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1.1 Introduction 1.2 Albgebraic Operations.........................................................................................................10 1.3 Coordinate Systems..............................................................................................................16 1.3.1 Cartesian Coordinate System...........................................................................................16 1.3.2 Vector Representation in the Cartesian Coordinate System..............................................17 1.3.3 Einstein Summation Convention (Einstein Notation).......................................................20 1.4IndicialNotation 1.4.1 Some Operators................................................................................................................20 1.4.1.1 Kronecker Delta......................................................................................................22 1.4.1.2 Permutation Symbol...............................................................................................23 1.5AlgebraicOperationswithTensors 1.5.1 Dyadic.............................................................................................................................28 1.5.1.1 Component Representation of a Second-Order Tensor in the Cartesian Basis ........................................................................................................................................................32 1.5.2 Properties of Tensors.....................................................................................................34 1.5.2.1 Tensor Transpose.................................................................................................34 1.5.2.2 Symmetry and Antisymmetry.............................................................................36 1.5.2.2 Symmetry and Antisymmetry......................................................................36 1.5.2.2.1 Symmetrictensor..................................................................................36 1.5.2.2.2 Antisymmetrictensor............................................................................36 1.5.2.2.3 Antisymmetrictensor............................................................................40 1.5.2.3 Cofactor Tensor. Adjugate of a Tensor..............................................................42 1.5.2.4 Tensor Trace........................................................................................................42 1.5.2.5 Particular Tensors................................................................................................44 1.5.2.5.1 Unit Tensors........................................................................................44 1.5.2.5.2 Levi-Civita Pseudo-Tensor..................................................................45 1.5.2.6 Determinant of a Tensor.....................................................................................45 1.5.2.7 Inverse of a Tensor.............................................................................................48 1.5.2.8 Orthogonal Tensors..............................................................................................51 1.5.2.9 Positive Denite Tensor, Negative Denite Tensor and Semi-Denite Tensor ........................................................................................................................................................52 1.5.2.10 Additive Decomposition of Tensors..................................................................53
1.5.3 Transformation Law of the Tensor Components........................................................54 1.5.3.1 Component Transformation Lawin Two Dimensions(2D)...................................1 1.5.4 Eigenvalue and Eigenvector Problem..........................................................................65 1.5.4.1 The Orthogonality of the Eigenvectors.............................................................67 1.5.4.2 Solution of the Cubic Equation.........................................................................69 1.5.5 Spectral Representation of Tensors.............................................................................72 1.5.6 Cayley-Hamilton Theorem.............................................................................................76 1.5.7 Norms of Tensors..........................................................................................................78 1.5.8 Isotropic and Anisotropic Tensor.................................................................................79 1.5.9 Coaxial Tensors.............................................................................................................80 1.5.10 Polar Decomposition....................................................................................................81 1.5.11 Partial Derivative with Tensors..................................................................................83 1.5.11.1 Partial Derivative of Invariants........................................................................85 1.5.11.2 Time Derivative of Tensors..............................................................................86 1.5.12 Sphericaland Deviatoric Tensors.................................................................................86 1.5.12.1 First Invariant of the Deviatoric Tensor ..................................................................61 1.5.12.2 Second Invariant of the Deviatoric Tensor .............................................................61 1.6 The Tensor-Valued Tensor Function 1.6.1 The Tensor Series..........................................................................................................91 1.6.2 The Tensor-Valued Isotropic Tensor Function.............................................................92 1.6.3 The Derivative of the Tensor-Valued Tensor Function..............................................94 1.7 The Voigt Notation 1.7.1 1.7.2 1.7.3 1.7.4 1.7.5 The Unit Tensors in Voigt Notation...........................................................................97 The Scalar Productin Voigt Notation..........................................................................98 The Component Transformation Lawin Voigt Notation.............................................99 Spectral Representation in Voigt Notation.................................................................100 Deviatoric Tensor Components in Voigt Notation.....................................................101
. 1.8 Tensor Fields 1.8.1 1.8.2 1.8.3 1.8.4 1.8.5 Scalar Fields.................................................................................................................105 Gradient........................................................................................................................106 Divergence.....................................................................................................................111 The Curl.......................................................................................................................113 The Conservative Field................................................................................................115
Integration by Parts..................................................................................................117 The Divergence Theorem..........................................................................................117 Independence of Path................................................................................................120 The Kelvin-Stokes Theorem.....................................................................................121 Greens Identities.......................................................................................................122
PREFACE
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1 TENSORS
1 Tensors
1
Tensors
1.1 Introduction
As seen previously in the introductory chapter, the goal of continuum mechanics is to establish a set of equations that governs a physical problem from a macroscopic perspective. The physical variables featuring in a problem are represented by tensor fields, in other words, physical phenomena can be shown mathematically by means of tensors whereas tensor fields indicate how tensor values vary in space and time. In these equations one main condition for these physical quantities is they must be independent of the reference system, i.e. they must be the same for different observers. However, for matters of convenience, when solving problems, we need to express the tensor in a given coordinate system, hence we have the concept of tensor components, but while tensors are independent of the coordinate system, their components are not and change as the system change. In this chapter we will learn the language of TENSORS to help us interpret physical phenomena. These tensors can be classified according to the following order: Zeroth-Order Tensors (Scalars): Among some of the quantities that have magnitude but not direction are e.g.: mass density, temperature, and pressure. First-Order Tensors (Vectors): Quantities that have both magnitude and direction, e.g.: velocity, force. The first-order tensor is symbolized with a boldface letter and by an arrow r at the top part of the vector, i.e.: . Second-Order Tensors: Quantities that have magnitude and two directions, e.g. stress and strain. The second-order and higher-order tensors are symbolized with a boldface letter. In the first part of this chapter we will study several tools to manage tensors (scalars, vectors, second-order tensors, and higher-order tensors) without heeding their dependence
10
on space and time. At the end of the chapter we will introduce tensor fields and some field operators which can be used to interpret these fields. In this textbook we will work indiscriminately with the following notations: tensorial, indicial, and matricial. Additionally, when the tensors are symmetrical, it is also possible to represent their components using the Voigt notation.
(1.1)
r c
r c
a)
Subtraction: The subtraction between two arbitrary vectors ( a , b ), (see Figure 1.1 (b)), is given as follows:
r r r d=ab r r r Considering three vectors a , b and c the following properties are satisfied: r r r r r r r r r (a + b) + c = a + (b + c ) = a + b + c
r
(1.2)
(1.3)
r
Scalar multiplication: Let a be a vector, we can define the scalar multiplication with a . r The product of this operation is another vector with the same direction of a , and whose length and orientation is defined with the scalar as shown in Figure 1.2.
=1 >1 <0 0 < <1
r a
r a
r a
r a
r a r a
r a
1 TENSORS
11
Scalar Product: The Scalar Product (also known as the dot product or inner product) of two r r r r vectors a , b , denoted by a b , is defined as follows: = a b = a b cos
r r r r
(1.4)
where is the angle between the two vectors, (see Figure 1.3(a)), and represents the Euclidean norm (or magnitude) of . The result of the operation (1.4) is a scalar. r r r r r r Moreover, we can conclude that a b = b a . The expression (1.4) is also true when a = b , therefore:
r r r r r r r r r =0 a a = a a cos a a = a a a
2
r r = aa
(1.5)
r r
r a a= r a
(1.6)
r
is the unit vector, then the where a represents the norm (magnitude) of a . If a following must be true: =1 a
(1.7) (1.8)
r r Projection Vector: The projection vector of a onto b , (see Figure 1.3(b)), is defined as: r r r r r ra b proj b a = proj b Projection vector of a onto b
r
(1.9)
r r is the unit vector associated with the r a is the projection of a onto b , and b where proj b
(1.10)
So, taking into account the definition of the unit vector, we obtain:
r r r b a r projb a = r b
r
(1.11)
r r r b = a r proj b a= r b b
r r ab r b
r r r b ab r r = r 2 b b b {
scalar
(1.12)
12
r a
r a
r b
r ra projb
r b
r r r r a b = a b cos
a) Scalar product
b) Projection vector
Figure 1.3: Scalar product and projection vector. Orthogonality between vectors: Two vectors a and b are orthogonal if the scalar product between them is zero, i.e.:
r r Vector Product (or Cross Product): The vector product of two vectors, a , b , results in r another vector c , which is perpendicular to the plane defined by the two input vectors, r
r r ab = 0
(1.13)
(see Figure 1.4). The vector product has the following characteristics: Representation:
r r r r r c = a b = b a
(1.14)