How Good Source Rocks Form:

Origin of Source Rocks

1. Sedimentation in areas of high organic productivity 2. Preservation of organic matter in sediment

Photosynthesis
The most important reaction on the planet (for us)
chlorophyl

CO2 + H2O CH2O + O2

light glucose

Fate of Organic Matter in Oceans

Organic Matter
Proteins Carbohydrates (sugars, starch, cellulose) Lipids (oils, fats) Lignin (in plants)
More resistant to decay

HC generation is limited by available H (reducing environment)

Requirements for High Organic Productivity

Light (for photosynthesis) Temperature Nutrients Low turbidity

Plankton Primary Productivity Map

Phytoplankton (Photosynthesizing algae) 90% of Organic Matter in Oceans + Bacteria, zooplankton, fish, etc

High Productivity Moderate Productivity Low Productivity

International Geosphere-biosphere program

10-year animation of Ocean Color -Chlorophyll concentrations

Areas of High Productivity

At boundaries between polar and temperate regions West side of continents In the upper 100m of ocean

SeaWiFs instrument on OrbView-2 Satellite, NASA

Driving Mechanism
Upwelling of deep water brings nutrients

Ocean surface Temperature

Preservation of Organic Matter

Anoxic conditions Rapid burial

The bottom of a basin

Anoxic conditions Rapid burial

Bioturbated Sediment

Laminated Sediment

How do you get Anoxic conditions?

Water Stratification
Temperature Salinity

High organic productivity near surface

Black Sea: permanent salinity stratification

Restricted marine basin, high evaporation

Example: The Mediterranean

Upwelling zone on shelf

Namibia Organic productivity exhausts oxygen at depth Sea level is key

Upwelling

Anoxic conditions off Peru

Total Organic Content (TOC) of Rocks

Source Rocks

Evolution of Organic Matter in source rocks during burial

ri a c te Ba lD ay ec

Yield of gas from organic matter

Diagenesis

Methane

Org. Matter
Inc rea

Kerogen

sing

Catagenesis
Tem per a tu re

Bitumen

Oil + Gas +Residue

Metagenesis

Maturation of Organic Matter

1. Diagenesis
Shallow burial Temp 0 to 50oC Bacterial decay and reduction Chemical reduction Produce free CH4, CO2, H20 Produce Kerogen H:C ratio remains constant Rocks undergoes compaction and cementation

Kerogen
Disseminated solid organic matter in sed. rocks Insoluble in organic solvents Made of C, H, O plus minor N and S

Phytoclasts (plant organic matter) Humic Kerogen

Amorphous Organic Matter

Kerogen Types
Type I (Algal)
High H:C ~1.65, Low O:C Rich in lipids (mostly saturated ) Oil prone

Kerogen Types
Van Krevelen Diagrams

Maturity Green River

Type I (Algal)

Jr Saudi Arabia

Type II

Intermediate H:C ~1.25, Interm O:C Algal+Zooplancton Oil and Gas prone

Type III (Humic)

Low H:C ~0.84, High O:C Rich in aromatic compounds Plant material and coal GasProne

Atomic H/C

Type II (Liptinic)

Type III (Humic)

Tertiary Greenland and AK

Atomic O/C

Maturation of Organic Matter

Catagenesis 50 to 200oC Oil Window 60 to 120-160oC Gas Window 120 to 225oC Thermal maturation of kerogen H:C decreases

Pyrolysis Experiments

Hunt, 1995

Monterrey Shale (CA)

Green River Shale (WY)

Kerogen maturation and hydrocarbon generation

Gasoline

Thermal Alteration of Kerogen

Wet Gas

Graphite Seewald, 2003

Methane

Comparison of two Source rocks

Pyrolysis and Gas Chromatography

Pyrolysis
Hydrocarbons already in the rock Hydrocarbons generated during pyrolysis (remnant potential)

Pyrolysis vs depth
Immature Source Rock

Mature Source Rock

Increasing temperature

Over mature Source Rock

Geochemical log
Total Organic Carbon TOC Pyrolysis Peaks S1 S2 Thermal maturity Tmax Ro

PaleoThermometers
The darker the toast the hotter it got.

Vitrinite Reflectance
Vitrinite is plant organic matter, common in coal, which reflects light more strongly as it becomes more cooked.
1.2% reflectance vitrinite from Lower Cretaceous Pearsall shale (TX) (near the bottom of the oil window.

Down hole vitrinite reflectance profile. Increasing thermal maturity

Hunt, 1995

Source rock maturity measured by vitrinite reflectance of coal

Take home points on Source Rocks

Required:
High organic productivity Preservation (anoxic conditions)

Vitrinite reflectance

Chain of thermal maturation: Organic Matter Kerogen Bitumen Oil Gas residue Kerogen types: I algal oil, ll sapropelic oil+gas, III humic gas Immature, mature , overmature condition determine remaining genereation potential Pyrolysis and vitrinite reflectance can be used to determine source rock maturity