su3!erged arc (elding that (ill per!it higher deposition rates (ith good control of the (eld 3ead si4e and penetration. 2arious !ultiple electrode syste!s that use one or !ore po(er sources (ith different types of circuit connections are a-aila3le. For e0a!ple< t(o electrodes can 3e positioned in tande! so that their arcs (ill produce a single !olten (eld pool. #n this configuration< the arcs !ay 3e operated fro! the sa!e po(er source 3y connecting the! either in series or in parallel< or they !ay 3e operated fro! separate po(er sources. #n the latter case< one syste! uses a DC source for the lead arc and an AC source for the trail arc. %nother syste! uses t(o AC po(er sources (ith an ad@usta3le phase5shift control to ad@ust the interaction 3et(een the t(o AC arcs.

19

2.5

O6erati g 4aria(le% 8no(ledge and control of the operating -aria3les in su3!erged arc (elding are essential if high production rates and (elds of good =uality are to 3e o3tained consistently :see Figure $;. These -aria3les< in the appro0i!ate order of their i!portance< areF 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. $. '. Welding current Type of flu0 and particle distri3ution Welding -oltage Welding speed Electrode si4e Electrode e0tension Type of electrode Width and depth of the layer of flu0

2.5.1

Weldi g C'rre t Welding current is the !ost influential -aria3le 3ecause it controls the rate at (hich the electrode is !elted< the depth of penetration< and the a!ount of 3ase !etal !elted. #f the current is too high at a gi-en tra-el speed< the depth of fusion or penetration (ill 3e too great. The resulting (eld !ay ha-e a tendency to !elt through the !etal 3eing @oined. )igh current also leads to (aste of electrodes in the for! of e0cess (eld !etal. This o-er (elding increases (eld shrin>age and usually causes greater distortion. #f the current is too lo(< inade=uate penetration or inco!plete fusion !ay result. o!e rules to re!e!3er concerning (elding current areF 1. 2. 3. #ncreasing current increases penetration and !elting rate. E0cessi-ely high current produces a digging arcG undercutG or a high< narro( 3ead. E0cessi-ely lo( current produces an unsta3le arc.

2.5.2

Arc 4#ltage %rc -oltage ad@ust!ent -aries the length of the arc 3et(een the electrode and the !olten (eld !etal. #f the arc -oltage increases< the arc length increasesG if the arc -oltage decreases< the arc length decreases. The arc -oltage has little effect on the electrode deposition rate (hich is deter!ined !ainly 3y the (elding current. The -oltage principally deter!ines the shape of the (eld 3ead cross section and its e0ternal appearance.

20

#ncreasing the arc -oltage (ith constant current and tra-el speed (illF 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Produce a flatter and (ider 3ead #ncrease flu0 consu!ption Tend to reduce porosity caused 3y rust or scale on steel. )elp to 3ridge e0cessi-e root opening (hen fit5up is poor. #ncrease pic>up of alloying ele!ents fro! the flu0 (hen they are present.

E0cessi-ely high arc -oltage (illF 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Produce a (ide 3ead shape that is su3@ect to solidification crac>ing. .a>e slag re!o-al difficult in groo-e (elds. Produce a conca-e shaped fillet (eld that !ay 3e su3@ect to crac>ing. #ncrease undercut along the edge:s; of fillet (elds. 1-er alloy the (eld !etal< -ia the flu0.

L#!eri g t"e arc $#ltage produces a KstifferL arc (hich i!pro-es 6e etrati# in a deep (eld groo-e and resists arc (l#!. %n e0cessi-ely lo( -oltage produces a high< narro( 3ead and causes difficult slag re!o-al along the 3ead edges. 2.5.3 Tra$el S6eed With any co!3ination of (elding current and -oltage< the effects of changing the tra-el speed confor! to a general pattern. I7 t"e tra$el %6eed i% i crea%ed= 1. 2. 3. Po(er or heat input per unit length of (eld is decreasedG &ess filler !etal is applied per unit length of (eld< and conse=uently less e0cess (eld !etalG Penetration decreases.

Thus< the (eld 3ead 3eco!es s!aller. 2.5.4 Electr#de Si@e Electrode si4e affects the (eld 3ead shape and the depth of penetration at a gi-en current. !all electrodes are used (ith se!i5auto!atic e=uip!ent to pro-ide fle0i3ility of !o-e!ent. They are also used for !ultiple electrode< parallel po(er e=uip!ent.

21

Electrode si4e also influences the deposition rate. %t any gi-en a!perage setting< a s!all dia!eter electrode (ill ha-e a higher current density and a higher deposition rate of !olten !etal than a larger dia!eter electrode. )o(e-er< a larger dia!eter electrode can carry !ore current than a s!aller electrode< so the larger electrode can ulti!ately produce a higher deposition rate at higher a!perage. #f a desired electrode feed rate is higher :or lo(er; than the feed !otor can !aintain< changing to a larger :or s!aller; si4e electrode (ill per!it the desired deposition rate. For a gi-en electrode si4e< a "ig" c'rre t de %it8 results in a KstiffB arc that 6e etrate% into the 3ase !etal. Con-ersely< a l#!er c'rre t de %it8 in the sa!e si4e electrode results in a KsoftL arc that is le%% 6e etrati g. 2.5.5 Electr#de E9te %i# The electrode e0tension is the distance the continuous electrode protrudes 3eyond the contact tip. %t high current densities< resistance heating of the electrode 3et(een the contact tip and the arc can 3e utilised to increase the electrode !elting rate. The longer the e0tension< the greater the a!ount of heating and the higher the !elting rate. This resistance heating is co!!only referred to as I&R heating (hich (hen increased (ill enhance deposition rates 3y as !uch as 2555+H. uch ad@ust!ents (ill li!it the po(er a-aila3le at the (eld itself resulting in reduced penetration and 3ead (idth. To counteract these effects increases in electrode e0tension should 3e acco!panied 3y appropriate increases in -oltage. 2.5.6 T86e #7 Electr#de %n electrode (ith a lo( electrical conducti-ity< such as stainless steel< can (ith a nor!al electrode e0tension e0perience greater resistance heating. Thus for the sa!e si4e electrode and current< the !elting rate of a stainless steel electrode (ill 3e higher than that of a car3on steel electrode. 2.5.$ Widt" a d De6t" #7 Fl'9 The (idth and depth of the layer of granular flu0 influence the appearance and soundness of the finished (eld as (ell as the (elding action. #f the granular layer is too deep< the arc is too confined and a rough (eld (ith a rope5li>e appearance is li>ely to result. The gases generated during (elding cannot readily escape< and the surface of the !olten (eld !etal is irregularly distorted. #f the granular layer is too shallo(< the arc (ill not 3e entirely su3!erged in flu0. Flashing and spattering (ill occur. The (eld (ill ha-e a poor appearance< and it !ay 3e porous.

22

Fig're . E77ect # %'()erged Arc O6erati g 4aria(le%

23

24

3. 3.1

GAS-S3IELDED METAL-ARC WELDING T"e Pr#ce%% 8no(n in the 9 % as ,as .etal %rc Welding :,.%W; this process can 3e further distinguished 3y the character of the shielding gasF inert or che!ically acti-e. This results in the ter!s .etal5%rc #nert ,as :.#,; and .etal5%rc %cti-e ,as :.%,; (elding. This process is no( in co!!on use ha-ing displaced so!e of the !ore traditional !anual (elding techni=ues. #n this process< the arc< surrounded 3y a protecti-e gas< is struc> 3et(een a consu!a3le (ire electrode and the (or>. The process is suita3le for (elding alu!iniu!< !agnesiu! alloys< plain and lo(5alloy steels< stainless and heat5resistant steels< copper and 3ron4e< the -ariations 3eing filler (ire and type of shielding gas. The continuous consu!a3le electrode (ire is !echanically fed fro! a spool to a !anually or !echanically controlled gun through a fle0i3le guide tu3e 3y !otor5dri-en rollers of ad@usta3le speed. The rate of 3urn5off of the electrode (ire !ust 3e 3alanced 3y the rate of (ire feed (hich deter!ines the current used. #n addition< a shielding gas or gas !i0ture is fed to the gun together (ith (elding current supply< cooling (ater flo( and return :if the gun is (ater cooled; and a control ca3le fro! the gun s(itch to control contactors :see Figures ' and ";.

Fig're / C#)6# e t% #7 ga% %"ielded )etal arc !eldi g 6r#ce%%

25

Fig're 2 Ga% )etal arc !eldi g ter)i #l#g8 Pure argon cannot 3e used as a shielding gas for !ild< lo(5alloy and stainless steel 3ecause of arc insta3ility 3ut no( sophisticated gas !i0tures of argon< heliu!< car3on dio0ide and o0ygen ha-e greatly increased the range of the process. Car3on dio0ide alone is (idely e!ployed as a shield (hen (elding car3on and lo( alloy steels. The !ethod has !any applications and its use is li>ely to increase in the future. 3.2 Electr#de% The co!position of the electrode and 3ase !etal should 3e as nearly ali>e as practica3le. #n so!e cases this re=uire!ent can 3e !et 3ut in others< to o3tain satisfactory (elding and (eld !etal characteristics< an apprecia3le co!position change is needed. *eo0idisers and other sca-engers are nearly al(ays added to !ini!ise porosity or to ensure that the presence of o0ygen< hydrogen or nitrogen is neutralised. These gases !ay 3e part of the shielding gas or reach the (eld pool fro! the surrounding at!osphere. #n steel electrodes< deo0idisers !ay 3e .n< i or %l< in 6ic>el alloys Ti or i and in Copper alloys Ti< i or P. Their use is especially i!portant (ith shielding gases containing o0ygen. .anganese and silicon are used as deo0idisers in !any cases in steel 3ut triple deo0idised (ire using alu!iniu!< titaniu! and 4irconiu! gi-es high5 =uality (elds and is especially suita3le for use (ith C1 2 gas shield. ,enerally (ire dia!eters are =uite s!all co!pared (ith other types of (elding< ranging fro! 1.+ !! to 1.6 !!< although up to 3.+ !! or do(n to +.5 !! !ay 3e used occasionally. The high currents e!ployed in MIG and MAG (elding co!3ined (ith the s!all dia!eter (ire result in -ery high !elting rates -arying fro! a3out 4+ !!Isec up to 34+ !!Isec. The (ires !ust therefore 3e supplied in long continuous strands< suita3ly hardened :stiffened;< for non5stop s!ooth feeding through the e=uip!ent. Ferrous (ires are usually coated (ith copper to pro-ide so!e corrosion resistance and to i!pro-e electrical contact in the (elding e=uip!ent.

26

3.3 3.3.1

Tra %7er M#de% S6ra8 Tra %7er #n !anual !etal arc (elding< !etal is transferred in glo3ules or droplets fro! the electrode to (or>. #f the current is increased to the continuously fed< gas5shielded (ire< the rate at (hich such droplets are pro@ected across the arc increases and they 3eco!e s!aller in -olu!e and the transfer is then in the for! of a fine spray :see Figure l+a;. The type of gas 3eing used as a shield greatly affects the -alues of current at (hich spray transfer occurs 3ut they are usually !ore than 2++ a!ps. .uch greater current densities are re=uired (ith C1 2 than (ith argon !i0tures to o3tain the sa!e droplet rate. The arc is continuous during operation< arc energy output is high< the rate of deposition of !etal is high< penetration is deep and there is considera3le dilution fro! the parent !etal. #f current 3eco!es e0cessi-ely high< tur3ulence can 3e induced in the gas shield< leading to o0idation< and o0ide fil! entrap!ent in the (eld !etal (hen (elding alu!iniu!. For spray transfer there is a high -oltage drop across the arc :3+545 2; and a high current density in the (ire electrode !a>ing the process suita3le for thic>er sections< !ostly in the flat position. The high currents used produce strong !agnetic fields and a -ery directional arc. With argon shielding the forces on the droplets are (ell 3alanced during transfer so that they !o-e s!oothly fro! (ire to (or> (ith little spatter. With C12 shielding the forces on the droplet are less 3alanced so that the arc is less s!ooth and spatter tendency is greater.

27

;a< S6ra8 tra %7er= arc $#lt% &.-+, 4. S"ieldi g ga%e%= arg# : arg# - 1 #r &A #98ge : arg# - &BA CO&: arg# - &A #98ge - ,A CO&. 3ig" c'rre t a d de6#%iti# rate: '%ed 7#r 7lat !eldi g #7 t"ic1er %ecti# %

;(< S"#rt-circ'it #r di6 tra %7er= arc $#lt% 1,-&& 4. S"ieldi g ga%e% a% 7#r %6ra8 tra %7er. L#!er "eat #'t6't a d l#!er de6#%iti# rate t"a %6ra8 tra %7er. Mi i)i%e% di%t#rti# : l#! dil'ti# . U%ed 7#r t"i er %ecti# % a d 6#%iti# al !eldi g #7 t"ic1er %ecti# % Fig're 1B T86e% #7 arc tra %7er

28

3.3.2

S"#rt Circ'it #r Di6 Tra %7er With lo(er arc -olts :155222; and currents usually less than 2++ a!ps< transfer ta>es place in glo3ular for! 3ut (ith inter!ittent short5circuiting of the arc :see Figure 1+3;. The (ire feed rate !ust @ust e0ceed the 3urn5off rate so that the inter!ittent short5circuiting (ill occur. When the (ire touches the pool and short5circuits the arc there is a !o!entary rise of current< (hich !ust 3e sufficient to !a>e the (ire tip !olten< a nec> is then for!ed in it due to !agnetic pinch effect and it !elts off in the for! of a droplet 3eing suc>ed into the !olten pool aided 3y surface tension. The arc is then re5esta3lished< gradually reducing in length as the (ire feed rate gains on the 3urn5off until short5circuiting again occurs. The po(er source !ust supply sufficient current on short5circuit to ensure !elt5off or other(ise the (ire (ill stic> in a solidified (eld. #t !ust also 3e a3le to pro-ide sufficient -oltage i!!ediately after short5circuit to re5esta3lish the arc. The short5circuit fre=uency depends uponF the arc -oltage and current type of shielding gas dia!eter of (ire po(er source characteristics

3ut (ill 3e a3out 5+ to 2++ ti!es per second. The heat output of this type of arc is !uch less than that of the spray transfer type and !a>es the process suita3le for the (elding of thinner sections and for all positional (elding< in addition to !ulti5run thic>er sections< and it gi-es !uch greater (elding speed than !etal5arc5(elding (ith co-ered electrodes on light gauge steel< for e0a!ple. *ip transfer has the lo(est (eld !etal dilution -alue of all the arc processes. )o(e-er< (elds !ay 3e !ore prone to lac> of fusion defects< particularly (hen C12 is used as the gas shield. #n order to >eep sta3le (elding conditions (ith a lo( -oltage arc :1$52+ 2; (hich is 3eing rapidly short5circuited< the po(er source !ust ha-e the right characteristics. #f the short5circuit current is lo( the electrode (ill free4e to the plate (hen (elding (ith lo( currents and -oltages. #f the short5circuit current is too high a hole !ay 3e for!ed in the plate or e0cessi-e spatter !ay occur due to scattering of the arc pool (hen the arc is re5esta3lished. The po(er supply !ust fulfil the follo(ing conditionsF 1. *uring short5circuit the current !ust increase enough to !elt the (ire tip 3ut not so !uch that it causes spatter (hen the arc is re5 esta3lished. The inductance of the circuit !ust store enough energy during the short5circuit to help to start the arc again and assist in !aintaining it during the decay of -oltage and current

2.

29

3.3.3

Semi-short Circuiting Arc #n 3et(een the spray transfer and dip transfer ranges is an inter!ediate range in (hich the fre=uency of droplet transfer is approaching that of spray yet at the sa!e ti!e short5circuiting is ta>ing place< 3ut is of -ery short duration. This se!i5short circuiting arc has certain applications< as for e0a!ple the auto!atic (elding of !ediu!5thic>ness steel plate (ith C1 2 as the shielding gas.

3.3.4

P'l%ed Arc S6ra8 This syste! allo(s all5position (elding at higher energy le-els than short circuit transfer. The po(er source pro-ides t(o current le-els< a steady K3ac>groundL le-el too lo( to produce spray transfer and a Kpulsed pea>L current (hich is superi!posed on the 3ac>ground at regular inter-als. The pulsed pea> is (ell a3o-e the transition current and usually one drop of !etal is transferred during each pulse. The co!3ination of t(o current le-els produces a steady arc (ith a0ial spray transfer at currents 3elo( those re=uired for con-entional spray arc (elding.

3.4

S"ieldi g Ga%e% %s o0ygen and C12 are not inert gases the ter! Metal-Arc I ert Ga% :MIG; is not applica3le (hen either of these gases is !i0ed (ith %rgon< or C1 2 is used on its o(n. The ter! Metal-Arc Acti$e Ga% ;MAG< should 3e used in these cases< if greater distinction is re=uired than that pro-ided 3y the general ter! K,as5 hielded .etal5%rc WeldingL. Arg# is used as a shielding gas 3ecause it is che!ically inert and for!s no co!pounds. #t is especially useful in (elding non5ferrous !etals and alloys 3ut in (elding steel it e0hi3its an une-en negati-e pole at the (or> piece< :the electrode 3eing positi-e; to gi-e an irregular (eld profile. %rgon plus 1H or 2H o0ygen gi-es a higher arc te!perature and the o0ygen acts as a (etting agent to the !olten pool !a>ing it !ore fluid and sta3ilising the arc. 3eli') is so!eti!es added to !i0ed gases. #ts presence increases the arc -oltage and conse=uent heat input. .i0ing it (ith %rgon< 10ygen or C12 controls the pool te!perature< increases (etting and sta3ilises the arc. Car(# Di#9ide CO& has the ad-antage of 3eing the cheapest shielding gas and it can 3e used for (elding 3oth alloy and plain car3on steels up to +.4HC. There is so!e dissociation of C1 2 in the arc producing car3on !ono0ide and o0ygen (hich re=uires the filler (ire to 3e ade=uately deo0idised to pre-ent porosity. o!e (ires rely solely on .n and i for this deo0idation. 1thers include the !ore efficient ele!ents %l< Ti and ?r in -arying proportions. ,enerally the arc is less s!ooth (ith C1 2 than (ith %r5C12 and %r512. The arc conditions are !ore critical and there is !ore spatter. %rgon plus 5H C12 or %rgon J 2+H C1 2 for steel i!pro-es the (etting action< reduces surface tension and !a>es the pool !ore fluid. 7oth
30

!i0tures are e0cellent (ith spray or dip transfer< they gi-e a s!oother less critical arc than pure C1 2 and reduce spatterG 3ut naturally they are !ore e0pensi-e than pure C12. Ceco!!ended gases and gas !i0ture for -arious !etals and alloys are sho(n in Ta(le / (el#!=
.etal Type Car3on and lo(5 alloy steels ,as hield C12 Ce!ar>s For dip transfer< and spray transfer spatter pro3le!s. 9se deo0idi4ed (ire. For dip or spray transfer .ini!u! spatter For dip and spray transfer pray transfer. )igh i!pact properties. For pulsed arc and thin sections. tainless teels %r55HC12 5 2H12 %r51I2H12 $5H)e 23.5H%r 1.5HC12 $5H)e 5 24H%r 1H12 %lu!iniu! its alloys and %rgon )eliu! $5H )e 5 25H%r .agnesiu! and its alloys Copper and its alloys %rgon $5H )e 25H%r %rgon )eliu! $5H )e 25H%r 6ic>els alloys and its %rgon $+H %r 3+H)e 25H %r $5H)e %rgon $+H %r 3+H)e )igh purity argon pray transfer )igh =uality dip transfer. For thin sections and positional (or>. ,ood profile. ta3le (ith little spatter )otter arc< less pre5heat< !ore spatter ta3le arc< high heat input. ,ood penetration. Ceco!!ended for thic>nesses a3o-e 16 !!. ta3le arc )otter arc. &ess porosity. For sections up to ".5 !! thic>ness For !ediu! and hea-y sections. )igh heat input. ections up to ".5 !! thic>ness Pulsed arc )igh heat input less crac>ing in thic>er sections of "H 6i ta3le arc ta3le arc (ith less crac>ing ris> 2ery reacti-e !etals. )igh purity shielding gases are essential.

%r515I2+HC12 %r55HC12 %r55H12

Cupronic>el Titaniu!< ?irconiu! alloys

and

6oteF

+2 increases the (etting action.

31

3.5 3.5.1

O6erati g 4aria(le% Arc 4#ltage #t is easier to set and !aintain (elding conditions (ith a constant -oltage po(er source :see Po(er ources chapter; (hich (ill per!it little -ariation of -oltage or arc length during (elding. These are predeter!ined to a large e0tent 3y the shielding gas and the !etal to 3e (elded. uch -oltage ad@ust!ents are usually incorporated into the (elding !achine in (hich the a!perage is controlled 3y the (ire feed speed. Within the li!its of these conditions it !ay 3e e0pected that increase in -oltage (ill tend to flatten the (eld 3ead and increase the (idth of the fusion 4one. *ecrease in -oltage (ill result in a narro(er (eld 3ead (ith a higher reinforce!ent and deeper penetration. E0cessi-ely high -oltage !ay cause porosity< spatter and undercutting (hereas e0cessi-ely lo( -oltage !ay cause porosity and o-erlap at the (eld edges.

3.5.2

Arc Le gt" %n increase in arc length< that is the distance fro! the electrode tip to the (or>< (ill cause an increase of arc -oltage and -ice5-ersa. #n practice any such changes (ould 3e instantly corrected 3y the constant -oltage supply syste!.

3.5.3

C'rre t #f all other -aria3les are held constant< (elding current -aries (ith the (ire speed or !elting rate. %t lo(er a!perage ranges the relationship is nearly linear 3ut in the upper ranges this ceases to 3e so largely due to resistance heating of the electrode Kstic> outL 3eyond the contact tu3e. ,enerally< increase in (elding current alone (ill 5 :a; :3; :c; #ncrease the depth and (idth of the (eld penetration. #ncrease deposition rate. #ncrease the si4e of the (eld 3ead.

3.5.4

Tra$el S6eed % decrease in speed (ill increase the deposit of the filler !etal per unit length producing a large shallo( (eld pool. The (elding arc i!pinges on this pool rather than the 3ase !etal as it ad-ances. This li!its penetration 3ut gi-es a (ide (eld 3ead. #ncrease in speed (ill reduce the ther!al energy trans!itted to the 3ase !etal and !elting is therefore slo(ed and restricted to the surface. Thus 3oth penetration and 3ead (idth are decreased.

32

3.5.5

Electr#de E9te %i# Electrode e0tension is the distance 3et(een the last point of electrical contact and the tip of the electrode :see Figure ";. %s this distance increases so does the electrical resistance of the electrode e0tension and the conse=uent increase in resistance heating causes the electrode te!perature to rise. Thus less (elding current is re=uired to !elt the electrode at a gi-en feed rate.

3 5.6

Electr#de Si@e Each electrode dia!eter of a gi-en co!position has a usa3le current range. The (elding current range is li!ited 3y undesira3le effects< such as the a3sence of (etting at -ery lo( -alues< and also spatter< porosity< and poor 3ead appearance (ith e0cessi-ely high -alues. The electrode !elting rate is a function of current density. #f t(o (ires of different dia!eters are operated at the sa!e current< the s!aller (ill ha-e the higher !elting rate and deposit larger =uantities of !olten !etal. Penetration is also a function of current density. For e0a!ple< a 1 !! dia!eter electrode (ill produce deeper penetration than a 1.5 !! dia!eter electrode (hen it is used at identical current. )o(e-er< the (eld 3ead profile (ill 3e (ider (ith the larger electrode. The re-erse is also true (hen a s!all (eld 3ead profile is specified. ince s!aller dia!eter (ires are !ore costly on a (eight 3asis< for each application there is a (ire si4e that (ill gi-e !ini!u! cost (elds. Cored (ires gi-e a greater deposition rate as a result of increased current density.

3.6

Ad$a tage% a d Li)itati# % #7 t"e GMAW Pr#ce%% Ad$a tage%= 1. The continuous electrode (ire feed allo(s greater continuity of (elding than (ith .anual .etal5%rc Welding (ith co-ered electrodes. This alone leads to high (eld !etal deposition rates. The latter is further increased 3y the higher arc efficiency of the process< and 3ecause there is little or no slag to 3e re!o-ed. Welding is possi3le in all positions (hich is not the case (ith u3!erged %rc (elding. *eeper penetration is possi3le than (ith .anual .etal %rc (elding.

2. 3.

33

Li)itati# %= 1. 2. 3. 4. Welding e=uip!ent is !ore costly< co!ple0 and less porta3le than that used for .anual .etal %rc (elding. %ccess to the (elding location can 3e restricted 3y the shape of the (elding gun and its attached feed tu3es and ca3les. 1utside applications are li!ited as the shielding gas can 3e disrupted e-en 3y lo( speed (inds. Weld !etal cooling rates are higher o(ing to the a3sence of slag< affecting the !etallurgical and !echanical properties of the (eld.

This ,.%W process has not displaced u3!erged %rc and electroslag !ethods for (elding thic> steel sections 3ut co!ple!ents the!. #t offers the !ost co!petiti-e !ethod for repetition (elding and thic>nesses up to $5 !! can 3e @oined in steel using fully auto!atic heads. 3.$ C#red a d Sel7-S"ielded Wire% olid (ires are li!ited in use 3y co!position. 9nli>e MMA consu!a3les (here alloy -ariation can 3e !ade in changes to the flu0 coating< the co!position of solid (ires is fi0ed. #n the past this pro3le! restricted the use of GMAW (elding. With GMAW e=uip!ent flu05cored (ires are 3eco!ing increasingly popular for (elding ferrous !etals as they can co!3ine the producti-ity of continuous (elding (ith the !etallurgical 3enefits deri-ed fro! using a flu0. Flu05cored arc (elding offers t(o !a@or process -ariations that differ in the !ethod used to shield the arc and (eld pool fro! at!ospheric conta!ination :o0ygen and nitrogen;. 1ne type< self5shielded< protects the !olten !etal to so!e e0tent through the deco!position and -aporisation of the flu0 core 3y the heat of the arc. The other type< gas shielded< !a>es use of a protecti-e gas flo( in addition to the flu0 core action to shield the arc and the (eld pool. With 3oth !ethods< the electrode core !aterial pro-ides a relati-ely thin slag co-ering to protect the solidifying (eld !etal. #n the gas shielded !ethod< the shielding gas :usually< 3ut not e0clusi-ely< car3on dio0ide; protects the !olten !etal fro! the o0ygen and nitrogen of the air 3y for!ing an en-elope around the arc and o-er the (eld pool :see Figure 11;. &ittle need e0ists for denitrification of the (eld !etal 3ecause nitrogen fro! the air is !ostly e0cluded. %lthough !ost of the air is e0cluded< so!e o0ygen is present in the protecti-e at!osphere. #t !ay 3e present as an additi-e to argon or fro! dissociation of C1 2 to for! car3on !ono0ide and o0ygen. The co!positions of the electrodes are designed to tolerate s!all a!ounts of o0ygen in the shielding gas. Thus< flu05cored electrodes are nor!ally designed specifically either to 3e self5shielding or for use (ith gas shielding. #n the self5shielded !ethod< :see Figure 12; although so!e shielding is o3tained fro! -aporised flu0 ingredients there is greater need for the
34

addition of deo0idi4ing and denitrifying constituents to the filler !etal and flu0. This e0plains (hy self5shielded electrodes can operate in the strong air currents fre=uently encountered (hen (elding outdoors.

Fig're 11 Ga% S"ielded Fl'9 C#red Arc Weldi g

Fig're 1& Sel7 S"ielded Fl'9 C#red Arc Weldi g

35

The self5shielded !ethod is used (ith long electrode e0tensions :2+5"5 !!; (hich tend to produce shallo( (eld 3eads (hereas the gas5shielded !ethod (ith electrode e0tensions 1"53' !! is suited to the production of narro( deeply penetrating (elds. The process !ay 3e used to (eld plain car3on and lo( alloy steels and stainless steels. Cored (ires !ay contain proportions of !etal po(der to i!pro-e deposition rates. uch (ires !ay 3e %rgonI2+H C12 gas shielded (ith the electrode *C negati-e to gi-e a s!ooth arc (ith little spatter. Cored (ires of all types can usually 3e applied to (elding in all positions. % !a@or ad-antage of cored o-er solid (ires is the a3ility to change the (eld !etal co!position 3y alloy additions to the flu0. This has therefore pro-ided a -ariety of consu!a3le co!positions on a scale si!ilar to SMAW ;MMA<.

36

4.

TUNGSTEN INERT GAS ARC WELDING 8no(n in the 9 % as ,as Tungsten %rc Welding :,T%W;< T#, (elding is a process (here !elting is produced 3y heating (ith an arc struc> 3et(een a non5consu!a3le tungsten electrode and the (or>5piece. #nert shielding of the electrode and (eld 4one is necessary to pre-ent o0idation of the tungsten electrode :see Figure 13;. Filler !etal !ay or !ay not 3e needed. Tungsten is used 3ecause its !elting point is 33$+AC< (ell a3o-e any other co!!on !etal.

Fig're 1* Ga% T' g%te Arc Weldi g The T#, process is -ery good for @oining thin 3ase !etals and as the electrode is not consu!ed< fusion alone< (ithout the addition of a filler !etal< !ay 3e e!ployed if desired. #t is suita3le for al!ost all !etals 3ut is not generally used for those (ith lo( !elting points such as &ead and Tin. The !ethod is especially useful in (elding the reacti-e !etals (ith -ery sta3le o0ides such as %lu!iniu!< .agnesiu!< Titaniu! and ?irconiu!. % -ery high =uality (eld is nor!ally produced and it is often used for @oining -ery e0pensi-e !etals and for critical ser-ice uses.

37

Process li!itations areF :1; :2; :3; #t is slo(er than !ost other arc (elding processes. Tungsten !ay conta!inate the (eld to gi-e inclusions. #nert gases are e0pensi-e< usually 3eing %rgon or )eliu!< or a !i0ture of the t(o.

For these reasons T#, (elding is generally not co!petiti-e (ith other !ethods for (elding hea-ier gauges of !etal. T#, (elding can 3e !ar>edly affected 3y -ariations in current< -oltage and po(er source characteristics. The !ost i!portant aspects areF :1; :2; ,enerally the 3est (elding results are o3tained (ith *C electrode negati-e. Fusion is hindered 3y refractory o0ides such as those of %lu!iniu! or .agnesiu! 3ut these can 3e re!o-ed 3y using %C or *C electrode positi-e. With a *C positi-ely connected electrode< heat is concentrated at the anode or positi-e ter!inal and therefore a positi-e electrode needs to 3e of greater dia!eter than one connected negati-ely so that the e0tra heat is dissipated. The current carrying capacity of a positi-e electrode is a3out one tenth that of a negati-e one and it is therefore li!ited to (elding sheet !etal.

:3;

:4;

Co!!on applications for the T#, process include (elding longitudinal sea!s in thin (alled pressure pipes and tu3es on continuous for!ing !ills usually in alloy and stainless steel (ithout filler !etals. %lso< using filler !etals< in producing hea-ier gauge pipe and tu3ing for the che!ical< petroleu! and po(er generating industries and in the aircraft industry for airfra!es< @et engines and roc>et !otor cases. #t is con-enient here to co!pare once again the %!erican ter!inology. DC egati$e is >no(n as Direct C'rre t Straig"t P#larit8 :*C P; and *C 6#%iti$e as Direct C'rre t Re$er%e P#larit8 :*CCP;.

38

5.

AUTOMATIC WELDING There has 3een a great increase in the nu!3er of auto!atic processes designed to speed up (elding production. %uto!atic (elding gi-es high rates of !etal deposition 3ecause high currents fro! 4++ to !ore than 2+++ a!ps can 3e used< co!pared (ith the nor!al li!it of a3out 6++ a!ps (ith !anual arc (elding. %uto!atic arc control gi-es unifor!ly good (eld =uality and finish and the high heat input reduces distortion and the nu!3er of runs for a gi-en plate thic>ness is reduced. T(in (elding heads still further reduce (elding ti!e and (hen used< for e0a!ple< one on each side of a plate 3eing fillet (elded< distortion is reduced. The (elding head !ay 3eF 1. 2. Fi0ed (ith the (or> arranged to !o-e 3eneath it. .ounted on a 3oo! and colu!n (hich can either 3e of the positioning type in (hich the (or> !o-es or the 3oo! can tra-erse at (elding speed o-er the fi0ed (or>. ,antry !ounted so that it can tra-erse o-er the stationary (or>. elf propelled on a !otor5dri-en carriage. .ounted in the BhandB of a ro3ot.

3. 4. 5.

The processes< na!ely T#,< .#, and C1 2 :gas shielded !etal arc; (ith their !odifications< are e0tensi-ely used fully auto!atically. )eads are no( a-aila3le (hich< 3y changing si!ple co!ponents< ena3le one ite! of e=uip!ent to 3e used for .#, :inert gas;< C1 2 and tu3ular (ire< and su3!erged arc processes.

39

6. 6.1

ELECTROSLAG WELDING T"e Pr#ce%% %s the thic>ness of the !etal to 3e (elded increases< !ulti5pass techni=ues 3eco!e less econo!ical. E-en the use of auto!atic (elding (ith high current and large (eld 3eads in the flat position< can gi-e a (eld pool so large that it runs ahead of the electrode out of control resulting in inade=uate fusion. The difficulties (ith large (eld 3eads can 3e o-erco!e 3y turning the plates into the -ertical position and arranging the gap 3et(een the! so that the (elding process 3eco!es a>in to continuous casting. *e-eloped in Cussia< the Electroslag process is used for 3utt (elding steel sections usually a3o-e 6+ !! in thic>ness although plates do(n to 1+ !! thic> ha-e 3een (elded. The sections to 3e @oined are fi0ed in the -ertical position and the part of the @oint line (here (elding is to co!!ence< is enclosed (ith (ater5cooled copper plates or da!s (hich ser-e to confine the !olten (eld !etal and slag 3et(een the edges of the plates :see Figure 14;. The da!s are pressed tightly against each side of the @oint to pre-ent lea>age. There !ay 3e one or !ore electrode (ires depending upon the thic>ness of the section and they are fed continuously fro! spools. The self5ad@usting arc is struc> on to a starting plate 3eneath a coating of po(der flu0 (hich is !elted in a3out half a !inute. The arc 3eco!es e0tinguished and the current is then transferred< not as an arc 3ut through the li=uid slag< (hich gi-es the sa!e order of -oltage drop as (ould occur across the arc. Further !elting results fro! resistance heating of the li=uid slag.

Fig're 1+ Pri ci6le #7 electr#%lag #r $ertical %'()erged )elt !eldi g

40

*uring (elding so!e slag is lost in for!ing a s>in 3et(een the !olten !etal and the copper da!s< and a flo( of flu0 po(der< carefully !etered to a-oid distur3ing the (elding conditions< is fed in to !atch the consu!ption. The -ertical tra-erse !ay 3e o3tained 3y !ounting the (elding head on a carriage (hich is !otor5dri-en and tra-els up a rac> on a -ertical colu!n in align!ent (ith the @oint to 3e (elded. The rate of tra-el is controlled so that the electrode no44le and copper da!s are >ept in the correct position relati-e to the !olten pool. ince the electrode is at right angles to the pool< -ariations in fit5up are not trou3leso!e. For thic> sections the electrode is oscillated across the !olten pool< or !ore than one electrode is used. The gap 3et(een the plates is generally 3et(een 2+ and 4+ !!. Welding speeds are usually l !etre per hour or faster. The (elds produced are generally free fro! slag inclusions< porosity and crac>s< although too high a (elding speed can cause centre line crac>ing. The process is rapid< preparation costs are reduced< and there is no de5slagging. Cored (ires containing deo0idi4ers and alloying ele!ents can 3e used (hen re=uired. Preparation of the faces to 3e (elded is not critical and a fla!e cut surface is =uite accepta3le. The slag te!perature is a3out 1"++AC internally. %n %C or *C positi-e po(er source in the range 3++5$5+ % is suita3le< such as is used for auto!atic processes. 1pen circuit -oltage is of the order of $+ 5'+ 2< (ith arc -oltages of 3+55+ 2< higher (ith %C than *C. 6.2. Weldi g Wit" C# %')a(le G'ide% Or N#@@le% Consu!a3le guide (elding is a si!plified -ersion of the electroslag process for (elding thic> plate in the -ertical or near -ertical position< for @oints of li!ited lengthF usually up to 2 !. The gap 3et(een plates is 2553+ !!< 3ut (hen (elding thic>nesses less than 2+ !! the restriction on the !ini!u! gap 3eing so as to ensure that the guide tu3e does not touch the plate edges and there is sufficient space for insulating (edges if these are needed to position the guide tu3e. Water5cooled copper shoes act as da!s to confine the !olten !etal< and gi-e it the re=uired (eld profile. %s (ith electroslag (elding the current passes through !olten slag and generates enough heat to !elt the electrode end< the guide tu3e and edges of the parts 3eing @oined ensuring a good fusion (eld :see Figure 15;.

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Fig're 1, C# %')a(le g'ide la8#'t %"#!i g !ater-c##led da)% #f a plain uncoated guide tu3e is used< flu0 is added to co-er the electrode and guide end 3efore (elding co!!ences. 1ther(ise< the process is started and operated in a si!ilar !anner to nor!al electroslag (elding. %lthough there is no arc present after the starting phase of the process< the slag surface of the !olten pool should 3e -ie(ed through dar> glasses :as in gas cutting; 3ecause of its 3rightness. The e=uip!ent for (elding is considera3ly si!pler than that for nor!al electroslag (elding< chiefly 3ecause the (elding head and (ire feed !echanis! do not need to 3e !o-ed up the @oint as the (eld is !ade. #t is possi3le to (eld (here there is access fro! one side only< or indeed (here there is a per!anent 3ac>ing 3ar on 3oth sides of the @oint. #t is cheaper and !ore adapta3le than other si!ilar processes< faster than !etal5arc (elding of thic> plate< @oint preparation is cheaper< unifor! heat distri3ution through the @oint reduces distortion pro3le!s< and there are no spatter losses.

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$.

ELECTROGAS WELDING #n its !echanical aspects and its application to (elding practice< electrogas (elding rese!3les con-entional electroslag (elding< fro! (hich it (as de-eloped. Electrically< electrogas (elding differs fro! electroslag (elding in t(o (aysF 1. 2. The heat is produced 3y an electric arc and not 3y the electrical resistance of a slag< and 1nly direct current can 3e used< (hereas either alternating or direct current can 3e used for electroslag (elding.

Fig're 1- Electr#ga% Weldi g The e=uip!ent used for electrogas (elding :see Figure 16; closely rese!3les that for con-entional electroslag (elding. Therefore< a change fro! one process to the other re=uires only a change fro! shielding gas to flu0< or fro! flu0 to shielding gas :'+H %rgon J 2+H car3on dio0ide;. Thus selection 3et(een processes is 3ased on cost and application re=uire!ents< not on capital e0penditure. The syste! is capa3le of greater (elding speeds than the electroslag !ethod and it can 3e stopped and restarted !ore easily. Flu0 cored electrodes are so!eti!es e!ployed. For (or> fro! 1'5$5 !! thic>ness< the electrogas and con-entional electroslag syste!s are closely co!petiti-e. )o(e-er< for sections thic>er than $5 !! electroslag (elding is usually !ore practical. #t is (idely used in ship 3uilding and the site fa3rication of storage tan>s.

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'.

ONE SIDE WELDING WIT3 0ACCING When 3utt @oints are to 3e !ade the pro3le! arises of o3taining an a3solutely sound (eld throughout the thic>ness. #f the gap 3et(een the 3utt faces is too narro( it (ill 3e insufficiently penetrated (hereas if it is too (ide it (ill 3e i!possi3le to 3ridge during the (elding operation. The pro3le! can 3e sol-ed to so!e e0tent in 253utt @oints 3y using a root or stringer run (hich effecti-ely seals the gap and pro-ides a 3ase for su3se=uent (eld !etal. uch a procedure ho(e-er re=uires a -ery accurate preparation and fit up of the @oint 3efore (elding and this is not al(ays possi3le< nor can the standard of such a root run 3e guaranteed co!pletely. This pro3le! can 3e sol-ed 3y (elding fro! 3oth sides (hich after the first pass necessitates the 3ac> of the (eld 3eing cleaned and chipped 3efore a second (eld is applied to that side. This second (eld is often arranged to 3e the final or sealing (eld. The cost of 3ac> chipping and !a>ing a sealing run has 3eco!e -ery high especially in recent years so that it is desira3le to (eld plates and large cylinders (ith runs fro! one side only. To achie-e this a te!porary 3ac>ing can 3e used< (ith (hich an accepta3le under53ead profile is also o3tained e-en (hen fit5up and align!ent are not good. The essential purposes of the 3ac>ing are to pro-ide a 3ase on (hich the first layer of (eld is deposited and to pre-ent the escape of !olten !etal through the root. Consideration of the (elded structure during the design stage can do !uch to relie-e this necessity< since it is often possi3le to arrange for @oints and reinforcing !e!3ers to coincide and for the latter to act as 3uilt in 3ac>ing 3ars. 1ther(ise a 3ac>ing strip should 3e !ade of !etallurgically co!pati3le !aterial and if it does not interfere (ith the operation of the structure it !ay 3e left in place. %lternati-ely it !ust 3e re!o-ed. Figure 1$a sho(s so!e si!ple @oints< so!e (ith 3ac>ing< others such as fillet and lap @oints (hich 3y their design pro-ide their o(n 3ac>ing. % 3ac>ing (eld onto a single groo-e at the 3ac> of the @oint !ay so!eti!es 3e ade=uate (hen applied 3y a different (elding process< e.g. T#,< (hich !ay re!o-e the need for 3ac> chipping although so!e protection against o0idation !ay 3e necessary 3y gas purging. The deposited !etal !ust naturally 3e the sa!e as the (eld proper. Copper 3ac>ing 3ars !ay also 3e e!ployed 3ut they should 3e of a sufficient !ass to a-oid fusion or 3e (ater cooled. They !ay 3e groo-ed or profiled to gi-e the (eld a desira3le contour. ,ranular flu0es or an appropriate refractory po(der can act as 3ac>ing gi-en a suita3le support.

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Fig're 1.;a<

T86e% #7 ('tt !eld%

Cera!ic tile 3ac>ing !ay also 3e used for slag for!ing (elded processes and can 3e applied to -ertical and hori4ontal -ertical 3utt @oints :see Figure 1$3;. The recess in the tile allo(s the slag to for! 3elo( the under53ead and it can 3e stripped off after re!o-al of the adherent alu!iniu! foil.

Fig're 1.;(<

Cera)ic tile (ac1i g %tri6

Fi3reglass 3ac>ing strip consisting of four to si0 layers of closely (o-en fle0i3le !aterial gi-es good support to the root run and is usually e!ployed (ith a copper or alu!iniu! 3ac>ing 3ar. &arge structures< such as ships< e!ploying su3!erged arc (elding so!eti!es use a 3ac>ing of sintered silica sand a3out 6++ !! long 3y 5+ !! (ide and 1+ !! thic> reinforced (ith steel (ires. #t has fi3reglass tape fitted to its upper surface to support the root and adhesi-e at the outer edges for attach!ent. %dditionally an alu!iniu! support !ay 3e used if necessary :see Figure 1$c;.

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Fig're 1.;c< Fi(regla%% ta6e c#$ered (ac1i g %tri6 7ac>ing syste!s can 3e applied to 3utt (elding in all positions and are (idely used not only for flat (elds (here large pools of !olten !etal are for!ed< 3ut also for e0a!ple< in circu!ferential pipe (elds and long -ertical (elds in ship 3uilding. They can 3e e!ployed (ith any of the !etal5arc processes< (ith T#, (elding and e-en (ith electrogas and electroslag :consu!a3le guide; (elding.

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" ".1

CONSUMA0LES AND POWER SUPPLIES St#rage A d Care O7 C# %')a(le% #n storage< the !ain ene!ies of electrodes and flu0es are !echanical da!age and !oisture. Careless handling of co-ered electrodes< such as those used for !anual !etal5arc (elding< can lead to re!o-al of areas of the flu0 co-er and such affected !aterials should not 3e used for (elding. i!ilarly< e0posure to e0cessi-e a!ounts of !oisture can lead to rusting of the core (ire (ith a lifting of the flu0 coating. This also re=uires the electrodes to 3e discarded. The flu0 co-ering on !odern electrodes tends to 3e porous and (ill a3sor3 !oisture to so!e e0tent depending on the at!ospheric hu!idity. Electrode co-erings of the cellulose type can a3sor3 an apprecia3le =uantity of !oisture (ith little effect on their properties. They should not 3e o-er dried or charring of the coating !ay result. .ineral coated electrodes do not naturally a3sor3 so !uch !oisture and can 3e dried out if da!p. The electrodes should 3e (ell spaced out in an o-en and su3@ected to a te!perature of a3out 11+AC for 1+56+ !inutes depending on their si4e. Cellulose type electrodes (ill re=uire only a3out 15 !inutes to dry. &o( hydrogen electrodes are specially designed to contain relati-ely little in the (ay of hydrogen containing co!pounds including !oisture. They need to 3e >ept in a dry< heated< (ell -entilated store at a3out 12AC a3o-e the e0ternal air te!perature. Where necessary they should 3e o-en5dried 3efore use< at te!peratures ranging fro! 15+545+AC< depending on the per!issi3le hydrogen content of the (eld and the !anufacturerBs reco!!endations. o!e !odern electrodes are -acuu! pac>ed and generally need no further drying if used (ithin a specified ti!e of opening. Care !ust also 3e gi-en to flu0es supplied for su3!erged arc (elding (hich< although they !ay 3e dry (hen pac>aged< !ay 3e e0posed to high hu!idity in store. #n such cases they should 3e dried in accordance (ith the !anufacturerBs reco!!endations 3efore use< or porosity or crac>ing !ay result. Ferrous (ire coils supplied as continuous feeding electrodes are usually copper coated. This pro-ides so!e corrosion resistance< ensures good electrical contacts and helps in s!ooth feeding. Cust and !echanical da!age should 3e a-oided in such products as they (ill 3oth interrupt s!ooth feeding of the electrode. Cust (ill 3e detri!ental to (eld =uality generally< and to e=uip!ent condition in the case of ,.%W. Conta!ination 3y car3on containing !aterials such as oil< grease< paint and dra(ing lu3ricants is especially har!ful (ith ferrous !etals. )ere car3on pic>5up in the (eld !etal can cause a !ar>ed and usually undesira3le change in properties. uch conta!inants !ay also result in hydrogen 3eing a3sor3ed in the (eld pool. #n general it is a (ise (elder (ho studies and follo(s the !anufacturerBs reco!!endations for consu!a3les.
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".2

P#!er S#'rce% #n arc (elding it is principally the current (hich deter!ines the a!ount of heat generated and this controls the !elting of the electrode and parent !etal and also such factors as penetration and 3ead shape and si4e. 2oltage and arc length are ho(e-er !ore or less interchangea3le factors (ith increasing -oltage leading to increasing arc length and -ice5-ersa. There are t(o !ethods of auto!atic arc control 5 :1; :2; Constant -oltage >no(n as the self5ad@usting arc. *rooping characteristic or controlled arc :constant current;

C# %ta t 4#ltage DC S'66l8 Po(er can 3e supplied fro! a (elding generator (ith le-el characteristic or fro! a three5phase or one5phase transfor!er and rectifier arranged to gi-e output -oltages of appro0i!ately 1455+ 2 and ranges of current according to the output of the unit. The -oltage5current characteristic cur-e< (hich should 3e flat or le-el in a true constant -oltage supply< is usually designed to ha-e a slight droop :see Figure 1'a;.

Fig're 1/ ;a< D ;(< 4#lt-a)6ere c'r$e% #7 c# %ta t $#ltage a d dr##6i g c"aracteri%tic %#'rce% This unit (ill !aintain an al!ost constant arc -oltage irrespecti-e of the current flo(ing. The (ire feed !otor has an ad@usta3le speed control (ith (hich the (ire feed !ust 3e pre5set for a gi-en (elding operation. 1nce pre5set the !otor feeds the (ire to the arc at constant speed. For the arc to function correctly the rate of (ire feed !ust 3e e0actly 3alanced 3y the 3urn5off rate to >eep the arc length constant. uppose the nor!al arc length is that (ith -oltage 2. indicated at . in diagra! :a;< and the current for this length is #. a!peres. #f the arc shortens :!anually or due to slight -ariation in !otor speed; to :the -oltage is no( 2 ; the current no( increases to # < increasing the 3urn5off rate< and the arc is lengthened to ..
48

i!ilarly if the arc lengthens to &< current decreases to # & and 3urn5off rate decreases. and the arc shortens to .. Dr##6i g C"aracteri%tic DC S'66l8 ;C# %ta t C'rre t< With this syste! the *C supply is o3tained fro! a (elding generator (ith a drooping characteristic or !ore usually fro! a transfor!er5rectifier unit. The characteristic cur-e of this type of supply :see Figure 1'3; sho(s that the -oltage falls considera3ly as the current increases< hence the na!e. #f nor!al arc length . has -oltage 2 . and if the arc length increases to &< the -oltage increases su3stantially to 2&. #f the arc is shortened the constant current (hich is often gi-en to this type of supply. #n continuously fed syste!s the -ariations in -oltage due to changing arc length are fed through control gear to the (ire feed !otor< the speed of (hich is thus -aried so as to >eep a constant arc length< the !otor speeding up as the arc lengthens and slo(ing do(n as the arc shortens. With this arrange!ent< therefore< the (elding current !ust 3e selected for gi-en (elding conditions and the control circuits are !ore co!plicated than those for the constant -oltage !ethod. The constant -oltage type of generation is co!!only pro-ided for continuously fed syste!s such as .#,I.%,< su3!erged arc< flu0 cored< electroslag and electrogas. This self5regulating a3ility (ill ensure a constant arc length for the processes. The constant a!p !ethod is e!ployed in ..% and T#, processes and !ay 3e used for so!e su3!erged arc applications 3ut these (ill re=uire control !echanis!s to !onitor !otor and conse=uently electrode feed speed. ".3 Arc 0l#! )igh currents such as those used in su3!erged arc (elding !ay cause the pheno!enon >no(n as arc 3lo(. *irect current flo(ing in a circuit produces a !agnetic field around the conductors and such a field can cause deflection of the arc. %rc 3lo( 3eco!es progressi-ely !ore uncontrolla3le (ith a noisy< (a-ering arc and hea-y spatter especially (hen approaching the edges of the (or> or (elding in enclosed corners. %rc 3lo( does not occur (ith %C o(ing to the constant re-ersal of current cancelling out the effect. o!eti!es arc 3lo( is -ery difficult to eli!inate and possi3le re!edies include changing the angle of the electrode (hen deflection 3egins< changing the position of the (elding return connection< (elding in a different direction< (rapping the (elding ca3le in a fe( turns around the (or> if possi3le< or if particularly trou3leso!e using s!aller gauge electrodes and a greater nu!3er of runs. % reduction of -oltage !ay also relie-e the pro3le!.

49