Varietal Evaluation Trial of Wheat Genotypes Against Wheat Rusts Disease and Its monitoring at Farmers Field

Rajan Shrestha

Mini-Thesis Submitted to

Purbanchal University
Faculty of Science and Technology

Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology

Kathmandu, Nepal

(In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Science (Honours) Agriculture (B.Sc. Ag. Hons.) - Plant Protection August,August 2013

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This thesis would not have been possible without the support of many people. My first debt of gratitude must go to my advisor, Dr. Baidya Nath Mahto who was abundantly helpful resourceful and and offered invaluable assistance, unconditional support and untiring guidance necessary for me to proceed throughout the graduate program and complete my thesis. He has been a strong and supportive advisor to me throughout my graduate career. I owe a very important debt to Plant Protection Department, NARC for offering me the internship opportunities and would like to express the deepest appreciation for accommodating me to this large and renowned family. I am deeply grateful to the NARC Agri-Environment Division (NARC) and NARC library for availing me with the necessary information materials. Special mention also goes to all my graduate friends, especially Sajish Prajapati and Kamal Shrestha for their invaluable assistance, sharing resources and knowledge sharing. Not forgetting my childhood friend Sujan Shrestha who always been there and would like to convey him special thanks.

Its my great honor and pleasure in expressing my love and gratitude to my beloved family membersies; for their understanding and& endless love, through the duration of the studies. Finally, I would like to dedicate this work to my parents. I hope that this work makes you feel proud.

Rajan Shrestha

ABSTRACT
The monitoring and survey of the wheat rusts disease at different locations around the Bhaktapur district was necessary to access the rust status in the farmers field. The monitoring revealed two of the three rust diseases viz., YR and LR occurrence quiet in significant manner. The incidence number for LR was greater than that for YR. Only 36.36% of monitored sites were recorded with YR while for LR it was higher of 48.48%. YR was more threat to wheat cultivation with much higher degree of severity and incidence at field level with 54.16% and 62.5% of incidence at field level and severity respectively. Rust, LR was observed with moderate severities and lower incidence at levels. The severity for YR was very high recorded to 100S in Dadhikot and Balkot areas while LR was recorded at most of 70-80S. Also the trial for evaluating the wheat genotypes against rust included of 45 different genotypes carried for testing of the wheat varieties that are already released and those in pipelines about their rust resistance character showed that 36 entries were prone to YR with 18 of them high severity, 7 entries with moderate severities, 6 of them with lower severities and 9 entries were free to all three rusts. Most of the long time ago released varieties (Lerma-52, Kalayansona, RR 21, NL 30, HD 1982, UP 262, Lumbini, Vinayak, Vaskar, Nepal 297, Nepal 251, BL 1135, Annapurna-4, Achyut, Rohini, BL 1473) have high severity with acute disease reaction (S) while fairly recently released genotypes had medium severity. The disease highest in the cultivars like HD 1982, Vaskar, Vijay and Rohini (100S) followed by varieties RR 21, NL 30, UP 262, Nepal 297, BL 1135, and Annapurna-4 (90S). The promising lines or the pipeline varieties viz. Aditya (10MR), NL 971 (10MR), BL 3503 (20MS, MR), BL 3623 (TR, TMR), NL 1008 (10MR, R), NL 1064 (20MR), Becard#1 (10MR), Chyakhura-1 (TMR) exhibited low severity and resistant to moderately or trace resistant typed disease reaction respectively. But the promising varieties like Vijaya and NL 1055 have showed high severity of yellow rust disease with 100S and 80S scores. LR was very insignificant in the trial while stem rust was very insignificant disease. Majority of the farmers mentioned that they didnt know about wheat disease hence the result and information regarding the rust diseases should therefore be disseminated soon as possible. The varietal development work at Kkhumaltar, Lalitpur seems to be right in promising and satisfactory tract h however; variety

ii

Vijaya needs further testing for its resistance against rust although it is a very recently released variety.

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Table of Contents
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ............................................................................................................. i ABSTRACT ................................................................................................................................... ii Table of Contents ...................................................................................................................... iviii ACROYNMS .............................................................................................................................. viv List of Tables ................................................................................................................................. 1 List of Figures (1) and Photographs (A) ..................................................................................... 2 INTRODUCTION....................................................................................................................... 43 Background ............................................................................................................................... 43 Wheat Status in Nepal ............................................................................................................... 43 Features about World and Nepalese Wheat Cultivation ........................................................... 54 Wheat Research and its importance in Nepal; .......................................................................... 76 Wheat Varieties in Nepal .......................................................................................................... 76 Wheat Diseases ....................................................................................................................... 109 Wheat Rusts Diseases................................................................................................................ 11 Leaf Rust (Brown Rust) ............................................................................................. 1211 Stem Rust (Black Rust) .................................................................................................. 13 Stripe Rust (Yellow Rust) .......................................................................................... 1615 Statement of the Problem ...................................................................................................... 1817 Objectives .............................................................................................................................. 1817 General objective ......................................................................................................... 1918 Specific objectives ........................................................................................................ 1918 Justification of the Study ....................................................................................................... 1918 Scope of the Study................................................................................................................. 2019 Major Assumptions ............................................................................................................... 2120

iv

LITERATURE REVIEW ...................................................................................................... 2221 Wheat Rusts in Nepal ............................................................................................................ 2221 Wheat Rusts in South Asia and Some Third Countries ........................................................ 3433 Wheat Rust Control and Management Aspects..................................................................... 3635 Materials and Methods ........................................................................................................... 3938 Site of Study .......................................................................................................................... 3938 Monitoring site ............................................................................................................... 3938 Research/trial location ................................................................................................... 3938 Duration of Study .................................................................................................................. 3938 Wheat Disease monitoring .................................................................................................... 3938 Wheat Varietal Evaluation Trial ........................................................................................... 3938 Recording Rusts in the Field ................................................................................................. 3938 OBSERVATION AND FINDINGS ....................................................................................... 4342 RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS ............................................................................................. 5756 Result on Wheat Rusts Monitoring at Different Locations in Farmers Field. ..................... 5756 Discussion on Wheat Rusts Monitoring Results. .................................................................. 6059 Result on Wheat Genotypes Evaluation 2012/13 Trial ......................................................... 6261 Discussion on results of Wheat genotypes Evaluation.......................................................... 6563 Summary .................................................................................................................................. 6866 Conclusions and Suggestions ................................................................................................. 7068 Annexes .................................................................................................................................... 7270 References .................................................................................................................................... 78

ACROYNMS
ABD = Agriculture Botany Division AnnR = Annual Report ARC= Agriculture Research Centre ARS = Agriculture Research Station B.S. = Bikram Sambat B.Sc. Ag. Hons. = Bachelor in Agricultural Science (Honours.) BYDV = C.O. = Causal Organism CIMMYT = International Centre for Maize and Wheat Improvement CS = Covered Smut CVT = Co-ordinated Varietal Trial dd/mm/yy = Date Month Year DOA = Department of Agriculture FB = Foliar Blight ft. = Feet FY = Fiscal Year FYM = Farm Yard Manure H = High HICAST = Himalayan College of Agricultural Science and Technology HLB = Helminthosporium Leaf Blight L = Low LR = Leaf Rust LR = Leaf Rust Lr = Leaf rust resistant gene LS = Loose Smut

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M = Moderate
Masl = Mean average sea level MOAD = Ministry of Agriculture Development

MR = Moderately Resistant MS = Moderately Susceptible

NA = Not Available NARC = Nepal Agricultural Research Council NARSC = National Agricultural Research And Service Center NDN = National Disease Nursery Nepal Agric. Res. J., = Nepal Agriculture Research Journal NK = Not known NWDP= National Wheat Development Program NWRP = National Wheat Research Program PAC PM = Powdery Mildew PPD = Plant Protection Division

R = Resistant
R = Resistant RARA RH = Relative Humidity

S = Susceptible
SR = Stem Rust Sr = Stem rust resistant gene SRTN= Stem Rust Trap Nursery Tmax = Maximum Temperature Tmin = Minimum Temperature

vii

TMR = Trace Moderately Resistant TMS = Trace Moderately Susceptible tons/ha = Tone per hectare TR = Trace Resistant WRP = Wheat Research Program WVD = Wheat Varietal Display Yr = Yellow rust resistant gene YR =Yellow Rust

viii

List of Tables
Table 1. Released Wheat Cultivars in Nepal Table 2. List of Wheat Rusts Disease recorded in Nepal and their distribution. Table 3. Environmental condition required for the wheat rusts Table 4. Wheat Rust Monitoring Data at different places in the Farmers Field Table 5. Cultural Details Adopted by Farmers In Wheat Cultivation Table 6. Data on Farmers Details Table 7. Rust Disease Scoring AT Wheat Evaluation Trial 2012/13, Khumaltar Table 8. Incidence and Severity Levels of the Yellow rust and Leaf rust disease Table 9. Metrological Information During The Wheat Season Khumaltar

List of Figures (1) and Photographs (A)

Figure A. Map of Research Site, Khumaltar, Lalitpur. Figure B. Map of the Wheat Monitoring AT Farmers Field
Figure C. Some of Wheat Genotypes in the Evaluation Trial Figure D. Author with famer at Dadhikot

Figure E. Glume Infection At Farmers Field Figure F. Severe leaf rust at Balkot Figure G. Author in evaluation trial Figure H. Severe yellow rust in farmers field at Balkot

Figure 1. Distribution of the sample size by location wise Figure 2. Distribution of Wheat Rusts in Farmers Field Figure 3. Knowledge on farmers about wheat disease in history
Figure 4. Monthly temperature data during wheat season Figure 5. Relative Humidity and R during the wheat- growing season

INTRODUCTION
Background The cultivation of wheat (Triticum spp.) dates back far into history as one of the first domesticated food crops and for being the basic staple food of the major civilization of Europe, West Asia and North Africa for 8000 years. (Curtis, 2002). Wheat is special in several ways and grown on more than 240 million ha - larger than any other crop and world trade is greater than for all others crops combined. China has the largest land area devoted to wheat cultivation followed by the USA, India and the Russian Federation. Wheat (Triticum aestivum), although being relatively new cereal crop in Nepal, occupies third position among the cereal grains after rice and maize. (Annual Report 1987/88 NARSC). However wheat is the most preferred food commodity second to rice in Nepal. (Tripathi and etalothers, 2012). It is traditional crop particularly in the hills of the mid and far-western region where still some local landraces are under cultivation. Until the early 60s, wheat cultivation was limited predominantly to this part of the country. However with the introduction of the Semidwarf varieties from Mexico during the mid-sixties hasd led to tremendous increment in the area and production too in the Terai and other areas. (NARSC Annual Report 1987/88). Wheat Status in Nepal The cultivation of the wheat is done in an area of 7, 65,317 ha with the production of 18, 46,142 Mt and yield of 2412 kg/ha. The area of wheat cultivation have increased by 29.2% since 1990/91 (592740 ha) and productivity of the crop has escalated by 71.064% during the same period in comparison with yield of 1410 kg/ha in FY 1990/91. District wise Dhanusa is the largest while Dolpa is smallest in terms of wheat acreage cover. Meanwhile Rupandehi district stands top in account to total production producing 106750 Mt and Dolpa lowest producer producing 605 Mt in the FY 2011/12. The productivity of the wheat is highest in Lalitpur district and least in Sindhupalchok district with 3618 and 1000 kg/ha respectively -. 97.63 percent (747190 ha) of total area is covered by improved seeds and 2.36% (18085 ha) by local seeds. The irrigated wheat land accounts 485045 ha sharing 63.36% and 280230 ha (36.61%) land is rainfed in condition. (MOAD, 2011/12).
Formatted: Justified

The wheat grown in Nepal is of spring types. They are sown in April or May and harvested in August September. However in Nepal and India spring wheat is grown in winter. It is only in some high hills in Nepal viz., Nigale, Dandapakhar, Mustang, and Rasuwa etc. that wheat is grown in winter as well as in summer. Wheat is utilized in the form of flour or whole-meal and consumed in many forms such as noodles, pancakes, flatbreads, leavened breads and rolls, porridge etc. (Joshi and etalet al. 1988). It is estimated that nearly two thirds of wheat

production in the world is used for food; the remaining one third is used for feed, seed and nonfood applications. Wheat based foods are the major source of energy, protein and various, vitamins and minerals. (Ranhotra, 1999). Features about World and Nepalese Wheat Cultivation Wheat serves as a staple food for more than 1 billion people in more than 45 countries of the world. Wheat contributes more calories (20%) and more protein to the worlds diet than any other food crop. Winter wheat can survive temperature as low as -300C whereas spring wheat can be sown in any season. Wheat is grown between the latitudes of 300 and 600 N and 270 and 400 S. Mostly in temperate zones as wheat is basically a crop of the temperate region .(Joshi and Regmi, 1988). Wheat is grown to some extent or more on every continent except Antarctica. (Ranhotra,1999) Wheat has the widest adaptation of all cereal crops and is grown in some 100 countries around the globe as far as Finland in North and Argentina in South .(Oleson, 1999). From the sea level to 5000 m altitude. Wheat is grown in altitude ranging from sea level to 3050m in Kenya and 4572 m in Tibet .(Kent, 1983). In Nepal the altitude of wheat cultivation now varies from about 70m in the Terai to high as 4000 m in the hills. In areas where rainfall ranges between 30-113 cm. The total consumptive water requirements for wheat crop are about 300 mm. The world record yield of wheat is 14-15 tons/ha reported from USA and China.
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 Bread wheat (Triticum aestivum) covers about 90% of the world wheat area and only 9% coverage by Durum wheat (Triticum-durum) sometimes called Marconi wheat. (Joshi and Regmi, 1988). The optimum growing temperature is about 250C with minimum and maximum growth temperatures of 30 to 40C and 300 to 320C (Curtis, 2002). Nepal exported Rs. 240 million worth of wheat flour to Tibet in 1996/97 (25 years of wheat research in Nepal, 1997). In general, recommended seed rate for normal sowing of small grains is 100 kg/ha, 120 kg/ha for normal sowing of bold grains and late sowing of medium grains while 130 kg/ha is recommended for late sowing of bold grains. The line to line spacing of 20-25 cm or for normal sowing with hoe and 17-20 cm for late sowing or normal sowing with seed drill. The recommended depth of sowing is 5-6 cm. Generally, broadcasting and dropping the seeds behind the plow are the most common methods of wheat sowing. Line sowing is limited to few progressive farmers while seeddrill (tractor or bullock drawn) is practiced by some farmers in Terai. The general recommendation of fertilizer use is 80:40:20 kg/ha for irrigated conditions and that for rainfed conditions as 40:40:20 kg/ha. A half a dose of N and a full dose of P2O 5 and K2O are applied as basal dose for irrigated wheat but all doses is recommended as basal dose for rainfed condition. (Joshi and Regmi, 1988). November 19th sowing of wheat produced the highest average grain yield and planting early or after November 19 reduces the grain yield. NARC (Annual Report, 1997/98). The trend of wheat farmers of sowing wheat is around 15th Nov. which seems to be in right direction. (NARC Annual Report, 1988/89). More than 85% i.e. 567000 ha of wheat grown in the country follows rice. The per capita wheat consumption has increased from 17.4 kg in 1972 (the year with birth of the NWRP) to 54 kg in 2002. (NARC Annual Report, 2001/2002).

Wheat Research and its importance in Nepal; The establishment of National Wheat Development Program (NWDP) under the Division of Agricultural Botany at Khumaltar in 1972 helped to encourage wheat research in Nepal. Later the NWDP shifted to Bhairahawa Agricultural Farm in 1975. Then in 1990, NWDP was segregated out from DOA and re-structured under the Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) with its present name of National Wheat Research Program (NWRP). All together 34 wheat cultivars have been released since organized wheat research started in the country. However, only 22 varieties are in cultivation whereas 12 varieties have been denotified since their resistance to major disease broken out and regarded as degenerated . (Tripathi and etalet al., 2012). Wheat Varieties in Nepal Till now are 35 improved wheat cultivars, 540 landraces and 10 wild relatives of Wheat in Nepal. Lerma 52, first improved cereal variety to be released in the history of cereal breeding in Nepal was released in 1960. Several Exotic varieties were obtained through CIMMYT and USAID. (Nepal Agric. Res. J., 2004). A total of 89 ancestors originated in 22 different countries were used to develop these varieties with highest from India followed by USA, Kenya, Australia and Argentina .(Nepal Agric. Res. J., 2006). A variety gets genetically eroded in 5-6 years of time and due replacements are sought. New bio races of diseases pathogens (mutant) invade the variety. (Joshi and Regmi, 1988).
Formatted: Font: Italic

Table 1. Released Wheat Cultivars in Nepal S. N. Variety Year of Origin release Yield Potential Mt/ha 1. Vijaya 2011 4.45 111-123 Terai, Tars and Lower Maturit y Recommendation Domain

Valleys up to 500 masl. 2. Aditya 2010 Nepal 4.8 118 Terai, Tars and Lower

Valleys up to 500 masl. 3. Nepal 971 2010 Mexico 4.5 122 Terai, Tars and Lower

Valleys up to 500 masl. 4. 5. WK 1204 Gautam 2007 2004 Mexico Nepal 6.89 5.0 160-170 105-115 Mid and High Hills Irrigated, both normal and late sown condition of

whole Terai, Tar and foothills(<500m) 6. BL-1473 1999 Nepal 4.0 110 Irrigated medium to high fertility condition of whole Terai, Tar and low altitude (<1000m) 7. 8. Kanti Pasanglhamu 1997 1997 Nepal Nepal 5.5 6.7 174 178 All Hill areas Mid-Hills (Kathmandu and Jumla) 9. 10. Rohini Achyut 1997 1997 Nepal Nepal 4.1 4.5 119 125 Terai, Tar and < 1000m Terai, Tar and <1000m

11. 12. 13.

BL-1135 Annapurna-4 Bhrikuti

1994 1994 1994

Nepal CIMMYT CIMMYT

5.0 5.0 5.0

115 161 120

Terai Hilly Region Terai sowing) (Early and Late

14.

BL-1022

1991

Nepal

5.0

120

Western

Terai

From

Narayani river) 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. Annapurna-3 Annapurna-2 Annapurna-1 Nepal-251 Nepal-297 Vaskar Binayak Siddhartha Triveni Lumbini UP-262 HD-1982 NL-30 RR-21 S-331 1991 1988 1988 1988 1985 1983 1983 1983 1982 1981 1978 1975 1975 1970 1968 CIMMYT India CIMMYT India India Mexico India India India India India India India CIMMYT India 5.5 5.0 5.5 5.0 5.0 5.0 4.0 4.5 4.0 4.0 4.0 5.0 4.0 4.0 4.5 165 161 168 118 117 125 120 118 124 120 122 120 120 116-160 122 Hilly areas Mid Hill Hilly areas Terai Terai (Late sowing) Mid-Western Terai Terai (Late sowing) Terai Terai Terai Terai Western Terai Western Terai Terai, Hill Mid Hill, Terai

30. 31.

Pitic-62

1968 CIMMYT

5.0 5.5

166 168

Mid Hill Mid Hill

Lerma Rojo- 1966 64

32.

Lerma-52

1960

Columbia

5.0

176

Mid Hill

Source: Released and Registered Crop Varieties in Nepal 1960-2012, NARC

Since Nepal also serves as the source for the recurrence of leaf rust for the Indo- Gangetic plain, use of wheat varieties with diverse resistance would reduce the leaf rust severity and minimize crop losses in the Indo- Gangetic plain .(Mahto and etalet al., 2001). The changing climate

scenario and diverse micro climatic environments in the country have possessed new challenges of biotic (Spot blotch, Yellow and leaf rusts, stem rust, Loose smut and Hill bunt) and abiotic stresses in wheat production. (Tripathi et al.and etal, 2012). There is emergence of serious issues that were not present previously in wheat production like climate change effects, resurgence of super races of disease such as stem rust race Ug99, major yield losses caused by yellow rust in several countries . (Joshi and etalet al., 2012). Wheat Diseases The British Mycological Society defines disease as a harmful deviation from the normal functioning of process. According to Encyclopedia Britannica (2002),; a plant is diseased when it is continuously disturbed by some causal agent that results in an abnormal physiological process that disrupts the plants normal structure, growth, function or other activities (online?).. This interference with one or more of plants essential physiological or biochemical systems elicits characteristic pathological conditions or symptoms. (Singh, 2009). About 1,100 pathogens have been recorded on about 700 host plants till the date. Of these, about 91percent (1000) are of fungal origin while the remaining 9 percent belong to nematodes, bacteria and viruses. In Nepal about 1000 fungal pathogens are recorded and about 100 of them are labeled as diseases causing economic significance including rusts pathogens. (Amatya et al.and etal, 1989). Each year about 20% of the wheat that otherwise would be available for food and feed is lost to disease .(Joshi and Regmi, 1988). The wheat diseases can be broadly grouped under the following groups:

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 Fungal diseases Bacterial diseases Nematodal diseases Viral diseases

Wheat rusts, smuts, bunts, mildews, molds etc. Bacterial blights, spots, scabs Root knot and cyst, cockle, ergot BYDV, wheat streak virus

Globally, 128 different diseases are recorded to attack the wheat crop (CPC, 2007) and in Nepal there are 26 different wheat diseases including both minor and major diseases (Mahto et al.and etal, 2010). However the major and important diseases of Nepalese wheat are illustrated below.

Table 2. List of Wheat Rusts Disease recorded in Nepal and their distribution.
Source: Annual Report 1987/88 NARSC and

S.N.

Name disease

of Causal organism

Year

Reference Prevalence

Status

1.

Brown rust Puccinia recondita f.sp.tritici

1980s

AnnR,PP D 1988 Proceedin g 1992

Widespread Tari

Major disease of Terai and valley areas

http://www.do cstoc.com/doc s/71699988/Li st-of-WheatDiseasesrecorded-inNepal

2.

Yellow rust

P.

striformis 1988

Widespread Hills

Major

f.sp.tritici

Wheat Rusts Diseases Wheat rust

Stem rust

P.

graminis 1989

AnnR, NWRP

Terai hills

& Minor disease of some local wheats in the hills

f.sp. tritici

pathogens belong to

genus Puccinia, family Pucciniaceae, order Uredinales and class Basidiomycetes. (Singh et al.and etal, 2002) Rust pathogens are the fungal pathogens. Temperature as well as humidity is regarded as the important climatic factors affecting the establishment and further growth of rust pathogens. In addition, a free film of water on the host surface influences urediospores
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germination, production and penetration by fungal hyphae. Temperature apparently is a major deciding factor in the development spread of wheat rusts in the Indian sub-continentSouth Asia .(Joshi, 1986). In wheat there are three different forms of rust disease Yellow Rust Leaf Rust Stem Rust

Leaf Rust (Brown Rust)

Nepali Name : Khairo Sindure

C.O. : Puccinia recondita Tritici recondita Rob. Ex Desm. More than 150 physiologic races are known .(Shurtleff and etalet al., 1978). Distribution : The disease is found wherever temperate cereals are grown. (Prescott and etalet al., 1986). The disease is distributed throughout Terai, inner Terai, Tars and lower elevations (below 2500 meters). Hot spot locations of leaf rust Khairenitar. (Joshi and Regmi, 1988). Hosts: Leaf rust can affect wheat, triticale and many other related grasses. Primary hosts: Bread and durum wheat, triticale (Singh and etalet al., 2002). Alternate hosts: Meadow rue, Thalictrum sp. Species of Anchusa, Anemonella and Isopyrum Weak parasite on certain cultivars of barley, Aegilops and Agropyron species. (Joshi and Regmi, 1988). Symptoms: The pustules are circular or slightly elliptical, smaller than those of stem rust, usually do not coalesce, and contain masses of orange to orange-brown urediospores. Infection sites primarily are found on the upper surfaces of leaves and leaf sheaths, and occasionally on the neck and awns. (Prescott and etalet al., 1986). are Tarahara, Kankai, Rampur, and

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Small (up to 1.5mm), round to oval, raised, orange-red, dusty pustules or sori are scattered or clustered on the leaves and leaf sheaths of susceptible wheat varieties. Each pustule contains thousands of microscopic orange red urediospores. Rust usually starts on the lower leaves and gradually progresses up the plant to the flag leaf. A circle of small pustules may ring large, older pustules. ( Shurtleff and etalet al., 1978). The uredia formed are bigger in size than the uredia of yellow rust fungus. When old the uredia of leaf rust cannot be generally distinguished by color from those of the yellow rust except for their irregular arrangements. Heavy rusting of the foliage results in poorly developed root system, poor quality and quantity of grains and reduced yield of straw. (Singh, 2009). Development: Primary infections usually are light and develop from wind-borne urediospores that may have travelled long distances. The disease can develop rapidly when free moisture is available and temperatures are near 20C. Successive generations of urediospores can be produced every 10-14 days if conditions are favorable. As plants mature or when environmental conditions are not favorable, masses of black teliospores may become evident (Prescott and etalet al., 1986). LR is likely to appear in epidemic form where the weather, during crop growing season is mild and moist. LR develops rapidly between 15 and 22 0C when moisture is not limiting. Late plantings are more likely to favor the disease development .(Joshi and Regmi, 1988). Leaf rust develops rapidly at temperatures between 10 0 and 300C and . in highly susceptible genotypes, florets, tillers and plants can be killed by early epidemics. (Singh and etalet al., 2002). Importance: Severe early infections can cause significant yield losses, mainly by reducing the number of kernels per spike, test weights, and kernel quality. (Prescott et al.,and etal 1986). In sever attack the plants mature early produce light and shriveled grains. (Saha, 2002).

Stem Rust (Black Rust)

Nepali Name : Kalo Sindure

C.O.: Puccinia graminis tritici (Eriks a. And Henn, ????).

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There are more than 340 physiologic races of the wheat attacking variety tritici .( Shurtleff and etalet al., 1978). Distribution: Stem rust is found wherever temperate cereals are grown. In Nepal it occurs throughout Terai on a moderate scale. But but it is not a major problem in Nepal.the country (Joshi and Regmi, 1988). Hosts: Stem rust can affect wheat, barley, triticale, and many other related Primary hosts: Durum and bread wheats, barley, triticale (Singh and etalet al., 2002). Alternate hosts: Barberries (Berberis vulgaris, Berberis Canadensis, Berberis fendleri - (chutro in Nepali)) and certain species of Mahonia. Certain barley , rye and oat cultivars and some grasses (wild barley and Aegilops sp. ) are also parasitized and may be sources of primary inoculum . (Joshi and Regmi, 1988). Symptoms: Pustules (containing masses of urediospores) are dark reddish brown, and may occur on both sides of the leaves, on the stems, and on the spikes. With light infections the pustules are usually separate and scattered, but with heavy infections they may coalesce. Prior to pustule formation, "flecks" may appear. Before the spore masses break through the epidermis, the infection sites feel rough to the touch; as the spore masses break through, the surface tissues take on a ragged and torn appearance. (Prescott and etalet al., 1986). The elongated in shape, uredial pustules are more on stem and less on leaves and ears so also named as stem rust. Black rust is called the killer of the wheat plants and in severe infection there is shriveling of grains and failure of crop. (Saha, 2002). Soon after the pustules appear, they rupture the epidermis exposing a reddish brown powdery mass of urediospores. A single pustule may produce 350,000 thousand spores. The pustules and the fragments of epidermis that adhere to the sides and ends of the pustules gives them a ragged appearance and are the characteristics that distinguish stem rust from leaf rust .( Shurtleff and etalet al., 1978).
Formatted: Font: Italic

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The rust fungus profoundly affects the physiology of the host plant. Transpiration is increased and the translocation of carbohydrates is retarded in infected tissues of susceptible wheat varieties. (Singh, 2009). Development: Primary infections are usually light and develop from wind-borne urediospores that may have travelled long distances. The disease can develop rapidly when free moisture (rain or dew) and moderate temperatures prevail. If temperatures average about 20C or more, the first generation of urediospores will be produced in 10-15 days. As plants mature, masses of black teliospores may be produced. (Prescott and etalet al., 1986). The disease develops rapidly with free moisture (rain or dew) and high temperatures. It develops optimally near 200C and is seriously hampered below 150C and above 400C. Late planting or delayed crop maturity specially favours the disease. (Joshi and Regmi, 1988). Importance: If infection occurs during the early crop stages, the effects can be severe: reductions in tillering and losses in grain weight and quality. Under favorable conditions, complete crop loss can occur. . (Prescott and etalet al. 1986). It is the most devastating of the rust diseases and can cause losses of 50 percent in one month when conditions for its development are favorable .(Singh and etalet al., 2002). Table 3. Environmental condition required for the wheat rusts Stage Temperature (0C) Minimum Leaf Rust Germination Penetration Growth Sporulation Stem Rust Germination 2 15-24 30 Low Essential 2 10 2 10 20 20 25 25 30 30 35 35 Low No effect High High Essential Essential None None Optimum Maximum Light Free water

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Penetration Growth Sporulation Yellow Rust Germination Penetration Growth Sporulation

15 5 15

29 30 30

35 40 40

High High High

Essential None None

0 2 3 5

9-13 9-13 12-15 12-15

23 23 20 20

Low Low High High

Essential Essential None None

Source : Singh and etalet al. (2002)

Stripe Rust (Yellow Rust) Stripe rust or yellow rust is principally a disease of wheat grown in cooler climates (2 0 to 150C) which are generally associated with higher elevations, northern latitudes or cooler years. (Singh and etalet al., 2002). Nepali Name: Pahelo Sindure C.O.: Puccinia striformis West Distribution: The disease is found in all highland and/or temperate areas where cereals are grown. (Prescott and etalet al., 1986). It is a serious disease of high and mid-hills of Nepal above 4000 ft.. Hot spot locations are Kavre, Jumla, Marpha, Pakhribasm, Lumle. Occurring in epidemic form since 1985. (Joshi and Regmi, 1988). Host: Stripe rust can attack wheat, barley, triticale, and many other related grasses. (Prescott and etalet al., 1986). Have wider host range infecting rye and over 18 genera of grasses including barley that serve as reservoirs for the fungus. (Joshi and Regmi, 1988). Primary hosts: Bread and durum wheat , triticale, a few barley cultivars (Singh and etalet al., 2002). Alternate hosts: Unknown (Singh and etalet al., 2002)

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Wheat inoculated with aeciospores from B. Chinensis resulted in uredinia, which demonstrated that Berberis spp. also serve as alternate hosts for the wheat strip rust pathogen. And hence the sexual recombination has likely played an active role in contributing to pathogen variability. (Jin and etalet al., 2010). Symptoms: The pustules of stripe rust, which. Contain yellow to orange-yellow urediospores, usually form narrow stripes on the leaves. Pustules also can be found on leaf sheaths, necks, and glumes. (Prescott and etalet al., 1986). Uredo pustules of the disease occur on the leaves but in severe attack they are formed on the leaf sheaths, stalks and glumes too. The arrangement of lemon yellow pustules in rows is the characteristic feature of yellow rust. Hence, named also as stripe rust. In severely attacked field the ground or field may appear orange or red due to a large number of spores falling on it .(Saha, 2002). While the telia appears late as dull black patches or spots chiefly on the under surface of the leaf. Like uredia they are often arranged in rows. They do not break through the epidermis and remain covered by the epidermis as a flat black crust. Plants attacked by YR generally show a poorly developed root system. This seems to be the result of heavy leaf infection which hinders the translocation of carbohydrates from the leaves to the roots which are starved .(Singh, 2009). Development: Primary infections are caused by wind-borne urediospores that may have travelled long distances. The disease may develop rapidly when free moisture (rain or dew) occurs and temperatures range between 10-20C. At temperatures above 25C, the production of urediospores is reduced or ceases and black teliospores are often produced . (Prescott and etalet al., 1986) Epidemiological studies indicated that the favorable time for YR development in Kathmandu valley is between December and March. It was also found that temperatures of 5-150C with abundant moisture were congenial conditions for the epidemic development of YR. LR however started appearing early in October and remained developing until June .( NARSC Annual Report, 1987/88).

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Importance: Severe infections can cause yield losses, mainly by reducing the number of kernels per spike, test weights, and kernel quality. (Prescott and etalet al., 1986). When infection occurs early in the season followed by a long period of cool weather, a severe epidemic may develop with heavy losses in yield. (Joshi and Regmi, 1988).

Statement of the Problem Wheat is the third most important crop in Nepal in terms of production and area but still occupies the second most value in terms of food utility. Wheat is prone to numerous diseases in the world context but only few several diseases attack Nepalese wheat. Rust disease on wheat has been one of the major constraints of wheat production in Nepal. Each year about 20% of the wheat that otherwise would be available for food and feed is lost to disease .(Joshi and Regmi, 1988). All together 34 wheat cultivars have been released since organized wheat research started in the country. However, only 22 varieties are in cultivation whereas 12 varieties have been denotified since their resistance to major disease broken out and regarded as degenerated. ( Tripathi and etalet al., 2012). For this the wheat varieties/ genotypes has to be tested against the disease resistance and their validity to be still able to be grown or needs to be abandoned. The changing climate scenario and diverse micro climatic environments in the country have possessed new challenges like Yellow and leaf rusts, stem rust, Spot blotch, etc. in wheat production. (Tripathi and etalet al., 2012). There is emergence of serious issues that were not present previously in wheat production like climate change effects, resurgence of super races of disease such as stem rust race Ug99, major yield losses caused by yellow rust in several countries. (Joshi and etalet al., 2012). Hence preparations against the wheat diseases specially rust and information on their occurrence, distribution becomes inevitable research and survey aspects for future wheat progress.

Objectives The study was undertaken with the purpose of following objectives

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General objective To scrutinize upon the wheat rust disease status to the date today and gather the guidelines important for the wheat growers/farmers (about the better varietal knowledge against rust control and management) and research entities (on the mode and pace of direction of the wheat rust disease research in progress for Nepal and drive the wheat

agriculture to boost productivity and production uplifting the national food basket and the economy of the farmers through rust resistance varieties identification, selection and distribution. Specific objectives To evaluate the 45 different wheat genotypes/varieties against the three wheat rusts viz., Yellow rust, Leaf rust and Stem rust for their resistance. And hence to segregate/identify out the better wheat genotypes/lines from the worst and the poor against the rust resistance. To monitor the wheat rusts disease in the farmers field and access rust prevalence and their severity. Justification of the Study The evaluation and monitoring of the wheat rusts is prompted in order for the knowledge upscaling and updating with respect to the wheat rust disease in Nepal. It is of sure importance as rusts disease of the frequent outbreaks of epidemics and considerable losses to the wheat production has been encountered often in the country. The study will definitely provide the comparative analyses and conclusions on the wheat genotypes for their excellence against the wheat rust disease in Nepal. Monitoring of farmers field for wheat rusts on one part of the study provides the rust scenario in connection to their incidence, severity, distribution and economic significance while the other section of the study with wheat genotypes/ varieties that are released and on the pipeline to be released being evaluated will promote the selection and distribution of the only rust disease outsmarting wheat varieties among the wheat growing farmers and at the same time also would guide or provide the wheat research bodies like NARC with the evidences and information on how the research works of wheat against the rust disease is heading towards and forecast the future of the wheat progress in terms of disease resistance and increase in production and productivity.
Formatted: Justified

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Scope of the Study

The study was mainly undertaken to assist the Wheat research program undertaken in at the NARC in relation to wheat varieties released and to be released to assess their performance and liability against the wheat rusts. However the study encompasses some more scopes with it with its nature of outcomes as predictable.

Nepal Agricultural Research Council can make the conclusion on the varietal research work of wheat against rust resistance. The study will provide the guidelines for the wheat researchers for what is the situation and what needs to be done in wheat varietal development for rust resistance. The evaluation of wheat genotypes will certainly aid the NARC as well as other research bodies to identify or segregate the better lines of wheat against rust resistance and carry the selection, multiplication and dissemination of seeds of the rust outsmarting wheat cultivars. The study will provide the rust disease situation in farmers field at Bhaktapur district and aims to assist the agricultural organization in supply and distribution of rust control or management tools like resistant cultivars. The study prompts to upscale and update the information on wheat rust disease among the farmers and concerned agricultural units. With the final output of the study, it facilitates farmers and wheat growers of Nepal with guidelines on which varieties to be selected best against wheat rusts disease resistance, better disease control and management.

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 The paper is also supposed to be useful for the academic purpose mainly for the agricultural students, teachers, trainers etc.

Major Assumptions

Research Funding will be available and released timely.

Climatic factors will remain favorable throughout the project period Political environment will pose no hindrances to the research procedures and schedules The setup of experiment will give the consistent result Research co-coordinator and collaborative organization will be in active touch and participation

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LITERATURE REVIEW
Wheat Rusts in Nepal Available literature point that Theat least three rust types of wheat have been the cause of significant loss in wheat production in Nepal. Yellow rust has been of greater concern due to frequent epidemics with recent ones during 2004, 2005, and 2007 with losses up to 50% since the commonly identified pathotypes were virulent on widely grown wheat cultivars RR21, Annapurna-1, Annapurna-4, and Nepal 297. Stem rust occurs very late when the normal wheat is harvested. Leaf rust though important in Nepal, has been managed through incorporation and pyramiding of resistant genes like Lr34/Yr18, Lr46/Yr29 and other slow rusting genes. In last few years seven wheat varieties including those resistant to stem rust race Ug99 are released. The cultivars are Gautam, WK 1204, Aditya, NL 971, BL 3063(Vijay), BL 3235) (Gaura) and BL 3503 (Dhaulagiri). In addition, two Ug99 resistant varieties viz., Francolin (NL 1073) and Danphe#1 (NL 1064) are in pipelines as identified for release. These varieties are currently occupying around 70% of wheat area in Nepal. (Sharma and etalet al., 2012). Leaf rust is most widespread and regularly occurring disease throughout plain area, river basin (<600 m), foot hills and minor in hills. It causes 14% grain yield loss with a moderate leaf rust infection which is increasing year by year. As many as 22 different pathotypes of P. triticina have been recorded in Nepal Nepal, attacking many of the resistant gene/s present in Nepalese wheat lines. Yellow rust is also a major disease which poses a serious threat in wheat cultivation and occurs mostly on mid and lower hills, river basin and valleys causing 30-80% grain yield losses. Sometimes many local and susceptible genotypes are completely destroyed without any grain formation. 29 different pathotypes of P. striformis have been recorded till now. Stem rust is considered as minor and sporadic disease in the country. Earlier stem rust had been hardly recorded from some parts of western and mid-western region. In recent past, severe infection of stem rust was also observed in Kathmandu valley. (Mahto and Baidya, 2012). Yellow rust is common in the varieties for hills mainly in RR 21 and Nepal 297. Likewise BL 1473 is found to suffer from 29% yield loss due to the yellow rust attack. At present, WK 1204 is the high yielding and disease resistant cultivar for the mid hill areas and Kathmandu Valley. Also
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Pasang Lhamu is has been observed with low or yellow rust free since about 15 years. Same is the case for the Gautam variety in the low hills and river basin areas. Also recently recommended varieties BL 3503 (Dhaulagiri) and BL 3235 (Gaura) has lower or no disease infection. Stem rust causes yield losses up to 70% in Nepal. Leaf rust highly infected the popular variety RR 21 in 2036/37 which led to necessity of the alternative varieties. Then different varieties like Nepal 297, Siddhartha, Achyut, Rohini, Bhrikuti and others too at different period had been recommended. Later, leaf rust was found severely in varieties like Nepal 251 and Nepal 297. (Sharma, 2012). All together 34 wheat cultivars have been released since organized wheat research started in the country. However, only 22 varieties are in cultivation whereas 12 varieties have been denotified since their resistance to major disease broken out and regarded as degenerated. Recently, Vijay (BL 3063) variety was released in 2010 for all over Terai region, the first variety resistant against Ug99 race of black/stem rust. Two yellow rust resistant varieties have been released in year 2012 namely Gaura (BL 3235) and Dhaulagiri (BL 3503) for the hilly region. National Wheat Research Program has also identified other two Ug99 resistant genotypes viz. NL 1064 (Danphe) and NL 1073 (Francolin) for hills and Terai respectively. Other genotypes like BL 3623, BL 3555 and several others were also evaluated and promoted in pipelines for different ecological zones .( Tripathi and etalet al., 2012). Yellow rust has been appearing in Nepal in epidemic form causing huge losses to wheat farms in the hills. Susceptible varieties Nepal 297 and RR 21 are still grown in farmers field in wider area resulting in occurrence of new virulent races. In hills there is less genetic diversity and varietal replacement is slow causing frequent epidemic of rust during favorable condition and also due to appearance of virulent race. During the epidemic of 2005, 2005 and 2006 the farmers were forced to abandon the crop when disease appeared in seedling stage. The varieties BL 1064, NL 1073, BL 2879, and NL 1050 are Ug99 and yellow rust resistant farmer preferred genotypes . (Sharma, 2011). The unavailability of the short duration yellow rust resistant variety is reported as constraint for wheat cultivation. Most of the farmers grew RR 21, Pasang Lhamu, Nepal 297, BL 1473 and

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local wheat varieties. The percentage coverage of WK 1204, Pasang Lhamu, Nepal 297 and Gautam was less. (Sharma and etalet al., 2011a). Kathmandu, Bhaktapur, Lalitpur, Kavrepalanchok, Sindupalanchok, Dolakha, Dhankuta, Baglung, Parbat and Myagdi are some 10 yellow rust disease prone districts in the country. During year 2008/2009 eight genotypes BL 3235, BL 3503, WK 1182, WK 1204, WK 1444, RR 21, BL 3046 and WK 1481 were tested and two of them BL 3235 and BL 3503 were yellow rust resistant and also had some level of Ug99 resistance. In 2009/10, genotypes BL 1064, NL 1053, NL 1050, NL 1067, BL 2879, WK 1204 and BL 1073 were tested and all of these except WK 1204 and BL 2879 were resistant to Ug99 pathotype of stem rust. Also, in 2010 Danphe, NL 1073, BL 2879 were preferred for their high yield potential, good tillering and some resistance to yellow rust disease. (Sharma and etalet al., 2011b). The varieties RR 21, BL 1473 and Nepal 297 developed less disease in Mangsir 15 planted crops. WK 1204 did not develop any disease in all planting dates. There was little yellow rust development at Khumaltar during seedling stage in 2009/10 but it was reduced during maturity due to no winter rain and warmer temperature than previous y ear (Sharma and Poudel, 2011). The varieties BL 3235, BL 3503, WK 1481, WK 1182, NL 1064, NL 1073, BL 2879 are the rust resistant wheat genotypes while genotypes NL 1064 (Danphe) and NL 1073 (Francolin) had resistance to stem rust pathotype Ug99. Also, others Gautam, WK 1204, Pasang Lhamu were yellow rust resistant wheat varieties .( Sharma and etalet al., 2011c). In Nepal, yellow rust epidemics occurred during 2004-06. Occurrences of new races of yellow rust like 71E32 in 2004 resulted into heavy rust incidence in the resistant varieties BL 1473, Nepal 297, and Annapurna 4. Also in the stem rust trap nursery (SRTN) the genotypes Kauz, Cham6, Attila, Srdp-2, SR26 were found infected and the genes Sr31 and Sr 24 were found resistant confirming the absence of Ug99 race in the country. There were fewer incidences of Yellow rust disease in Nepal as previous year. In monitoring for Yellow rust in Kathmandu valley, Kavre, Parbat, Baglung and Myagdi districts in some areas of Baglung and Myagdi, RR 21 had higher incidence of yellow rust (80 S). Some Ug99 resistant varieties like NL 1050 and NL 1053 showed head infection while pipeline varieties WK 1182 and WK 1481 were resistant

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to the yellow rust. Also, Danphe (NL 1064) and Francolin (NL 1073) showed moderately resistant reactions to the yellow rust .(PPD Annual Report, 2010). Leaf rust caused by Puccinia triticina is one of the major diseases of wheat in Nepal especially in Terai region. Time to time leaf rust posed a serious threat to wheat cultivation rendering most of the wheat cultivars (RR 21, UP 262, Nepal 297, Nepal 251, Vinayak, Sidhartha, BL 1022, BL 1135) susceptible with varying degrees of severity. Leaf rust pathogens (Puccinia triticina) survive in self-sown wheat plants in the hills of Nepal. Central Nepal serves as a focal point of leaf rust for further infection and spread in gangetic plain of India (Mahto and Karn, 2010). A devastating black/stem rust disease of wheat caused by new race TTSK named as Ug99 emerged from Uganda and Kenya is appearing to be approaching to South Asia and posing the serious threat to Nepal too. Hence, the development of improved cultivars with resistance against rusts is an important task to combat the future rust epidemics potentialities and increase production and productivity. ABD (agriculture botany division), NARC has developed many improved varieties like WK 1204 a high yielding yellow rust resistant for mid and high hills of Nepal. And other promising genotypes at ABD and NWRP, Bhairahawa for irrigated mid hill condition are WK 1627, Danphe#1, Danphe#2, Munal#1, Becard#1 and for rainfed condition of mid hills are WK1481, Chonte#1, Kiskadee#1, Chewink#1 and Chyakhura#1 while Wk936, WK 1481, WK 1803, WK 1776, WK 1723 and WK 1905 are for high hills .( ABD Annual Report, 2010/11). The disease score for yellow rust was 20R for BL 3467 and 30R for WK 1733. But the score for Leaf rust was zero for all the entries in the trial conducted .( NARC Annual Research Report, 2010/11). Nepal faced periodic epidemics in the past due to heavy outbreak of yellow rust disease. The disease was most prevalent during seventies, when local land races were extensively cultivated. With Sonalika (RR21) farmers became relieved to yellow rust but after few years it became vulnerable and new resistant varieties like Annapurna 1,3,4, Kanti and Pasang Lhamu were released and around 1997 all these varieties except Pasang Lhamu lost their resistance. Then cultivars like Nepal 297 and BL 1473 got popular. But between the 2003-2006 the hill farmers of

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Nepal faced another epidemic of yellow rust knocking down Nepal 297 and RR21 and yield losses was recorded up to 54 percent in BL1473 . (ABD Annual Report, 2009/10). According to Pokharel (2009) Leaf rust was observed at more severe rate, which was from traces to70S. Leaf rust was more severe at Dhulikhel and Banepa and comparatively less in Panauti. The severity of yellow rust was also much ranging from 0 to 60S. Similarly, Leaf rust and yellow rust are important wheat diseases in context of Nepal. In a survey at Kathmandu valley, Leaf rust was higher at Bhaktapur and Kathmandu and the severity was 40S and yellow rust was observed 70S at several locations of Kathmandu valley while stem rust was observed only at Ramkot at later stage on the variety WK 1505 with score of 70S. Also under the poly house condition at Khumaltar leaf rust was observed on several varieties of wheat and scored up to 50S on variety WK 1803 and yellow rust was observed and scored 90S on WK 2007 and WK 1714 mentions Bhusal (2009). Leaf rust is the second major disease in Terai and also increasing in valleys and lower hills. Yellow rust has been found serious in hills since last several years. Stem rust has been found sporadic in Nepal. Grain yield losses of 554,30, and 27 percent were recorded due to yellow rust in Nepal 297, Sonalika, and BL 1473 respectively. Likewise yield losses of 11.5%, 36.3%, 36.9% and 61.3% were recorded due to leaf rust .( NARC-Research Highlights, 2008). Wheat disease monitoring in various agro-ecological zones in the western hills of Nepal revealed that yellow rust outbreak was found increasing during 1997 and 1998. The wheat genotypes namely Annapurna 1, Seri 82, and Pak 81 with Yr9 gene were experienced moderately susceptible with yellow rust scores of 60MS, 60MS and 40MS respectively. Field screening, disease progression study and seedling test revealed that NL 810, WK 810, WK 823, NL 731 and NL 769 were resistant to moderately susceptible to yellow rust with slow development of disease. The genotypes NL776, BL 1473, BL 1530, WK 810 and Pasang Lhamu were resistant with low yellow rust severity at the mid hill region of Lumle Agricultural Research Centre (ARC) Severe outbreak of yellow rust was observed on the river basin area of Baglung, Parbat and Myagdi districts during 1998. At Kkudule of Baglung and Pakuwa of Parbat yellow rust severity

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ranging from 40MS-S to 60MS-S was noted in variety Annapurna-4 and in BL1022 severity was high with 80S at Pakuwa. At chambas yellow rust in the variety Morocco was recorded with 100S. The variety Rohini had no rust infection at low hill river basin and WK 685 and BL 1473 were found to be rust free in mid hill domain .(Advances in Agricultural Research in Nepal, 2001). Monitoring of the wheat diseases exhibited that leaf rust incidence was up to 100S in few areas of Nepalgunj and Surkhet with susceptible cultivars, 60S in Agra Local at Parwanipur, 100S in Morocco and 80S in Agra Local at Rampur and 40S in Morocco in Bhairahawa. Leaf rust occurrence was observed more in western Terai than in eastern Terai. Bhrikuti had high severity of leaf rust at Manohari, Makwanpur district. Same was with yellow rust with the disease being recorded more in western hills than in eastern hills with observation records at Amiri, Dang district. In Nepal Disease Screening Nursery (NDN), in total of 617 entries of wheat lines tested 228 were resistant to both leaf and yellow rust. In addition 393 and 295 entries were resistant to leaf rust and yellow rust respectively. Latest cultivar BL 1887, BL 1813, NL792 had low leaf rust .( NARC Annual Report, 2001/2002). Survey and monitoring of wheat diseases over 150 sites of 24 districts of Nepal revealed that varieties RR 21, Nepal 251 and Nepal 297 were found infected with leaf rust in many of the surveyed areas. Also yellow rust was noticed in many of the hill districts locations with as high as 100S on varieties like BL 1022, Vinayak and Annapurna-4 at Sipaghat of Kavrepalanchowk district. The then released varieties Kanti and Annapurna-1 were also found to be susceptible at Sipaghat and ARS, Kavbre. Also interestingly, yellow rust was also observed in some parts of Terai in the districts Dang and Banke with high severities. Due to dry weather the incidence of Yellow rust and leaf rust were low. But Annapurna 1 had 30S-MS, Sonalika had 20S and Bhrikuti 10MS LR while varieties with Yr 9 background showed yellow rust of 50-60S .( NARC Annual Report, 1998/99). Leaf rust severity was low and appeared late in the season. Stripe rust severity in the hills was observed high, Sonalika scored up to 90S, whereas Annapurna -1 showed 80S severity.

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Monitoring of wheat disease in 153 sites of 39 districts of Nepal indicated the presence of Leaf rust 54% after HLB and YR occupied 4th rank with 32% with loose smut being third. (NARC Annual Report, 1997/98). Leaf rust or Brown rust was most predominant with Terai 14% yield loss record in Kalyansona variety. In 1992 there was outbreak of the leaf rust epidemic in the wheat variety Nepal 297 due to pathotype 77-2, 77-4 and 104-3. Stripe rust is also observed occasionally in Terai and inner Terai. During FY 1989/90 wheat season yellow rust epidemic was observed in Kathmandu Valley, Kavbre, some pockets of Kavrepalanchok and Sindupalchok districts with grain yield losses of 30% and even more. In FY 1990/91 RR21 was found highly susceptible with 80S - 90S in some pockets of Sindhupalchok district and 40S 60S in Dolakha district. Screening of 315 wheat varieties against yellow rust at Khumaltar by PPD resulted with 132 genotypes resistant, 45 moderately resistant, 79 moderately susceptible and 19 susceptible like varieties Binayak, BL 1135, Nepal 251, SD1982, Lerma 52, Lermarojo 64, UP 262 and NL 297 . (NARC Research Highlights, 1998). Leaf rust was at epidemic level during 60s and 70s in Nepal but its severity and incidence decline after the release of series of rust resistant wheat varieties including UP 262. Again, from 1993 onwards the severity and incidence of leaf rust increased in the country heavily infecting the cultivars like RR 21, Nepal 251 and Nepal 297. To the date as many as 46 leaf rust resistance genes have been designated and catalogued in the world .(Karki and Nayar, 1998). The major diseases of national importance was were leaf rust in the Terai and yellow rust and leaf rust in the hills after HLB. Results indicate that Nepalese wheat carry Lr1, Lr3, Lr10, Lr13, Lr14s, Lr16, Lr23, Lr 26 and Lr34 genes for leaf rust resistance and similarly Yr2, Yr2+, Yr7, Yr9 and Yr18 genes for yellow rust resistance .(25 Years of Wheat Research in Nepal, 1997). Leaf rust and yellow rust are among the major diseases of national importance. After an interval of more than two decades, Stem rust was reported in Khumultar. Race 77-2 of LR and 7E150 of

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YR were the most common races while the most frequent resistant genes present Nepalese Wheat genotypes were Lr 13, Lr 23 and Lr 26 of LR and Yr 2 and Yr 9 of YR. (Devkota, 1996). YR epidemics have been recorded in Syria, Iran and Pakistan. New pathotypes of YR virulent on the Veery varieties made appearance in Pakistan in 1994 and a severe epidemic of YR was experienced in the year 1995. But the YR was not recorded in Veery varieties in Nepal. The situation means an evolution of the pathogen to overcome the previously resistant Yr 9 gene for resistance in these Veery cultivars. This makes the most important varieties Annapurna 1 and Annapurna 3 for hills of Nepal vulnerable. (Saari, 1996). Leaf rust is the major disease of wheat in the Terai areas as well as in the mid hills and the loss in grain yield is estimated to be 14 percent with the moderate level of infection and 20 percent when there is high rust Severity. Until 1992, LR problem was negligible in Nepal expect in old varieties like RR 21. But during 1992/93 many of the popular cultivars like Nepal 297, Nepal 251, Vinayak and Siddhartha became susceptible to newly developed biotypes of LR races 77 and 12. While wheat varieties such as Vaskar, UP 262 and Triveni remained resistant to new races. Stripe rust has been a disease of cool temperature and cause significant yield losses in susceptible wheat varieties in the hills with loss up to 30 percent been recorded in Kabre station in YR susceptible cultivar RR21 when infected at flowering stage. The YR has been under control after the release and dissemination of wheat varieties like Annapurna-1, Annapurna-3 and Annapurna-4 with Yr 9 gene. (Bhatta, 1996). In a second semi-arid wheat yield trial the highest yielder showed the highest score of leaf rust with 15MS,S. while in initial evaluation trial for Terai, Tars and Lower Valleys under timely sown rainfed condition except NL 740 (5 MR MS), BL1556 (30S MS), and checks, none of the test entries showed LR. (Sah, 1996). In one of the trial, most of the entries were resistance to LR. In advance varietal trial (late sownirrigated) only some of genotypes were susceptible to LR. The leaf rust of as high as 20MS, S was recorded in one of among many different trials. (Pokharel, 1996).

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Stripe rust and leaf rust are the major wheat diseases observed in the eastern hills. In an effort to find out the tolerance of genotypes to disease a test throughout the country and nursery with released and pre-released varieties came with results indicating the incidence of rust was nil with was attributed to the dry and hot climate which prevailed during the wheat season Also in other trial conducted at PAC North farm states rusts as one of the major diseases of this area. There was a problem of only Yellow and leaf rust in 1993/94. Among these, LR was more severe than the yellow rust rather surprising at this altitude. Almost all, except PWL-82, PWL-83 and two checks entries, were infected by LR whereas YR was seen only on PWL-78, FCH. OM, FCM. YM and Annapurna-3. The worst entries with respect to LR were PWL-85, (100S), PWL100 (100S), PWL-109 (100S), PWL-110 (100S) and PWL-113 (100S). In CVT-coordinated varietal trial none of the high yielding genotype was free from rusts diseases except HUW-395. The severity of leaf rust was more (80 S in K 9025) than the yellow rust (20MS in RR-21). HUW-395, K8804, BL-1473, BL1496, NL-683, HP 1731, DL-784-3 and DL547-2 were free from rusts .(Tiwari and Rijal, 1996). The development of leaf as well as YR in test entries and Nepal Disease Nursery (NDN) was very low in comparison to susceptible varieties and to understand their resistance and disease progress ten varieties when tested in pot, there was maximum development of rust in RR-21, BL1493, Paudur Local, Morocco and T. Spelta saharanse. Development of Leaf rust was moderate in BL-1066 while NL-645, NL-665 and BL-1496 exhibited no rust incidence at all. (Joshi and etalet al., 1996 ). In hilly areas stripe rust and LR are the major problems and 227 lines were evaluated for the disease resistant lines. Out of them 33 lines were selected on the basis of the disease resistance/tolerance and agronomic characteristics. The incidence of YR was low in 1992/93 as the case in 1991/92. However trace amount of the disease was noticed in some entries at a later stage of crop which did not affect crop performance .(Tiwari and etalet al., 1996). Yellow rust was observed in very limited areas with fewer severities. The rust was observed on wheat cultivar Morocco planted at Nigale during the 3rd week of November and also RR 21 and UP 262 were infected. The severity reached to 100 percent on Morocco at Nigale. Reports from Sipaghat of Sindupalchowk district indicated rust incidence first in second week of February

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with infections observed in RR21, Up 262 and some other Varieties. Annapurna-1 was not recorded with rust. In Kavbre Agricultural Farm, Dolakha district, it reported presence of the rust in the farm but the severity was not as high as previous years. Not much of the YR was observed in farmers field in Bhaktapur and Lalitpur districts. In Prithvi Highway, no trace of YR was observed in the surveyed fields of Dhading, Chitwan, and Tanahun districts but rust with severities ranging 20 MB to 40 S were recorded in farmers field near Lumle on local variety. Even in the vicinity of highway by Syanja and Palpa districts no trace of rust was observed. While in case of Leaf rust , the rust was observed on RR 21 and Morocco at Nigale. It was also observed in Panchkhal, Dolalghat, Sukute, Kothe and nearby Kodari high way during second week of March with severities up to 50-60 MS, S in some fields. At Sipaghat where RR 21 and UP 262 were reported highly infected but other ones NL 623, BL 1136, BL 1473 and BL 1496 were LR free. At Khumultar, the rust appeared in April on many of the wheat varieties and breeding lines included in nurseries were infected but severity could not reach high due to maturity of wheat. Also LR was observed in Dhading, Chitwan, Tanahun, Kaski, Syanja, and Palpa Districts though severities were not high. At Bhairahawa Agriculture Farm, Varieties like RR31, Nepal 251, Nepal 297, Vasker, Siddhartha were highly infected while the Annapurna-1, Annapurna-4, Bhrikuti and BL 1135 did not have any rust in experimental plots .(Karki C.B. and Karki, P.B., 1996) The nursery comprised of 315 entries were evaluated against the major diseases like LR and YR which revealed that the LR infection was high in the nurseries at Bhairahawa, Surkhet and Lumle whereas YR development was low at Kavre, Khumaltar, Jumla and Lumle. 249 entries were observed resistant to both LR and YR, 171 to LR and 278 to YR .(Mahto, 1996a). Rust is the major disease of wheat in Nepal. LR or Brown rust is most predominant in Terai however this disease is also found in the Valleys and hills. 14 percent of grain yield loss was assessed in Kalayansona with moderate level of infection. YR or stripe rust is commonly found in hills and also occasionally observed in the Terai and inner Terai. Black rust or Stem rust is not commonly observed in Nepal. Nevertheless this disease was observed in 1993-94 in local land races and some other varieties at WRP Bhairahawa and ARS, Jumla. SR has also been observed in Jumla in 1994-95 .(Mahto, 1996b).

31

Yellow rust and Leaf rust are important diseases in the constraints of wheat production in Nepal. Several resistant varieties for LR and YR like Annapurna 1, 2, 3, 4, NL 297, BL 1135 etc. were developed but due to the evolution of new pathotypes some of the resistant varieties for LR were broken down especially NL 297 and Nepal- 251 YR appeared very late at 3rd week of February and Agra Local had 10S infection. The maximum development of rust was found on 1st week of April and up to 60S-80S. Also later head infection was noted. Similarly LR occurred in mid-April and RR21, HD2380 and NL 697 were heavily infected in CVT. Also LR infected varieties were NL 697, WK 550, BL 149, BL 1649, BL 1650, HP 1748, Suzhoe, PWL 147, Siddhartha, Nepal 251, and BL 1135.The hill varieties Annapurna 1, 2, 3 are were free of both forms of LR and YR. (Sharma and etalet al., 1996).) LR was number one disease in mid-western region of Nepal. In 1995 LR occurrence was noted at Keware, Mirdi, Rishing Patan, Yampa, Taranagar and Bhoteodar. The severity of the disease was high in the varieties RR-21, UP-262, Nepal-251 and Nl-297. The variety BL-1135, Bl-1066 and BL-1022 had high disease incidence at one area while low in other places. The variety NL539 was found YR and LR free in Keware but BL-1439 was moderately susceptible while NL645 was either clean or with trace infection. The variety BL-1066 had rust severity ranging from low to high and not uniform (20MS-60S). Similarly, BL- 1135 had low rust incidence at many places. At Rishing Patan LR epidemic appeared in the March where RR 21 had up to 80S rust infection recorded in farmers field. Rust incidence was comparatively less in Yampaphant. The variety NL-297 had high rust severity while BL-1022 had low severity in boron application trial. In seed multiplication trial NL-297 had 60MS,S more than in BL-1066 (20MS). The variety BL1022 had 0-30 MS rust incidence and NL-297 had 60S at Yampaphant. All recommended and promising varieties like BL-1135, BL-1022, UP-262 and BL-1066 were heavily rusted in Taranagar. LR incidence in all location was high in the varieties NL-297, UP-262 and RR-21. For YR, it appeared very late in 3rd week of February at Lumle. The maximum development of rust was found on April 1st week and up to 60S-80S was noted in Agra Local. YR was also found at Rishing Patan at 3rd week of February where HD-1982 and NL-30 had as high as 60S

32

infection. In field visited YR incidence was not found except in Lerma-52 (5MS) was noted at Keware .(Sharma, 1996). A survey carried out during 1995 to identity the occurrence, distribution and severity of wheat disease in the command areas of RARA, Tarahara showed LR prevalent throughout the command areas. (Adhikari and etalet al., 1996). Total of 315 entries were tested in Nepal Disease Nursery (NDN). Some of the released cultivars viz., Annapurna-1, Vaskar, Siddhartha, UP262 were found susceptible (80S) however cultivars like Annapurna 2, 3, Nepal 251, Nepal 297 and Bhrikuti were found resistant (0-10 MS). The Agra Local had the highest disease score of 90S .(Karki and Upreti, 1996). YR was a great threat to the wheat cultivation in several parts of the hills. To control YR a fungicide Bayleton is advised to farmers. Bayleton was found the most effective in controlling the rust and produced the highest grain yield of 2140 kg/ha an increase by 210% over water sprays. In Nepal Disease Screening nursery (NDN) 230 wheat strains or lines were evaluated for their disease expressions against major wheat diseases which led to outcome of 101 entries were observed resistant to both LR and YR, 170 lines to LR and 117 to YR .( NARC Annual Report, 1988/89). Investigation into wheat diseases with comprehensive surveys made in different parts of the country showed stem rust was predominant on most of the local wheats during the period. Epidemiological studies indicated that between December and March is the favorable time for YR development in Kathmandu valley. It was also found that temperatures of 5-150C with abundant moisture were congenial conditions for the epidemic development of YR. LR however started appearing early in October and remained developing until June. (NARSC Annual Report, 1987/88). Leaf rust and yellow rust are the major problems to the wheat cultivation in the plains and the hills respectively. The yellow rust in general causes 15-20 percent yield loss while leaf rust is less damaging relatively. In the beginning, the yellow rust was noticed in leaf and leaf sheath but now one can see the spores even on seed and rachis.

33

Recommended varieties Annapurna 1 and Annapurna 2 and promising lines such as Nepal 297, NL 539, NL 410 and NL 464 are resistant to yellow rust. Likewise, the varieties Siddhartha and up 262 and promising lines like Nepal 297, Nepal 251 and BL 1066 are resistant to Leaf rust .( Manandhar and etalet al., ..). Wheat Rusts in South Asia and Some Third Countries Wheat rust diseases are among the major biological threats to wheat production causing

significant yield and quality losses in almost all wheat growing countries under favorable conditions. South Asia is not an exception in this regard and one or other rust species is of serious concern in countries of the region under favorable conditions. (Dusunceli, 2012a). India: In India rusts are one of the serious wheat diseases. Leaf rust has proved to be most damaging in Punjab, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal. The yellow rust is common in Northern Plains, Uttar Pradesh and Bihar. The annual economic losses due to all rusts have been estimated to Rs. 6 crores in 1940. (Chavan and Kadam 1985). Stem rust and leaf rust are prevalent all over the country. Leaf rust is perhaps the more important of the two. Stripe rust is prevalent only in the cooler parts of the country and in the foot hills of Himalayas and adjoining plains. In 1971-72 and 1972-73 stripe rust appeared in epidemic form in Punjab, Haryana and Western Uttar Pradesh causing loss of nearly 0.8 to 1.5 million tones . (Joshi and etalet al., 1986). Pakistan: The major diseases of wheat in Pakistan are Yellow or strip rust, brown or leaf rust and black or stem rust. Losses from rust disease on an average are estimated to be about 2 percent but in years under favorable conditions the value goes up to 10-20 percent. Leaf rust is the most serious of the three rust diseases. The epidemics of 1976 and 1978 had 50-80 percent severity on most of the commercial cultivars .( Bhatii and Ilyas, 1986). Wheat rust as a biotic factor is the major constraint to wheat production. Stem rust is great threat specially to spring wheat in southern Pakistan. Leaf rust occurs on crop in the late growth stage in Southern Pakistan while yellow rust is the predominant rust in the Northern Pakistan. Wheat rust surveillance undertaken by Crop Diseases Research Program in the key wheat growing areas of the country during March 2012 revealed stem rust to be present in Southern part of the country but absent in the central and western regions in Pakistan. Of the wheat field surveyed in

34

the highlands and west of the Pakistan in late March stem rust incidence of 1.1%, Leaf rust incidence was 19.3% while yellow rust was recorded as 4.4% (Rehman and etalet al., 2012). Bangladesh: Leaf rust as one of the disease constraints to wheat production is most important because of their wide occurrence with varying levels of severity. Stem rust of wheat has been a historical disease and was last observed in the mid-1980s, whereas yellow rust occurs occasionally with sporadic infection and is restricted to the northern parts of the country. So far none of the rusts has reached an epidemic level but large scale damage is not unlikely if a virulent race is introduced and infection occurs early in the crop season .(Malaker and etalet al., 2012). Leaf rust is one of the major diseases occurring in almost all the wheat growing regions with varying degrees of severity. Preliminary studies have shown that in favorable years the loss may be as high as 40% whereas in normal crop year, it may be 10-15%. So far leaf rust has not appeared in epidemic form in Bangladesh. Stem rust has never appeared as a problem except in a few old varieties which are not in cultivation now . (Ahmed and Meisner, 1996 ). Bhutan: The main rust disease is yellow rust and brown rusts with a report of serious outbreak of yellow rust in late 1980s. The other rust stem rust has not been recorded till date though its presence cant be completely ruled out particularly in lower el evations .(Tshewang and etalet al., 2012). Morocco: The survey carried out in 2011-12 that was relatively dry revealed that 38 and 42% of the 146 inspected fields of bread wheat were infected by leaf and yellow rusts respectively. Likewise 39 and 11% of the 70 fields of durum wheat were infected respectively with leaf and yellow rust. However during rainy season such as 2008-09 for instance, almost all inspected fields of both bread and durum wheat were infected by leaf rust and 60 and 20% of them respectively by yellow rust with severity reaching 90S on some fields .( Abdelhamid, 2012). USA: In USA, stem rust has reduced grain yields by as much as 200 million bushels in a single year. It also lowers test weight, reduces grain quality and causes shriveled kernels and lodging of the stems. The losses from the stem rust are not greater because of the extensive use of resistant varieties that matures early and the removal of the rust spreading barberry. New races of rust are

35

produced on barberry as the result of the hybridization or cross fertilization of existing races . ( Shurtleff and etalet al., 1973). Leaf rust has caused more damage than any other wheat disease. Loss estimates for a continuous 11 year period ranged from 0.4 to 17 percent. The annual reduction in potential yield was estimated at 4,743,000 bushels representing an average annual loss of over $9 million to Illinois farmers for the 11 year period. Where moderate or greater amount of Nitrogen have been applied to wheat without adding sufficient potassium and phosphorus to soils deficient in these elements, the possibility of severe rust attack is increased. Fertilizer application should be based on soil test. (Shurtleff and etalet al., 1978). Germany: In Germany, 1925 a series of experiments was undertaken in the inoculation of about 140 species and varieties of winter and summer wheat with spores of the fungus. Of the 88 varieties of winter wheat about 23 showed heavy infections and of the 52 summer wheats 32 were very susceptible. None of the varieties tested was completely immune. (Eriksson, 1985). Wheat Rust Control and Management Aspects Genetic resistance is the most economical and eco-friendly method of reducing yield losses due to wheat rusts. Thirty- four wheat genotypes resistant to leaf and yellow rust have been released so far in the country. Spraying of Tilt (Propiconazole) at @125 ml a.i. per hectare at two weeks intervals found effective to control leaf rust. Other effective fungicides such as Triadimefon (Bayleton), Indar (RH-124) are able to reduce leaf rust. (Mahto and Baidya, 2012). When required spraying of Bayleton and Diathane M-45 is recommended for the control of yellow rust and leaf rust respectively. (Manandhar and etalet al., 1989). Triazole (RH 124) for leaf rust and Oxycarbxian (Plant vax) for yellow rust were found effective to control or lessen the effects of these rusts. The results suggest that Bayleton was the most effective of the tested fungicides in controlling the rust (NARSC Annual Report, 1987/88). According to the recent test Bayleton or Plantvax-20 has been found to control the yellow rust disease to great extent. Application on Bayleton at the rate of 500g/ha in 800-1000 litre water for 1-2 times in the interval of 15 days haveApplications on Bayleton at the rate of 500g/ha in 8001000 litre water for 1-2 times in the interval of 15 days have proved to control the disease

36

completely. Balanced fertilizer application and alteration in planting date is also somewhat effective control measure for yellow rust control. It is best to plant wheat as possible as in the month of Kartik that escapes the disease. In Terai, Vijay variety is found with disease resistant capability and is recommended for this part of the country. The disease occurs less in the recently recommend varieties Dhaulagiri (BL 3503) and Gaura (BL 3235). The pipeline varieties like Danphe, Munal, BL 1073 (Francolin), Becard-1 and Chyakura are found promising against the stem rust resistance. Bhrikuti is still popular as no disease attack is encountered for a long time since after being released while Gautam in Terai and Low hills is also popular. Varieties NL 971 and Aditya are found with disease resistant qualities. (Sharma, 2012). Although some very effective fungicides are available to control the rust, high cost and health hazards have restricted their uses. Use of the resistant varieties has and will be the only economical and safer method of rust control. (Karki and Nayar, 1998). Bayleton was found the most effective fungicide to control the rust and to increase grain yield and 1000 kernel weight of wheat. Plantvax-20 was also found promising but less effective than Bayleton. There was increase in 32-43% grain yield over control with the spray of fungicides . (Upreti and Karki, 1999). Stem rust has been controlled by the use of resistance combinations and Sr26, Sr31 and Sr36 genes seems to be the most effective single gene resistances worldwide. Leaf rust has been successfully controlled by combination of Lr13 and Lr34 genes. (Roelfs, 1988). The objective of cultural methods for rust control is to break the life cycle of the rust usually at a critical stage such as overwintering or over summering,.. In some areas winter wheat is infected soon after emergence by spores from nearby infected spring wheat. Volunteer plants, or even late crops of winter wheat. Delaying planting if it does not causes other problems, may prevent this early infection. Cultivation to remove volunteer plants from an earlier crop may also reduce the sources of inoculum. On the other hand in the areas where rust inoculum normally arrives late in the growing season planting early may allow a crop to mature before rust becomes serious . (Knott, 1989).

37

Due to trans-boundary i.e. rust diseases are airborne in nature and frequent formation of new races management of wheat rust disease is a complex challenge. There are number of tools that can be considered for management of rust diseases. These include use of resistant varieties, fungicide applications, eradication of alternate hosts and implementation of good crop production practices. (Dusunceli, 2012b). The barberry eradication programs of Northern Europe and North America successfully reduced the frequency of stem rust epidemics. It also delayed annual disease onset and reduction of the disease pathotypes . (Roelfs, 1987). Without doubt, a combination of cultural control practices with disease resistant and perhaps fungicide applications will be the most effective means of controlling the cereal rust diseases. The principal mechanism of control of the cereal rusts has been through the use of resistant cultivars. The development and use of early maturing cultivars marked initial successes in controlling stem rust in Australia. Mexican farmers had learned to sow early to avoid stem rust prior to the use of resistant cultivars. In some areas volunteer plants must be controlled several times during the season when wheat is not grown. (Singh and etalet al., 2002).

38

Materials and Methods

Site of Study Monitoring site: The monitoring of the Wheat rusts was undertaken in farmers field and various wheat cultivated areas at Bhaktapur district. Research/trial location: The trial for evaluating the different wheat genotypes released and those in the progress to be released in Nepal till the date was taken in Nepal Agricultural Research Council at Plant Protection Division Block. Duration of Study: The study was designated to be performed within the period of six months. It was worked from December 2012 to June 2013. Wheat Disease monitoring Field visits and inspections were made in farmers field in wheat growing areas of the Bhaktapur district mainly in Dadhikot, Balkot, Gathaghar, Duwakot, Gundu etc. A set of semi-structured questionnaire derived from the Global rust monitoring form was prepared for the monitoring and data collection in relation to wheat rusts and cultivation practices. Rust scoring was performed on the basis of Modified Cobbs Scale. Wheat Varietal Evaluation Trial 45 different genotypes /varieties that has been released by NARC sinceNARC since the period of organized wheat research started in Nepal and those that are in pipeline werepipeline were selected as trial key input and planted in the plot size of 2m 1m slightly raised for each of the varietal test. Each of the wheat variety was sown in the parallel rows counting 4 in total at the spacing of 25 cm across the 1m side of the plot. All the wheat varieties were put to the linear layout in the order of the released date. The sowing of the wheat genotypes was done in 4 December 4,2012 (Mangsir 19, 2069 B.S.). The rust scoring was carried out April 16, 2013 (Baishak 3rd, 2070) and evaluated for their rust resistance. Recording Rusts in the Field Scoring of stripe, stem and leaf rust intensities in cereals, based upon severity (percentage of rust infection on the plants) and field response (type of disease reaction), have been developed by Loegering. Severity is recorded as a percentage, according to the modified Cobb scale and the

39

study follows the same technique for rust monitoring and evaluation both in the farmers field and trial. The recording process relies upon visual observations. It is common to use the intervals: Trace, 5, 10, 20, 40, 60, 100 percent for severity recordings. Field response is recorded using the following letters: 0 : No visible infection on plants. R Resistant: visible chlorosis or necrosis, no uredia are present. MR Moderately Resistant; small uredia are present and surrounded by either chlorotic or necrotic areas. M Intermediate; variable sized uredia are present, some with chlorosis, necrosis, or both. MS Moderately Susceptible; medium sized uredia are present and possibly surrounded by chlorotic areas. S Susceptible; large uredia are present, generally with little or no chlorosis and no necrosis. Severity and field response readings are usually combined. For example: tR = Trace severity with a resistant field response. 5MR = 5% severity with a moderately resistant field response. 60S = 60% severity with a susceptible field response.
Source: Rust Scoring Guide, CIMMYT

40

Figure A. Map of Research Site, Khumaltar, Lalitpur.

41

Figure B. Map of the Wheat Monitoring AT Farmers Field

1. Gundu 2. Changunarayan 3. Dadhikot 4. Balkot 5. Duwakot 6. Gathaghar

42

OBSERVATION AND FINDINGS

Table 4. Wheat Rust Monitoring Data at different places in the Farmers Field Incidence on Field level Severity (on Crop stage Recording Serial no.

Reaction

Location

infected

Disease

Type +

plants)

1.

11/05/2013

Gathaghar

Late dough

LR

45MS

2. 3. 4. 5.

11/05/2013 11/05/2013 11/05/2013 11/05/2013

Gathaghar Gathaghar Gathaghar-15 Gathaghar

Dough Maturity Dough Late dough

LR LR LR LR

M H H M

L M H M

5S,MS 30MS 40MS 25MS

6. 7. 8.

10/05/2013 10/05/2013 10/05/2013

Gundu-7 Gundu-7 Gundu-6

Dough Dough Early Dough

LR LR LR

L L L

L L L

5MS 5S,MS 15MS

9.

10/05/2013

Gundu-6

Late Dough

LR

5MS

10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

10/05/2013 10/05/2013 10/05/2013 10/05/2013 9/05/2013

Gundu Gundu-6 Gundu-6 Gundu Dadhikot-8

Dough Maturity Maturity Maturity Dough

LR LR LR LR -

L M M H -

M M M H -

20S,S 25MS,S 25S,MS 40S,MS -

Score
43

Date

15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21.

9/05/2013 9/05/2013 9/05/2013 9/05/2013 7/05/2013 7/05/2013 7/05/2013

Dadhikot Dadhikot-9 Dadhikot-9 Dadhikot-8 Dadhikot-8 Dadhikot-8 Dadhikot-8

Maturity Maturity Milk Dough Dough Milk Dough

YR LR LR YR LR LR YR

M H H M M L H H M M M M M M M L

L H H L L L H H L H M L M L M L

5S 50S,Ms 55S,MS 10MS 15MS 5MS 70MS,S 50MS 5MS 40MS 20MS,S 5MS,S 30S 5MS 25MS 15MS

22. 23. 24.

7/05/2013 7/05/2013 7/05/2013

Dadhikot-8 Dadhikot-8 Dadhikot-8

Milk Maturity Dough

YR YR YR LR

25.

7/05/2013

Dadhikot-8

Maturity

LR YR

26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31.

7/05/2013 7/05/2013 11/05/2013 11/05/2013 11/05/2013 11/05/2013

Dadhikot-8 Dadhikot-8 Balkot-8 Balkot-8 Balkot-8 Balkot-8

Dough Dough Dough Maturity Maturity Maturity

LR YR YR

44

32. 33. 34.

7/05/2013 7/05/2013 7/05/2013

Balkot-8 Balkot-8 Balkot-8

Maturity Dough Dough

YR LR LR YR

H H M M M M L M L L

M H L L L M L H L L

30MS 50S,MS 5MS 5MS 5S 20S 10S 60S

35.

7/05/2013

Balkot-8

Milk

LR YR

36.

7/05/2013

Balkot-8

Dough

LR YR

37. 38. 39. 40.

7/05/2013 6/05/2013 6/05/2013 6/05/2013

Balkot-9 Duwakot Duwakot Duwakot

Maturity

Late Milk Late Milk LR Early dough LR

TR TR

41.

6/05/2013

Duwakot

Early dough

42.

6/05/2013

Duwakot

Early dough

43.

08/05/2013

Duwakot

Late dough

LR

TR

44. 45. 46.

6/05/2013 08/05/2013 08/05/2013

Duwakot Duwakot-8 Duwakot-7

Dough Dough Maturity

45

47. 48. 49. 50.

08/05/2013 08/05/2013 29/04/2013 29/04/2013

Duwakot Duwakot-7 Dadhikot Dadhikot

Dough Dough

YR

H H

100S 70-80S, Late planting

LR

51. 52.

29/04/2013 29/04/2013

Balkkot Balkot

YR CS YR

H H H H

100S 30-40% 80-100S 92-95

53.

29/04/2013

Changunarayan, Bhaktapur

FB

54.

29/04/2013

Changunarayan, Bhaktapur

FB

75-76

55.

29/04/2013

Changunarayan, Bhaktapur

LR

5-10MS

56.

29/04/2013

Changunarayan, Bhaktapur

YR

60S

57.

29/04/2013

Changunarayan, Bhaktapur

LR

20MS,S

58.

29/04/2013

Changunarayan, Bhaktapur

LR

In late planting there was severe LR but no or very little LR in early planting.

59.

29/04/2013

Kharipati,

LR

20-30 MS

46

Bhaktapur 60. 13/04/2013 Dadhikot-9, Bhaktapur Milk YR H H S Severe YR Milk YR H H S Severe YR in farmers field 62. 13/04/2013 Balkot-9, Bhaktapur 63. 13/04/2013 Balkot-9, Bhaktapur Dough YR H H 60S Dough YR H H 100S

61

13/04/2013

Balkot-9, Bhaktapur

64.

13/04/2013

Dadhikot, Bhaktapur

Late Milk YR

65.

13/04/2013

Dadhikot, Bhaktapur

Late Milk YR

Severe YR

66.

13/04/2013

Dadhikot, Bhaktapur

Late Milk YR

60S

*L = Low S = Susceptible

(<20%)

M = Medium (20-40%) MS = Moderately Susceptible

H = High (>40%) MR = Moderately Resistant

TR = Trace Resistant LR = Leaf Rust CS = Covered Smut YR = Yellow Rust PM = Powdery Mildew FB = Foliar Blight

47

Table 5. Cultural Details Adopted by Farmers In Wheat Cultivation Date/ Previous Month of S.N. sowing Mangsir Mangsir Mangsir Kartik Mangsir Kartik Late Kartik 8. Mangsir Rice Power till Rainfall 3-0 50 kg Tillage Irrigation Area Fertilizer application Urea Crop DAP Organic Disease History

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7.

Rice Rice Rice Rice Rice Rice Rice

Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall Manual Rainfall

0-7 1-0 1-0 0-8 0-8 0-8 1-0

10kg 1/2kg 8-10kg 1 pathi 3 pathi

LS, YR YR, LS NK YR, LS NK

2-3 doko YR 20-25 doko 30 dokos LS NK

9.

Mangsir

Rice

Power till Rainfall

0-3

2 pathi

20-25 doko

NK

10.

Mangsir 25

Rice

Manual

Rainfall

2-0

50 kg

NK

11.

Mangsir

Rice

Power

Rainfall

2-8

8-10 pathi

30-40 dokos 5-6 dokos

YR

12.

Mangsir

Rice

Power till Rainfall

0-6

1 pathi

YR,LS

13.

Mangsir

Rice

Power till Rainfall

1-0

3 pathi

14-15 doko

NK

14.

Mangsir

Rice

Power till Rainfall

2-0

60-70 doko/ ropani

NK

15.

Kartik

Rice

Power till Rainfall

2-8

12 kg

20-22 doko

NK

48

16.

Late Kartik

Rice

Power till Rainfall

1-8

25kg

40 doko

YR

17.

Mangsir

Rice

Power till Rainfall

1-0

1-2 pathi

15-16 doko

YR

18. 19.

Mangsir Mangsir /Poush

Rice Rice

Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall

0-8 1-0

2 pathi 10kg

6-7 doko LS NK

20.

Mangsir /Poush

Rice

Power till Rainfall + Manual

2-0

NK

21.

Mangsir /Poush

Rice

Power till Rainfall

0-12

3kg

NK

22.

Mangsir /Poush

Rice

Power till Rainfall

1-0

30kg

NK

23.

Mangsir /Poush

Rice

Power till Rainfall

4-0

50kg

NK

24.

Mangsir /Poush

Rice

Power till Rainfall

4-0

NK

25. 26.

Mangsir Mangsir

Rice Rice

Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall

2-8 0-8

10kg 1215kg 2 tractor

NK NK

27. 28.

Mangsir Mangsir

Rice Rice

Power till Rainfall Manual Rainfall

2-0 0-12

50 kg 1 pathi

* 8-9 doko LS

29.

Mangsir

Rice

Power till Rainfall

1-6

9 pathi

50-60 doko

NK

30. 31. 32.

Mangsir Mangsir Mangsir /Poush

Rice Rice Rice

Manual

Rainfall

0-7 0-12 0-7

2 pathi 1 pathi 6 kg

NK YR NK

Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall

33.

Mangsir

Rice

Power till Rainfall

0-2

NK

49

34. 35.

Mangsir Mangsir

Rice Rice

Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall + Well

0-2 0-8

6 kg 1.5 kg 1.5 kg

NK NK

36.

Mangsir 1/2

Rice

Power till Rainfall + Once tillering @

3-0

12 kg

30-40 doko

NK

37. 38. 39.

Mangsir Mangsir Mangsir

Rice Rice Rice

Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall

1-0 1-0 1-0

10 kg 10 kg 3 pathi 20 doko 15-16 doko

NK NK NK

40. 41.

Mangsir Mangsir

Rice Rice

Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall

2-8 1-4

NK 2-4 pathi

NK

NK

NK

1-2 doko NK

42.

Mangsir

Rice

Power till Rainfall

0-14

5 pathi

20-22 doko

NK

43. 44.

Mangsir Mangsir

Rice Rice

Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall+ well

0-4 1-4

1 pathi 3 pathi

* NK

45. 46.

Mangsir Mangsir

Rice Rice

Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall

0-6 1-3

2 pathi 10 pathi 20-25 doko

* *

47. 48.

Mangsir Mangsir

Rice Rice

Power till Rainfall Power till Rainfall

0-5 1-4

5 kg 3 pathi 15-16 doko

* NK

Note : NK = Not known ? = quantity not known YR = Yellow Rust LS = Loose Smut Area(0-0) first numeric = ropani

* = No occurrence

second numeric = aana

50

Table 6. Data on Farmers Details S.N. Name of Respondent 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. Kamal Shrestha Chandra Keshav Shrestha Balkrishna Shrestha Ishwori Basnet Dharma Krishna Shrestha Chandra Bahadur khulimuli Nanu Pancha Sanu Kc Laxmi Pancha Madan Thapa Jit Bahadur Pancha Jagat Bahadur Pancha Shree Ram Pancha Narayan Khaka Laxmi Thapa Chakra Bahadur Thapa Nani Maiya Thapa Sanu Maya Khadka Laxmi lal Shrestha Ram Krishna Shrestha Subak Roka Shyam Krishna Shrestha Kabita Shrestha Suku Maya Shrestha Nani Maiya Shrestha Dhurba Adhikari Sapana Shrestha Shova Bhuja Gender Male Male Male Female Male Male Female Female Female Male Male Male Male Male Female Male Female Female Male Male Male Male Female Female Female Male Female Female Address Thimi-11 Thimi-11 Balkumari, Thimi Gathaghar Gathaghar Gundu Gundu Gundu Gundu Gundu Gundu Gundu Gundu Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Dadhikot Balkot 016632596 9841909836 9803917006 9818981320 Contact no. 9841098061 015639217 9841531482 9841916371 -

51

29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36.

Shankar Bhandari Laba Bhandari Mithu Rahut Laxmi Shrestha Ram Hari Shrestha Shova Adhikari Ram Prasad Bhattarai Sabitri Adhikari

Male Male Female Female Male Female Male Female

Balkot Balkot Balkot Balkot Balkot Balkot Balkot Balkot

016634151 9841919331 9841646169 016633376 9841554132

37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43.

Shyam Krishna Shrestha Akrur Thapa Sushil Thapa Tej Krishna Awal Purna Bahadur Awal (saila) Madhu Thapa Tulsi (Hajur) Bahadur

Male Male Male Male Male Female

Balkot Duwakot Duwakot Duwakot Duwakot Duwakot Duwakot

9841755092 9803869559 -

Shrestha Male

44. 45. 46. 47. 48.

Shree Krishna Awal Shyam Awal Radha Thapa Sailendra Thapa Shanta Thapa

Male Male Female Male Female

Duwakot Duwakot Duwakot Duwakot Duwakot

9849330660 9841658733 9841042865 9742144320 9841946888

Data on Wheat Genotypes Evaluation 2012/13 (wheat Varietal Display) against Rusts, Khumaltar, Nepal Cultural Information Date of Sowing: December 4, 2012 Fertilization: 120:60:60 (what is unit?)
52

Irrigation: 2 times (pre-sowing + post sowing) Weeding: 1

Plot size : 2m1m for each genotype

4 rows of seeding (25 cm spacing) along a metre side

53

Table 7. Rust Disease Scoring AT Wheat Evaluation Trial 2012/13, Khumaltar

S.N Wheat Genotype

Growth stage

Disease Recordings YR LR SR -

Remarks

1. 2.

Lerma-52 Lermarojo-64

Late milking Late milking(dry)

70S,MS 20MS,S

Drying of plants

3. 4. 5. 6.

Kalyansona Pitic-62 RR21 NL 30

Late milking Mid milking

80S TR 90S 90S

Leaf drying

Dried, head drying and awn infection

7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14.

HD 1982 UP 262 Lumbini Triveni Vinayak Siddhartha Vaskar Nepal 297 Mid milking Milking Milking Mid milking Late milking

100S 90S 80S 20S,MS 80S 20MS 100S 90S

Head drying Awn and glume infection Awn and glume infection Awn and glume infection Awn and glume infection

Awn infection and glume infection

15.

Nepal 251

Mid milking

80S

54

16.

Annapurna-1

5-10 MR, TMS MR MS

17. 18. 19.

Annapurna-2 Annapurna-3 BL 1022

Early milking Early milking Early milking

40S, MS 30MS, S 10MS, MR

5S

20. 21.

BL 1135 Annapurna-4

Mid milking

90S 90S

Severe infection including awn and glume

22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27.

Achyut Rohini Kanti Pasang Lhamu BL 1473 Gautam

Early milking Mid milking

70S 100S TR -

TR? TM R

Awn and glume infection Awn and glume infection

Mid milking Early milking

50S TR

Awn and glume infection

28.

WK 1204

Early milking

TM R

29. 30. 31. 32.

Aditya Vijaya NL 971 BL 3235

Early milking Early milking Mid milking Early milking

10MR 100S 10MR -

5S,

Awn and glume infection

55

MS 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40. 41. 42. 43. 44. 45. BL 3503 BL 3623 BL 3872 NL 1055 NL 1008 NL 1064 NL 1073 Triticale Durum Becard#1 Chyakhura-1 WK 936 WK 1481 (mudule) Early milking Mid milking Mid milking Mid milking Early milking Early milking Mid milking Mid milking Mid milking Late milking Early milking 10 MR TMR 80S 10MR, R 20 MR 20MS,MR TR, TMR -

TMS 5S Awn infection Glume infection

Note: YR = Yellow Rust S = Susceptible TMR = Trace Moderately Resistant Moderately Susceptible ? = May be

LR = Leaf Rust MS= Moderately Susceptible

SR = Stem Rust MR = Moderately Resistant TR = Trace Resistant R = Resistant TMS = Trace

56

RESULT AND DISCUSSIONS

Result on Wheat Rusts Monitoring at Different Locations in Farmers Field. Wheat rust monitoring was carried out in different locations around the Farmers field (Gundu, Gathaghar, Balkot, Dadhikot, Duwakot, Kharipati, Changunarayan) with the purpose of assessing the rusts disease situation in the FY 2012/2013. In total, 66 farmers field sites were visited during the entire monitoring schedule and results are discussed in the following section. Among the 66 sites monitored across the different areas with farmers wheat cultivated field, 24 (i.e. 36.36 % of total sample size) sites were observed with the yellow rust disease infection; with 15 of them having high severity attack, 4 having the medium and 5 fields with low severities. The level of severity (high, medium and low) for the disease in terms of percentage in correspondence to total yellow rust attack is found to be 62.5%, 16.67%, 20.83% in respective order. Also, the incidence level viz., high, medium and low had 13, 10, 1 entries each giving 54.16% , 41.67% and 4.17% share respectively with respect to total number of yellow rust diseases infection. The disease score was highest with 100S in few areas of Balkot and Dadhikot of Bhaktapur district. Table 8. Incidence and Severity Levels of the Yellow rust and Leaf rust disease Disease Incidence H Yellow 13 M 10 L 1 4.17% % total sample Leaf 6 12 14 32 48.48% 8 25% 8 25% 16 50% 32 rust % in 18.75% 37.5%% 43.75% % total(+) total sample Total (+) 24 36.36% Severity H 15 M 4 L 5 Total (+) 24

rust % in 54.16% 41.67% total(+)

62.5% 16.67% 20.83%

57

In case of leaf rust 32 of the farmer fields that were monitored was observed with this disease infection sharing 48.48% of total sample sized. As in the above table, the number of infection into the high, medium and low severities are calculated to be 8, 8, and 16 respectively sharing between them 25%, 25%, and 50% in sequential order. While for that of incidence level categorically high, medium and low it comprised 6, 12, 14 number of infection respectively sharing 18.75%, 37.5% and 43.75% in respective levels. The disease was recorded highest in some sites of Dadhikot with 70-80S, 50S,MS and in Balkot with 50S,MS. Six of the farmers field was found having both the yellow rust and leaf rust to some extent in varying degrees to each other. However, 16 of the surveyed areas were found free from the rust disease.

9% 17% 8% 12% Gathaghar Gundu 23% Dadhikot Balkot 31% Duwakot Changunarayan

Figure 1. Distribution of the sample size by location wise

In summary in total of 66 surveyed farmers field 32 of them have leaf rust disease infection while 24 of them were found with yellow rust disease infection and 6 of them having both leaf and yellow rust. In other way 48.48% monitored sites have leaf rust, 36.36% have yellow rust and 24.24% had no rust infection at all. Additionally, yellow rust infections have highest of percentage falling in high severity and high incidence zone. In contrast leaf rust infections have highest of the percentage falling in the low severity and medium incidence zone. Over viewing the disease score table it could be generalized that yellow rust was severe up to 100S mainly in the Balkot areas while in Dadhikot both of leaf and yellow rust was prevalent from low severity

58

to high severity variation. Farmers field around Gundu was observed with low to medium level of leaf rust majorly. Similarly, in Gathaghar region Leaf rust was common with moderate level of severity. However the sites monitored in Saraswotikhel-Duwakot were mostly rust free and healthy except in few fields with very insignificant severity and trace resistant display. Lastly, in Changunarayan there was little leaf rust with low severity and one of the fields with high yellow rust(60S).

13 11 9

12 11

8 7

7 5 5 3 1 4 3 2 0 0 0 0 0 1 3 2 YR LR No 5

Figure 2. Distribution of Wheat Rusts in Farmers Field

No Disease 10.42% Known 25.00% Known Unknown No Disease

Unknown 64.58%

Figure 3. Knowledge on farmers about wheat disease in history

59

Discussion on Wheat Rusts Monitoring Results. Rust disease is found in all highland and/or temperate areas where cereals are grown. (Prescott and etalet al. 1986).) Joshi and etalet al. (1988) mentioned that yellow is a serious disease of high and mid-hills of Nepal above 4000 ft.. Also, Yellow rust is a major disease which poses a serious threat in wheat cultivation and occurs mostly on mid and lower hills, river basin and valleys according to Mahto and Baidya (2012). The observation thus obtained in the process of monitoring wheat rusts in farmers field at Bhaktapur district which too being geographically positioned in mid-hill belt with yellow rust disease occurrence ( of 36.36% of total sampled fields) is easily understandable. Nepal faced periodic epidemics in the past due to heavy outbreak of yellow rust disease. (ABD-Annual Report, 2009) In Nepal, yellow rust epidemics occurred during 2004-06. Bhaktapur district along with the Kathmandu valley is one of the 10 yellow rust disease prone districts in the country. (Sharma and etalet al., 2011b). These previous findings hence can easily be related out with the findings in this paper of high percentage of yellow rust infected sample sites observed with high severity and high incidence at field level i.e. more precisely 62.5% of yellow rust infected sites were found with high disease severity while only 16.67%, 20.83% with medium and low level of severity orderly. Also, for incidence level 54.16% of infected sites were observed with high level of incidence followed by 41.67% and only 4.17% with medium and low incidence level respectively. The disease score was highest with 100S in few areas of Balkot and Dadhikot of Bhaktapur district. The results showed that among the all sites monitored, 36.36% had yellow rust infection while 48.48% had leaf rust infection which is quite uncommon knowing the fact that yellow rust is major disease of the region while leaf rust is minor ones. Leaf rust is most widespread and

regularly occurring disease throughout plain area, river basin (<600 m), foot hills and minor in hills. (Mahto and Baidya, 2012). This unlikely result of higher leaf rust infection than yellow rust in this part of valley in mid-hill region can be well linked with the other aspect of this same finding which can help us to conclude that the result is quiet very possible i.e. the level of incidence and level of severity of attacked plants for yellow rust stands very low with only 18.75% of total LR infections with high incidence while 43.75% with low severity and 25% with high severity while 50% with low severity. This number itself explains the LR disease is low significance in its prevalence and severity and also in comparison to YR the number is very lesser.
60

Also, the result can be more or less coincided with previous finding that mentions LR is the second major disease of Terai and increasing in valleys and lower hills .(NARC- Research Highlights, 2008). Additionally, monitoring of wheat disease in 153 sites of 39 districts of Nepal indicated the presence of Leaf rust 54% and YR 32% (NARC Annual Report, 1997/98) which gives quite possible validity to the result achieved in this paper. The higher LR infections can also be looked from the view of fact that the changing climate scenario and diverse micro climatic environments in the country have possessed new challenges of biotic (Spot blotch, Yellow and leaf rusts, stem rust, Loose smut and Hill bunt) and abiotic stresses in wheat production. (Tripathi and etalet al., 2012). The occurrence of higher infection rate of LR and YR with high severity and high incidence at field level may also be quiet likely due to emergence of serious issues that were not present previously in wheat production like climate change effects, resurgence of super races of disease such as stem rust race Ug99, major yield losses caused by yellow rust in several countries. (Joshi and etalet al., 2012).

61

Result on Wheat Genotypes Evaluation 2012/13 Trial

A total of 45 different wheat genotypes were put into the evaluation in the form of Wheat Varietal Display (WVD) for the assessment of these cultivars (both released and pipeline) against the wheat rust disease i.e. Yellow Rust or Stripe Rust, Leaf Rust or Brown Rust and Stem Rust or Black Rust. The disease scoring was done in 16th April 2013. In the WVD Yellow rust was the major disease among the all wheat rusts attacking 36 of the subjected genotypes in the trial. 18 of the wheat genotypes under the evaluation have been found with high severity of yellow rust disease, 7 of them with the medium severity, 6 of them with low severity, 5 with traces while 9 of the wheat genotypes had no yellow rust infection at all. The promising lines or the pipeline varieties viz. Aditya (10MR), NL 971 (10MR), BL 3503 (20MS, MR), BL 3623 (TR, TMR), NL 1008 (10MR, R), NL 1064 (20MR), Becard#1 (10MR), Chyakhura-1 (TMR) exhibited low severity and resistant to moderately or trace resistant typed disease reaction. But the promising varieties like Vijaya and NL 1055 have showed high severity of yellow rust disease with 100S and 80S scores respectively. Released varieties like Lerma-52, Kalayansona, RR 21, NL 30, HD 1982, UP 262, Lumbini, Vinayak, Vaskar, Nepal 297, Nepal 251, BL 1135, Annapurna-4, Achyut, Rohini, BL 1473 have high severity with acute disease reaction(S). But Pasang Lhamu and WK 1204 (TMR LR) were exception with rust free meanwhile varieties like Gautam, Kanti, and unlikely Pitic 62 were observed as trace resistant infection (TR). Genotypes Lermarojo-64, Triveni, Siddhartha, Annapurna-2 and Annapurna-3 have medium severity diseases reaction type of S, MS, or MR singly or in other combinations. The disease was scored highest in the cultivars like HD 1982, Vaskar, Vijay and Rohini (100S) followed by varieties RR 21, NL 30, UP 262, Nepal 297, BL 1135, Annapurna-4 (90S). Awn and glume infection were also observed in several varieties such as NL 30 (awn), UP 262, Lumbini, Triveni, Vinayak, Nepal 297, Annapurna-4, Achyut, Rohini, BL 1473, Vijaya, NL 1055(awn) and NL 1008(glume).

Formatted: Justified

62

Leaf rust in the WVD trial against rusts was almost insignificant with low severities in some cultivars viz., BL 1022 (5S), WK 936 (5S), BL 3235 (5S, MS), Annapurna-1 (TMS), WK 1204(TMR), Gautam (TMR) and BL 3872 (TMS). Stem rust was very much negligible or apparent with MR disease reaction in only one variety Annapurna -1 and the symptoms for the disease wereas confusing in variety BL 1022.
25 23.7 20 20.4 18 15 12.6 10 10.9 9.2 10.6 15.6 13.8 Tmin Tmax Tavg 20.6 18.7

19.3

5 2.6 0 December 0.4 January

4.9

February

March

April

Figure 4. Monthly temperature data during wheat season

63

December 80 75 70 65 60 55 50 45 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 77.9

January 72.7

February 73

March

April

69.7

Ppt RH

13.8

0.4

0.8

0.8

0.9

Figure 5. Relative Humidity and R during the wheat growing season

64

Discussion on results of Wheat genotypes Evaluation In the evaluation trial yellow rust disease was dominant with 36 of the subjected genotypes in the trial attacked. Joshi and etalet al. (1988) mentioned that yellow is a serious disease of high and mid-hills of Nepal above 4000 ft.. Also, Yellow rust is a major disease whichdisease, which poses a serious threat in wheat cultivation and occurs mostly on mid and lower hills, river basin and valleys according to Mahto and Baidya (2012). This hence shows the result quiet common as the research site is based in Kathmandu valley. Among the 36 yellow rust disease infectioninfections, 18 (50%) of the wheat genotypes have high severity. Nepal had faced periodic epidemics in the past time and time due to heavy outbreak of yellow rust disease. (ABD-Annual Report, 2009/10) In Nepal, yellow rust epidemics occurred during 2004-06. All three districts of Kathmandu valley are among theamong the 10 yellow rust disease prone districts in the country. (Sharma and etalet al., 2011b). Such a scenario definitely suggests that the high severity among the yellow rust infected plants is quiet relevant observation. The variety NL 1073 yellow rust resistant farmer preferred genotypes. (Sharma, 2011). During year 2008/2009 eight wheat genotypes were tested and two of them BL 3235 and BL 3503 were yellow rust resistant. (Sharma and etalet al., 2011b). Also, others Gautam, WK 1204, Pasang Lhamu were yellow rust resistant wheat varieties. (Sharma and etalet al., 2011c). The cultivars Gautam, WK 1204, Aditya, NL 971, BL 3063 (Vijay), BL 3235) (Gaura) and BL 3503 (Dhaulagiri) are developed varieties in past years against rusts. (Sharma and etalet al., 2012) The pipeline varieties WK 1182 and WK 1481 were resistant to the yellow rust. Also, Danphe (NL 1064) and Francolin (NL 1073) showed moderately resistant reactions to the yellow rust .( NARC (PPD) Annual Report 2010). The above facts and findings can be more or less related with the result that the promising lines or the pipeline varieties viz. Aditya (10MR), NL 971 (10MR), BL 3503 (20MS, MR), BL 3623 (TR, TMR), NL 1008 (10MR, R), NL 1064 (20MR), Becard#1 (10MR), Chyakhura-1 (TMR) in the trial exhibited low severity and resistant to moderately or trace resistant disease reaction type. Also, the result is comparable with the mentioning by Tripathi and etalet al., 2012) that two yellow rust resistant varieties have been released in year 2012 namely Gaura (BL 3235) and Dhaulagiri (BL 3503) for the hilly region and

65

other genotypes like BL 3623 and several others were also evaluated and promoted in pipelines for different ecological zones. But the promising varieties like Vijaya and NL 1055 have showed high severity of yellow rust disease with 100S and 80S scores respectively. But Pasang Lhamu and WK 1204 (TMR LR) were exception with rust free meanwhile varieties like Gautam, Kanti, and unlikely Pitic 62 were observed as trace resistant infection (TR). The result is similar in case with the Sharma (2012) in which it mentions WK 1204 is the high yielding and disease resistant cultivar for the mid hill areas and Kathmandu Valley and Pasang Lhamu is been observed with low or yellow rust free since about 15 years while Gautam variety to holds same prospects in the low hills and river basin areas except here exception being with Pitic 62. The Annual report of NARC; Agriculture Botany Division (2009/10) states that Nepal faced periodic epidemics in the past mostly during seventies due to heavy outbreak of yellow rust disease. With Sonalika (RR21) farmers initially was relieved from yellow rust but after few years it became vulnerable and new resistant varieties like Annapurna 1,3,4, Kanti and Pasang Lhamu were released and around 1997 all these varieties except Pasang Lhamu lost their resistance. Then cultivars like Nepal 297 and BL 1473 after release are also knocked down between 20032006. This review is more or less coincided in terms of disease severity and occurrence more or less to the output of this paper i .e. released varieties like Lerma-52, Kalayansona, RR 21, NL 30, HD 1982, UP 262, Lumbini, Vinayak, Vaskar, Nepal 297, Nepal 251, BL 1135, Annapurna-4, Achyut, Rohini, BL 1473 have high severity with acute disease reaction(S). Genotypes Lermarojo-64, Triveni, Siddhartha, Annapurna-2 and Annapurna-3 have medium severity diseases reaction type of S, MS, or MR singly or in other combinations. The disease was scored highest in the cultivars like HD 1982, Vaskar, Vijay and Rohini (100S) followed by varieties RR 21, NL 30, UP 262, Nepal 297, BL 1135, Annapurna-4 (90S). Among these most are released many years ago. And according to Joshi and etalet al.1 ,(1988) a variety gets genetically eroded in 5-6 years of time. New bio races of diseases pathogens (mutant) invade the variety which can may well be for sure one of the predictable and considerable point behind the high and acute disease reaction severity in these genotypes. Likewise yellow rust is common in
Formatted: Font: 12 pt

66

the varieties for hills mainly in RR 21 and Nepal 297. Likewise BL 1473 is found to suffer from 29% yield loss due to the yellow rust attack. (Sharma, 2012) Commonly identified pathotypes were virulent on widely grown wheat cultivars RR21, Annapurna-1, Annapurna-4, and Nepal 297 (Sharma and etalet al., 2012). Leaf rust though important in Nepal, has been managed through incorporation and pyramiding of resistant genes like Lr34/Yr18, Lr46/Yr29 and other slow rusting genes (Sharma and etalet al., 2012). Leaf rust is most widespread and regularly occurring disease throughout plain area, river basin (<600 m), foot hills and minor in hills. (Mahto and Baidya, 2012). These published facts highly relates to the very poor occurrence of the LR disease in the evaluation trial. Leaf rust in the trial against rusts was almost insignificant with low severities in some cultivars viz. BL 1022 (5S), WK 936 (5S), BL 3235 (5S, MS), Annapurna-1 (TMS), WK 1204(TMR), Gautam (TMR) and BL 3872 (TMS). Further according the paper by Karki C.B. and Karki P.B. (1996) at Khumultar, the rust appeared in April on many of the wheat varieties and breeding lines included in nurseries were infected but severity could not reach high due to maturity of wheat and hence it provides some possible guidelines for the lower incidence and severity of LR observed in the evaluation trial of the wheat genotypes. Stem rust was very much negligible or apparent with MR disease reaction in only one variety Annapurna -1 and the symptoms for the disease was confusing in variety BL 1022 which may well be verifiable by the fact that stem rust in Nepal it occurs throughout Terai on a moderate scale. But not a major problem in Nepal. (Joshi and Regmi, 1988). Also, as mentioned by Mahto and Baidya (2012), stem rust is considered as minor and sporadic disease in the country which furthers strengthen the result obtained in this paper with respect to stem rust disease. 9 of the wheat genotypes had no yellow rust infection at all.
Formatted: Space After: 0 pt

Metrology relation. Temperature as well as humidity is regarded as the important climatic factors affecting the establishment and further growth of rust pathogens. In addition, a free film of water on the host surface influences urediospores germination, production and penetration by fungal hyphae. Temperature apparently is a major deciding factor in the development spread of wheat rusts in

67

the Indian sub-continent. (Joshi, 1986). Earlier we have already mentioned about the necessary environmental conditions for three rust types for their germination, penetration, growth and sporulation. (refer toibid. pp. 14-5). Also the data on metrological parameters; temperature, rainfall and humidity is illustrated in previous section graphically. (refer ibid. p.62 & 70-2) The temperature graph illustrates clearly that there is increase in temperature (minimum, maximum and average) on monthly basis. The temperature scenario shows quiet a bit of favour for Leaf rust germaination, penetration, growth and sporulation but the optimum temperature seems to be lacking which is 20-250C through out the wheat growing season. The temperature graph and environmental condition required for yellow rust seems to be very much matching and corelated. The germination and penetration for its pathogen is optimum at 9-130C and 12-150C for growth and sporulation. Also, the graph illustrates that the average monthly temperatures were 10.9, 9.2, 12.6, 15.6 and 18.80C. This scenario clearly and convincingly provides us the clues that the environmental conditions for the yellow rust was very much conduicive during the month of December to March. Also, the free water is essential for the germination and penetration of all three yellow rust. This requirement is well avail during the wheat season as illustrated by RH and rainfall graph. The average monthly rainfall was increasing from January (0.4cm) to April (0.9cm) while RH remained quiet high around 7-80% for all wheat growing period except for the last month. Hence the observed severe yellow rust disease scenario in the wheat varietal evaluation trial with fewer LR inspection seems to be pretty understandable and probable outcome.

Summary
In the monitoring of the wheat rusts in farmers field at different locations at Bhaktapur district, the observation and analysis of rust disease status could be summarized well as the two of the wheat rusts (yellow rust and leaf rust) are common and they occurred in variable severities and incidences at field level. In the total of 66 farmers wheat field monitored 36.36% of them were observed with the yellow rust disease infection while leaf rust disease accounted 48.48%. This depicts that the disease incidence of leaf rust was higher in percentage than the leaf rust although the sites are greatly the likely domain for the yellow rust disease occurrence. However, it is to be noted out that the
68

disease high degree incidence level for leaf rust at field level was only 18.75% and 43.75% of them were in low incidence level. Also, the degree of severity level was majorly towards low level with 50% and only 25% falling in high severity level. But yellow rust disease situation was more severe in the farmers field in contrast to leaf rust as the highest percentage of them falling for both incidence level at field and severity of attacked plants. The severity was 62.5% in high level and only 16.67 and 20.83% in medium and low levels respectively. While that for incidence level at field 54.16% were with high level of incidence followed by 41.67% and very mere 4.17% in medium and low levels respectively. The score for yellow rust was as high as 100S in Balkot and Dadhikot. Also, to be noted is that only 24.24% had no infection from rust at all. Location wise, Balkot and Dadhikot was more prone to yellow rust with much severe scenario in Balkot and also leaf rust was very common in areas like Dadhikot, Gathaghar and Gundu with moderate levels but only traces of LR in fewer sites was observed in the Duwakot (Saraswoti khel) area. Duwakot was found excellent from the rust free perspective as majority of sites were free of rusts disease. Lastly, Changunarayan area was observed with little leaf rust with lower severities and one field with high yellow rust. In varietal evaluation trial, 36 of the wheat genotypes were recorded with YR infection while LR was almost insignificant with low severities in some genotypes viz., BL 1022, WK 936, BL 3235, Annapurna-1, WK 1204, Gautam and BL 3872. Yellow rust was severe in 18 of the wheat genotypes like Lerma-52, Kalayansona, RR 21, NL 30, HD 1982, UP 262, Lumbini, Vinayak, Vaskar, Nepal 297, Nepal 251, BL 1135, Annapurna-4, Achyut, Rohini, BL 1473 which are mostly long time ago released varieties. The disease score was highest in the genotypes like HD 1982, Vaskar, Vijay and Rohini with 100S followed by RR 21, NL 30, UP 262, Nepal 297, BL 1135 and Annapurna-4 with 90S. 7 of the genotypes had medium severities while 6 with lower severities. Varieties like Gautam, Kanti and Pitic 62 were observed with trace resistance. Pasang Lhamu and WK 1204 was observed to be rust resistant or in other words rust free. Stem rust was very much negligible or apparent with MR disease reaction in one variety Annapurna-1 and the symptoms for the stem rust were unclear in variety BL 1022.

69

Conclusions and Suggestions

The rust disease status combined with both field monitoring and varietal evaluation trial suggests that yellow rust disease was very common with high severity attack and incidence at field level. The monitoring of wheat also reveals that the leaf rust is in higher numbers than the yellow rust but is in low incidence at field level and low to moderate severities. Stem rust was very much insignificant disease in this areas and same is the case in varietal evaluation trial. Farmers had no ideas about the wheat diseases at all as 64.58% mentioned they didnt know it and remaining had very little knowledge. The wheat genotypes evaluation trial can be concluded with positive side as with no surprises the long time ago released varieties were mostly rust susceptible (mainly yellow rust) and those released in recent time period were also found to be prone to the rust disease but the varieties that are in the phase of release or in the pipelines exhibited fairly excellent result with resistant or very lower severities except for Vijay variety. Thus it can be concluded that the varietal development work in Plant Protection Division, NARC at Khumaltar seems to be very satisfactory and result oriented. With the above result, discussions and conclusions following points may be considered for suggestions. Since the yellow rust disease is very severe and highly occurring the yellow resistant varieties should be highly and rapidly promoted and new resistant cultivars that are in pipelines should be made available for cultivation in farmers field soon. Leaf rust occurrence has increased or is increasing at significant rate agricultural research bodies like NARC should now make considerations and priorities towards the leaf rust disease in this region in terms of preventing the disease becoming severe or epidemic with proper management and control options developed. Also, the high percentage of farmers being alien towards the wheat diseases they must be well brought in link towards information and knowledge sharing about the wheat diseases. Also the farmers are very poor in making variety selection rather they are ignorant and unknown so there needs to be better, quick and informative extension of quality, farmer preferable rust/disease free varieties.

70

 As most of the released varieties are already or now Vulnerable to the rust diseases except very few ones like Pasang Lhamu, Gautam, WK 1204 the PPD should take very aggressive initiatives in releasing the new promising varieties and make more efforts in developing other new varieties resistant to diseases like rusts considering the farmers preferences. Also the farmers and seed breeders should be well informed about the varieties that now have lost their rust resistance and should be encouraged to displace them with the new resistant cultivars.

71

Annexes
Table 9. Metrological Information During The Wheat Season Khumaltar Rainfall Rainfall 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Date Month Tmax Tmin RH Date Month Tmax Tmin RH

1/2012 2/2012 3/2012 4/2012 5/2012 6/2012 7/2012 8/2012 9/2012 10/201 11/201 2 12/201 2 13/201 2 14/201 2 15/201 2 16/201 2 17/201 2 18/201 2 19/201 2 20/201 2 21/201 2 22/201 2 23/201 2 24/201 2 25/201 2 26/201 2 27/201 2 28/201 2 29/201 2 30/201 2 31/201 2 2 1/2012 2/2012 3/2012 4/2012 5/2012

Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Oct. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec.

17.6 17.1 16.3 15.3 17.0 16.3 14.8 14.8 13.9 16.0 14.8 12.9 12.3 12.5 10.9 12.7 11.6 10.9 11.7 10.4 10.1 11.5 10.1 9.2 7.6 7.6 7.7 6.8 7.0 6.8 7.0 1.7 2.4 2.6 2.6 1.9

28.9 28.2 27.6 26.8 27.2 27.6 28.2 28.9 24.6 26.3 26.0 26.7 26.2 24.9 24.5 24.9 25.0 25.7 25.8 25.0 25.0 25.5 25.4 24.9 23.8 23.3 23.7 24.5 24.4 25.9 22.4 20.0 19.2 19.9 22.0 20.7

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

87. 85. 4 84. 3 85. 6 80. 5 82. 9 80. 7 78. 8 89. 1 84. 6 88. 6 84. 2 81. 8 80. 8 81. 5 82. 9 85. 1 81. 2 82. 0 81. 1 82. 3 80. 1 78. 6 80. 9 72. 5 77. 1 78. 6 72. 3 72. 4 71. 1 71. 6 1 72. 79. 6 80. 0 75. 5 80. 5 9

1/2012 2/2012 3/2012 4/2012 5/2012 6/2012 7/2012 8/2012 9/2012 10/201 11/201 2 12/201 2 13/201 2 14/201 2 15/201 2 16/201 2 17/201 2 18/201 2 19/201 2 20/201 2 21/201 2 22/201 2 23/201 2 24/201 2 25/201 2 26/201 2 27/201 2 28/201 2 29/201 2 30/201 2 2 1/2013 2/2013 3/2013 4/2013 5/2013 6/2013

Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Nov. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan.

6.5 6.6 4.9 6.5 7.8 8.1 6.4 5.4 6.3 8.1 5.6 6.1 4.5 3.3 4.0 4.4 4.0 4.5 4.4 4.5 3.1 2.7 7.0 7.8 4.1 3.6 3.9 3.6 3.6 3.2 0.7 1.0 1.0 0.1 -1.2 -1.4

25.3 23.6 23.4 23.3 23.0 22.2 22.4 21.6 21.4 21.1 22.3 21.5 21.1 21.8 22.1 22.5 25.1 24.0 22.5 21.4 21.6 21.5 20.8 20.1 19.5 19.1 19.3 18.7 19.4 19.9 17.2 19.5 17.5 16.8 17.6 17.0

69. 67. 6 70. 4 78. 6 77. 9 79. 9 78. 0 79. 7 78. 1 79. 7 79. 7 80. 0 77. 2 72. 2 73. 7 73. 2 69. 5 72. 7 77. 2 74. 4 76. 5 77. 3 81. 9 79. 8 79. 9 78. 8 80. 2 79. 9 78. 9 76. 7 9 77. 72. 7 78. 2 80. 0 74. 6 74. 8 5
72

6/2012 7/2012 8/2012 9/2012 10/201 11/201 2 12/201 2 13/201 2 14/201 2 15/201 2 16/201 2 17/201 2 18/201 2 19/201 2 20/201 2 21/201 2 22/201 2 23/201 2 24/201 2 25/201 2 26/201 2 27/201 2 28/201 2 29/201 2 30/201 2 31/201 2 2 1/2013 2/2013 3/2013 4/2013 5/2013 6/2013 7/2013 8/2013 9/2013 10/201 11/201 3 12/201 3 13/201 3 14/201 3 15/201 3 16/201 3 17/201 3 3

Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Dec. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb.

3.1 6.2 8.9 6.8 6.3 4.9 2.3 4.1 2.2 1.3 0.8 1.9 3.0 2.8 4.7 1.2 1.9 1.2 0.6 0.0 0.4 0.1 0.3 0.4 0.0 3.7 4.8 5.0 5.3 3.4 7.9 6.2 7.8 2.8 3.4 3.1 2.9 3.4 2.6 2.8 5.1 0.0 5.3

19.9 20.5 20.7 19.3 19.6 20.2 18.0 19.2 18.9 19.5 19.1 21.1 20.1 19.2 19.5 17.2 16.7 20.0 20.8 18.7 16.7 17.1 18.4 18.6 17.9 18.3 19.9 18.0 20.0 18.7 14.3 17.6 21.6 21.3 21.9 21.3 22.4 21.4 24.0 24.2 18.3 10.5 17.8

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 1.8 0.6 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 11.8 7.8

83. 81. 8 84. 0 84. 0 83. 8 79. 4 74. 2 75. 7 78. 7 70. 1 76. 9 80. 4 78. 7 87. 4 81. 6 84. 3 82. 3 78. 0 69. 0 70. 4 73. 2 74. 4 73. 7 75. 0 74. 1 73. 1 3 70. 69. 6 64. 7 76. 7 91. 2 92. 0 64. 4 74. 2 75. 0 71. 2 69. 9 63. 0 60. 7 65. 7 70. 7 89. 4 80. 8 6

7/2013 8/2013 9/2013 10/201 11/201 3 12/201 3 13/201 3 14/201 3 15/201 3 16/201 3 17/201 3 18/201 3 19/201 3 20/201 3 21/201 3 22/201 3 23/201 3 24/201 3 25/201 3 26/201 3 27/201 3 28/201 3 29/201 3 30/201 3 31/201 3 3 1/2013 2/2013 3/2013 4/2013 5/2013 6/2013 7/2013 8/2013 9/2013 10/201 11/201 3 12/201 3 13/201 3 14/201 3 15/201 3 16/201 3 17/201 3 18/201 3 3

Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Jan. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar.

-1.9 -2.3 -3.3 -2.2 -2.1 -1.2 -0.5 0.0 0.5 0.6 0.8 4.8 6.2 2.6 0.4 -0.4 0.8 0.1 -0.8 -1.0 -0.4 0.5 3.7 2.0 4.0 6.4 12.0 10.0 10.5 13.6 9.7 11.9 9.8 10.5 11.3 10.6 7.5 9.6 9.7 null 12.1 9.5 6.5

15.2 16.8 14.8 14.6 15.9 18.4 17.7 17.4 18.4 19.3 21.0 18.1 17.7 18.7 19.0 18.3 18.4 18.9 18.0 19.0 19.1 19.5 19.7 19.3 20.1 9.2 23.5 24.7 12.7 25.7 13.5 24.5 24.5 24.3 13.2 23.2 23.7 24.9 13.2 null 25.2 22.6 23.4

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 8.2 0 0 0.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

71. 64. 7 60. 8 71. 9 72. 6 69. 4 71. 5 78. 0 81. 1 73. 2 65. 1 76. 5 85. 6 83. 7 77. 4 77. 0 80. 1 72. 5 66. 8 61. 2 62. 8 65. 1 64. 0 70. 4 71. 7 7 73. 62. 3 70. 4 98. 4 59. 7 95. 2 72. 5 68. 0 68. 2 94. 1 51. 6 63. 0 68. 6 96. 7 NA 3 34. 51. 9 56. 5 1
73

18/201 19/201 3 20/201 3 21/201 3 22/201 3 23/201 3 24/201 3 25/201 3 26/201 3 27/201 3 28/201 3 3 1/2013 2/2013 3/2013 4/2013 5/2013 6/2013 7/2013 8/2013 9/2013 10/201 11/201 3 12/201 3 13/201 3 14/201 3 15/201 3 16/201 3 17/201 3 18/201 3 19/201 3 20/201 3 21/201 3 22/201 3 23/201 3 24/201 3 25/201 3 26/201 3 27/201 3 28/201 3 29/201 3 30/201 3 3

Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Feb. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr. Apr.

2.5 4.1 6.5 4.3 5.4 6.4 9.4 5.5 6.8 6.5 7.9 null null null 13.7 9.3 8.7 15.8 11.5 null null null null 14.9 13.6 null 14.7 13.0 null 16.9 12.8 12.6 null 13.2 11.7 13.3 17.9 0.0 14.8 17.1 16.9

16.9 18.2 18.2 20.7 23.1 23.7 17.8 22.6 24.2 25.4 25.6 null null null 27.2 27.2 12.2 26.8 15.6 null null null null 30.7 15.7 null 25.8 15.5 null 26.4 22.6 14.9 null 22.7 23.4 15.3 26.6 28.4 27.2 27.9 18.1

0 0 0 0 0 0 0.2 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0.6 0.8 1 0 17.6 1.4 3.6 0 1.2 0 0 0 0 0 0

82. 81. 6 82. 6 79. 0 74. 0 68. 8 75. 5 72. 8 71. 2 63. 0 42. 0 5 NA NA NA 31. 40. 8 62. 8 36. 6 71. 2 NA 7 NA NA NA 26. 54. 5 NA 2 55. 94. 4 NA 2 48. 76. 5 96. 8 NA 3 75. 78. 2 99. 7 66. 9 61. 2 68. 5 68. 4 92. 4 2

19/201 20/201 3 21/201 3 22/201 3 23/201 3 24/201 3 25/201 3 26/201 3 27/201 3 28/201 3 29/201 3 30/201 3 31/201 3 31/201 3 3

Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar. Mar.

7.5 9.7 10.1 9.4 10.8 10.6 13.2 9.3 14.5 13.2 14.8 12.4 null null

24.0 11.7 22.8 23.9 25.2 14.3 27.5 12.7 27.3 14.2 27.1 14.8 null null

0 0 16.8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

59. 90. 7 81. 3 65. 4 75. 4 99. 5 37. 3 81. 5 50. 3 91. 2 36. 5 69. 5 NA 5 NA

74

Figure C. Some of Wheat Genotypes in the Evaluation Trial

75

Wheat Rust Monitoring Form / Questionnaire Surveyor Name: Country/Institution: Date of Survey (dd/mm/yy): Location Name: Survey Site: Farmer name: Crop: Bread Wheat Durum wheat Triticale Farmer field Weed Trial site / /

Date/Month of Sowing: Method of Sowing: Previous Crop: Tillage Practice: Power tillage Irrigation Practice/source: Rainfall Fertilizer: FYM Compost/organic Quantity Inorganic/chemical Urea Quantity DAP Quantity Others Quantity Disc plough Well water Manual Plough River/stream Direct seeding Tap Water Tube well Broadcasting Line sowing Machinery

Growth Stage: Tillering Variety: Field area size: Disease History: 1. 2. 3. Disease Incidence at field level Severity plants) Reaction (on

Boot

Flowering

Milk

Dough

Maturity

ha Diseases

ropanies Unknown

aanas

Stem Rust L M M H H

Leaf Rust L L M M H H

Yellow Rust L L M M H H

None

infected L

76

(R,MR,MS,MSS,S) Remarks L (low) = less than 20% M (moderate) = 20-40% H (high) = more than 40%

77

Photographs

Figure D. Author with famer at Dadhikot

Figure E. Glume Infection at Trial in BL 1473

Figure F. Severe leaf rust at Balkot

Figure G. Author in evaluation trial

Figure H.Severe yellow rust in farmers field at Balkot

78

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Sharma, S. (1996) Wheat Diseases in Western Hills of Nepal. In: Devkota, R.N. & Saari, E.E. ed. National Winter Crops Technology Workshop: Proceedings of Wheat Research Reports National Wheat Research Program, 7-10 September, Siddhartha Nagar (Bhairahawa). Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) pp.339-2. Sharma, S. (2001) Yellow Rust Disease of Wheat in Western Hills of Nepal. In: Advances in Agricultural Research in Nepal: Proceedings of the First SAS/N Convention , 29-31 March 1999. Society of Agricultural Scientists (SAS), Nepal. pp.170-2. Sharma, S. and Poudel, R.S. (2011) Integrated Management Trial. In: Sharma, S., Batsa, B.K., Manandhar, S. and Poudel, R.S. ed. Management of Yellow Rust Disease of Wheat in Hills of Nepal Final Technical Report. NARDF 512/2007/2008. Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal, Plant Pathology Division, National Agriculture Research Institute, Nepal Agricultural Research Council. p.22. Sharma, S., Baidya, M.L., Joshi, A.K., Thapa, D.B., Bhatta, M.R., Baidya, S. Joshi, S. & Poudel, R.S. (2011b) On Farm Evaluation of Identified Superior Resistant Genotypes Using PVS Approach and Genetic Diversity Enhancement. In: Sharma, S., Batsa, B.K., Manandhar, S. and Poudel, R.S. ed. Management of Yellow Rust Disease of Wheat in Hills of Nepal Final Technical Report. NARDF 512/2007/2008. Khumaltar, Lalitpur, Nepal, Plant Pathology Division, National Agriculture Research Institute, Nepal Agricultural Research Council. pp.8-11. Sharma, S., Bhatta, M.R., Thapa, D.B., Gautam, N.R., Bhandari, D. & Joshi, A.K. (2012) Successes in Wheat Rust Management in Nepal. In: Contingency Planning for Management of Wheat Rust Diseases: South Asia Regional Workshop 20-21 December Kathmandu Government of Nepal, Italian Development Co-operation and FAO. pp.12-3. Sharma, S., Ghimire, S.R., Pradhanang, P.M. & Pandey, R.R. (1996) Varietal Screening Against Major Diseases of Wheat. In: Devkota, R.N. & Saari, E.E. ed. National Winter Crops Technology Workshop: Proceedings of Wheat Research Reports National Wheat Research Program, 7-10 September, Siddhartha Nagar (Bhairahawa). Nepal Agricultural

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Statistical Information on Agriculture 2011/12. (2012) Singh Durbar, Kathmandu, Nepal, Government of Nepal Ministry of Agriculture Development Agri-business Promotion and Statistics Division. Thakur, M.K. ed. (2012) Released and Registered Crop Varieties in Nepal 1960-2012. Kathmandu, Communication, Publication and Documentation Division (CPDD), NARC Tiwari, T.P. & Rijal, D.K. (1996) Report on Varietal Improvement Work on Wheat: Summary of Two Years On-station Research, 1993/94 and 1994/95. In: Devkota, R.N. & Saari, E.E. ed. National Winter Crops Technology Workshop: Proceedings of Wheat Research Reports National Wheat Research Program, 7-10 September, Siddhartha Nagar (Bhairahawa). Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) pp.167-2. Tiwari, T.P., Khadka, R.J. & Gurung, B.P. Wheat Research Report. In: Devkota, R.N. & Saari, E.E. ed. National Winter Crops Technology Workshop: Proceedings of Wheat Research Reports National Wheat Research Program, 7-10 September, Siddhartha Nagar (Bhairahawa). Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) and International Maize and Wheat Improvement Center (CIMMYT) pp.212-29. Tripathi, J., Pokhrel, S. & Upadhyay, S.R. (2012) Wheat Production and Improvement in Nepal; Status, Organizational Setting and Prospects. In: Contingency Planning for Management of Wheat Rust Diseases: South Asia Regional Workshop 20-21 December Kathmandu Government of Nepal, Italian Development Co-operation and FAO. pp.2-3. Tshewang, S., Doe, D. & Ghalley, O.M. (2012) Status of Wheat Rust Diseases, Management and Planning Approaches in Bhutan. In: Contingency Planning for Management of Wheat Rust Diseases: South Asia Regional Workshop 20-21 December Kathmandu Government of Nepal, Italian Development Co-operation and FAO. p.5. Upreti, R.P. & Karki, C.B. (1999) Effects of Fungicides on Yellow Rust, Grain Yield and Thousand Kernels Weight of Wheat. Nepal Agric. Res. J., . Vol. 3(1) p.107. Wheat Research Highlights (1998). In: NARC Research Highlights 1989/90 to 1994/95 (2046/47 to 2051/52) Lalitpur, Nepal Agriculture Research Council (NARC)

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PERSONAL INFORMATION

Rajan Shrestha
99, Chode tole Marg, Madhyapur Thimi-11, +00977, Nepal
016634419 9841920452

Shresthakrajan@gmail.com

Sex Male | Date of birth 01/12/1990 | Nationality Nepalese WORK EXPERIENCE

1/12/2012 - Volunteer 5/5/2013 Dr. Baidya Nath Mahto, Chief and Principal Scientist, www.plantpathonarc.gov.np Research and survey analyst October 16, 2012
Plant Pathology Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC)

A Plant Clinic Camp At Sankhu, Kathmandu 2006 2007 Social Service Ms. Smriti Karanjit, Outreach Program Co-ordinator Group leader and Report preparation and presentation
SARS Department, St. Xaviers College

EDUCATION AND TRAINING Academic Qualifications S.N Level 1. S.L.C.

Board/University GoN

Name of the Institution Mount Sinai English Boarding School, Madhyapur Thimi14 St. Xaviers College, Maitighar, Kathmandu Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology, Kathmandu, Nepal.

2. 3.

I.Sc. B.Sc. Ag.

Tribhuwan University Purbanchal University

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Trainings

June 30- July 05, 2012

Training on How to Become a Plant Doctor

CABI South Asia, Kathmandu, Nepal Plant Clinic Courses (Module 1 and Module 2)

Nov 6- Nov 13, 2011

Training on Livestock Production and Management

HICAST, Kathmandu, Nepal Livestock Feeding, Housing, Sanitation, Medicare, and marketing.

Apr 4- Apr 13 2012

Training on Mushroom Cultivation Techniques.

HICAST, Kathmandu Nepal. Production of Button and Agaricus Mushroom

PERSONAL SKILLS Mother tongue(s) Other language(s) Nepal Bhasa (Newari)

UNDERSTANDING

SPEAKING

WRITING

Listening

Reading

Spoken interaction

Spoken production

Nepali

C1/2

C1/2

C1/2

C1/2

C1/2

English

C1/2

C1/2

C1/2

C1/2

C1/2

Levels: A1/2: Basic user - B1/2: Independent user - C1/2 Proficient user Common European Framework of Reference for Languages

Communication skills Organisational / managerial skills

Good communication skills gained through English medium School and Presentations Leadership (in past responsible for a team of 10 people) through Plant Clinic Camp, Social Work th Service and Exhibition at 13 Annual SET Exhibition. Replace with any job-related skills not listed elsewhere. Specify in what context they were acquired. Example: good command of quality control processes (currently responsible for quality audit) Computer basics and Graphics design (MS-word, Paint, MS-Excel, Mail, Photoshop, Page maker, Free hand, Illustrator) Web Technology Course

Job-related skills

Computer skills

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Other skills

Badminton Play Debate Essay Writing Oratory

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION Presentations Honours and awards A report and presentation on Social Service Work, St. Xaviers College st 1 Prizes for several times at school level in Essay, Debate, Oratory, Quiz and Spelling contest competitions st th 1 Prize in 13 Annual SET Exhibition, St. Xaviers College along with Best Outlook Stall Category winner Certificate of Merit, Embassy of India, Kathmandu st nd 1 Prize in Badminton Competition HICAST 2009 and 2010 and 2 Prize in School Competition. Amnesty International Nepal

Memberships

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Referees
Dr. Binayak Prasad Rajbhandari Chair Person and Executive Director Himalayan College of Agricultural Sciences and Technology (HICAST) Contact no.: 9851013564 Email: bprajbhandari@gmail.com

Dr. Baidya Nath Mahto Adjunct Professor, HICAST Chief & Principal Scientist(S-5) Plant Pathology Division, Nepal Agricultural Research Council (NARC) Contact no: 9851146303 Email: bnmahto_7@yahoo.com ppd@narc.gov.np

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