Therapist Self-Disclosure: Research-Based Suggestions for Practitioners

Sarah Knox
Marquette University

Clara E. Hill
University of Maryland

After defining therapist self-disclosure, we briefly discuss its theoretical foundations. We then move to our primary focus of presenting a number of suggestions for effective use of therapist self-disclosure, based on the extant empirical literature. 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. J Clin Psychol/In Session 59: 529539, 2003. Keywords: therapist self-disclosure; psychotherapy practice

Therapist self-disclosure is among the least frequently occurring therapeutic interventions, but it can have strong positive effects on clients (Hill et al., 1988). Despite such potent impact, many therapists have been trained not to disclose, or to do so extremely sparingly. When they do disclose, clinicians may thus experience marked internal struggles about the appropriateness of their intervention, struggles that may be lessened by knowing the empirical research regarding the effects of therapist self-disclosure and the circumstances under which disclosure may and may not be an appropriate intervention. This article seeks to provide clinicians with such information. After defining therapist self-disclosure and briefly discussing its theoretical foundations, we will offer suggestions about when and how this intervention may be used effectively, basing these suggestions on the extant empirical literature.

Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to: Sarah Knox, Department of Counseling and Educational Psychology, School of Education, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI 53201-1881; e-mail: sarah.knox@marquette.edu.

JCLP/In Session, Vol. 59(5), 529539 (2003) 2003 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. Published online in Wiley InterScience (www.interscience.wiley.com). DOI: 10.1002/jclp.10157

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Definition of Therapist Self-Disclosure Therapist self-disclosures are verbal statements that reveal something personal about the therapist (Hill & Knox, 2002), a broad definition consistent with much of the existing literature (see Hill & Knox, 2002, for a discussion of alternative definitions). We further assert (on the basis of work by Hill & OBrien, 1999, and Kim et al., in press) that there are at least seven subtypes of disclosures: disclosures of facts, feelings, insight, strategies, reassurance /support, challenge, and immediacy (see Table 1 for examples). Clearly, these different types of disclosures are used at different times and can have different impacts on the therapy process.

Theory About Therapist Self-Disclosure As may be expected, various theoretical orientations have different perspectives on the appropriateness of therapist self-disclosure. Therapists of traditional psychoanalytic / psychodynamic orientations, for example, often were trained to be neutral, anonymous, and non-self-disclosing in therapy. This abstinent approach was viewed as essential for uncovering, interpreting, and ultimately resolving clients transference, which those of this orientation posited must remain unhampered by information about the therapist as a real person (Goldstein, 1997). As stated by Jackson (1990), the point of the therapists revealing little . . . is so that the patient may reveal more (p. 94). Psychoanalytic therapists, in fact, theorized an inverse relationship between a clients knowledge of a therapists personal life, feelings, and thoughts, and the clients capacity to develop transference to the therapist (Freud, 1912), such that the more a client knew about her / his therapist,

Table 1 Types of Therapist Self-Disclosures

Type Disclosure of facts Disclosures of feeling Disclosures of insight Example I have a Ph.D. in counseling psychology and work primarily with college students. When I have been in situations similar to yours, I felt scared because I didnt know how things would turn out for me. When I was having a similar conflict with my male colleague, I realized that I shut down because I was afraid that he would reject me like my father did. When I faced circumstances like yours, it helped me to gather as much information as I could so that I would be prepared for what might happen. I understand your anxiety because I also have a difficult time when I have to give a talk. I dont know if you are aware that I, too, am divorced, and have had to think hard about my contributions to the failure of the marriage. As you describe the cold relationships in your family now, I am aware that I am feeling very distant and closed off from you. I wonder if that is similar to how you felt with your family?

Disclosures of strategy

Disclosures of reassurance/support Disclosures of challenge

Disclosures of immediacy

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the less pure the clients transference to the therapist. Although those adhering to this orientation stated that therapists should seek to be anonymous, they nevertheless acknowledged that total anonymity was impossible, for in their own office and dress they inevitably revealed themselves (Lane & Hull, 1990). More recently, however, there has been a marked change regarding therapist selfdisclosure among many in the psychoanalytic /psychodynamic orientations. Their previous dictum of neutrality, for example, has been gradually dismantled as a virtually impossible stance to uphold (Bernstein, 1999, p. 595). Currently, some psychoanalysts have concluded that by embracing the technique of self-disclosure, the patient may feel the analysts emotion, without which emotion an authentic analysis is impossible (Billow, 2000, p. 62). Thus, some analysts are no longer discouraged from revealing their own thoughts and feelings, and are instead supported in their use of such data within the analytic relationship, thereby shifting the debate from admonitions against any disclosure to discussion instead of what feelings and thoughts may be usefully revealed to patients (Bernstein, 1999). Through such disclosures, the analyst is no longer a blank screen, but is instead a real human presence with a range of emotionality, including such feelings as confusion, sadness, annoyance, envy, and humor (Billow, 2000). Furthermore, some analysts are revealing not only their emotional presence but also are sharing information about their lives outside of therapy, including illness, loss, sexual orientation, and childlessness (Billow, 2000), marking another notable divergence from their historical roots. From this modern perspective, therapist self-disclosure is not only an inevitable, but also an essential, aspect of the psychotherapeutic process (Bridges, 2001, p. 22). Those who espouse a humanistic orientation posit that therapist self-disclosure illustrates therapists genuineness and positive regard for clients (Robitschek & McCarthy, 1991) and renders the therapeutic process less mysterious (Kaslow, Cooper, & Linsenberg, 1979). Followers of the humanistic tradition, in fact, advocate that therapists realness and authenticity are vital to promoting clients openness, intimacy, trust, selfunderstanding, and change (Rogers, 1951; Truax & Carkhuff, 1967). Further, therapist transparency may normalize clients struggles, make therapists more humane, enable them to serve as role models (Lane & Hull, 1990), and equalize the power in the therapy relationship (Jourard, 1971). Those of the behavioral /cognitive /cognitive-behavioral orientations also view therapist self-disclosure as a potentially beneficial intervention, for such statements may enhance the therapeutic bond and foster client change. More specifically, therapist selfdisclosure may, through challenging clients presumptions and erroneous thoughts about themselves and others, provide clients with feedback on the interpersonal impact they make on others, normalize their struggles, and model effective coping techniques (Goldfried, Burckell, & Eubanks-Carter, this issue). Furthermore, proponents of this orientation also may use therapist self-disclosure as a way to model client disclosure. Advocates of feminist theories have openly supported the appropriate use of therapist self-disclosure (Mahalik, VanOrmer, & Simi, 2000), asserting that this intervention helps transmit feminist values, equalizes power, fosters client growth, creates a feeling of solidarity between therapist and client, helps clients feel less shameful, nurtures client liberation, and acknowledges the place of the real relationship between client and therapist. Additionally, therapist self-disclosure about credentials and values can help clients make informed choices about whether they wish to work with a particular therapist. Finally, therapists who adhere to a multicultural orientation also support therapist self-disclosure, especially with clients from different sociocultural backgrounds and nontraditional lifestyles (Goldstein, 1994; Jenkins, 1990; Sue & Sue, 1999). Given that mental health treatment often occurs within a biased social and historical context (Jenkins,

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1990), those therapists who work with clients culturally different from themselves may well need to disclose to prove their trustworthiness (Sue & Sue, 1999). Clearly, there is a wide range of theoretical opinions regarding the proper use of therapist self-disclosure. From those who advocate anonymity and abstinence to those who assert that disclosures enable clients to make informed decisions regarding the very selection of a therapist, the only consensus that emerges is one of marked respect for the interventions potential impact. Suggestions for Using Therapist Self-Disclosure In this section, we provide suggestions for clinicians regarding the use of therapist selfdisclosure based on our understanding of the research literature. Use Therapist Self-Disclosure Because It Is a Helpful Intervention, but Use It Infrequently and Judiciously The extant literature documents the beneficial impact of therapist self-disclosure. Hill and Knox (2002) examined the reported effects of this intervention, focusing on both immediate and distal outcome. With respect to immediate outcome, research has shown that therapist self-disclosure has positive effects. For example, the intervention was rated by clients as very helpful, and also yielded high experiencing levels in clients (i.e., involvement with feelings). In addition, reassuring disclosures were rated more helpful and elicited higher experiencing levels than challenging disclosures. This review of the literature also indicated that therapist self-disclosures facilitated client insight and rendered therapists more real and more human. Clients perception of therapists as more real and human in turn improved the therapy relationship and helped clients feel normal and reassured. Improvement in the therapy relationship, as well as feelings of normality and reassurance, then made clients feel better and enhanced their openness and honesty in therapy. The immediate effects of therapist self-disclosure on actual clients were thus quite positive. Moving to distal outcomes of therapist self-disclosure, the effects are mixed. As might be expected, it is very difficult to assess the impact of a single statement, one perhaps given weeks or months ago, on treatment outcome. Most studies using correlational designs found no relationship between the frequency of therapist self-disclosure on the one hand and client, therapist, and /or observer judgments of treatment outcome on the other. This finding is not surprising given that type, manner, quality, or responsiveness to client of these disclosures was not assessed in this correlational research. Two studies using different methodologies did, however, find positive effects of therapist self-disclosure on treatment outcome. Via a survey of former clients, Ramsdell and Ramsdell (1993) found that clients rated therapist self-disclosure as having a beneficial effect on therapy. In addition, Barrett and Berman (2001) found that clients who received reciprocal therapist self-disclosures (i.e., self-disclosures in response to similar client disclosures) liked their therapists more and reported less symptom distress posttreatment. Another study (Knox, Hess, Petersen, & Hill, 1997) provides an example of a therapist self-disclosure that elicited positive effects, both immediate and distal. Here, a client reported that her therapist disclosed that he had spent childhood summers at the shore, as had the client. This disclosure, which the client perceived as being given to connect with the client around similar interests and experiences, provided insight for the client by helping her recall the good times of her youth and allowing her to see her

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parents as ill instead of evil, thus enabling the client to forgive her parents before they died. The client also indicated that her therapists revelation made him seem more real, allowed her to experience the relationship as more equalized, and made her feel that he could understand her because of their shared experiences. Finally, the client reported that because of this disclosure, she felt a greater sense of importance and esteem because the revelation let her know that her therapist trusted her. Clearly, the impact of the disclosure on the client was quite positive, perhaps because it was given with the intention to serve the client and facilitate the therapy relationship. However, therapists should monitor how frequently they self-disclose. Therapist selfdisclosure is one of the rarest, but potentially most potent, techniques, comprising between 0 and 2% of therapist interventions (Hill et al., 1988). Perhaps its very impact arises from its relatively infrequent use. One research review (Watkins, 1990) found, for example, that therapists who self-disclosed in a moderate way were viewed more favorably and elicited more client self-disclosure than those who either did not disclose at all or disclosed a lot. If therapists disclose either too infrequently or too frequently, the effect of the intervention may well be reduced. Therapists who never disclose may be experienced by clients as distant, aloof, and impenetrable, and as a result, the therapy relationship may be compromised. In contrast, therapists who disclose too frequently may be experienced as having tenuous therapy boundaries wherein the focus shifts away from the client and instead moves to the therapist. Thus, therapist self-disclosure may indeed be a helpful intervention, one whose frequency must be carefully monitored.

Use Appropriate Content in Therapist Self-Disclosures We suggest that therapists be mindful of the content of their revelations. Existing research indicates that the most frequent topics of disclosure relate to professional background (e.g., degree, therapy style, and training) whereas less frequent content includes sexual practices and beliefs (Edwards & Murdock, 1994; Geller & Farber, 1997; Robitschek & McCarthy, 1991). More specifically, Edwards and Murdock (1994) found that their 184 licensed, doctoral-level psychologist participants, most of whom espoused an eclectic orientation, reported the following pattern of disclosure, from most to least frequent: professional issues (e.g., degree, experience), success / failure, interpersonal relations, attitudes, personal feelings, and sexual issues. Another study (Geller & Farber, 1997) found that the most common topic of self-disclosure among their 25 psychoanalytically/ psychodynamically oriented mental health workers (i.e., psychologists, psychiatrists, social workers, psychiatric nurses) was therapists acknowledgment of mistakes or technical errors. Their participants also frequently disclosed their reactions to clients selfpresentations, their beliefs regarding the efficacy of therapy, and personal information (e.g., whether they had children, location of a vacation, marital status, age, and ethnicity). Less frequent disclosures among this population included content related to therapists religious beliefs, birth date, and sexual orientation. According to these results, then, therapists evidently believe that disclosures of content-related professional background may be better received than those related to more personal areas of their lives (e.g., sexuality). We believe that disclosures of relatively benign biographical data such as that cited earlier are likely to be well received by clients and offer little possible intrusion on the therapy work. Feminist therapists suggest further that therapist self-disclosure allows clients to make better informed decisions regarding whether to work with a particular therapist. Thus, therapists of this orientation may elect to disclose not only some of the factual

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information cited previously but also may more regularly disclose their beliefs and lifestyles, religious and class backgrounds, sexual orientation, and political views so that potential clients have enough information to make an informed decision regarding selection of a therapist (Mahalik et al., 2000). Use Appropriate Levels of Intimacy in Therapist Self-Disclosures We further suggest that therapists offer self-disclosures that are not highly intimate. This assertion is supported by a review of the analogue research on therapist self-disclosure (Watkins, 1990), which noted that therapists who disclosed in a nonintimate way received more favorable reviews and stimulated more client disclosure than those who disclosed intimate and personal material. Similarly, a recent study (Kim et al., in press) found that with Asian American volunteer undergraduate clients who had one session of counseling, client- and counselor-rated intimacy of disclosures was positively correlated with clientand counselor-perceived helpfulness of disclosures, respectively. Importantly, all disclosures in this study were in the low to medium range of intimacy. Revelations that are too personal may frighten or burden clients, or may be indicative of boundary problems in the therapy relationship. For example, imagine that a therapist is working with a client who is experiencing difficulties with her / his partner, difficulties that are significantly affecting the clients daily functioning. Were the therapist to disclose that the therapist and her / his partner also experienced conflict, specifically regarding preferred sexual activities, such a disclosure may well be too intimate: The client may not feel comfortable knowing this information about the therapist. If, instead, the therapist had disclosed simply that she / he had also experienced conflict in a partner relationship and that this conflict had been very upsetting to the therapist, such information may normalize the clients struggles without unnecessarily revealing personal information about the therapist. Contrastingly, although therapists should be mindful not to be too intimate in their disclosures, they also may need to ensure that their self-disclosures do indeed contain some degree of intimacy. Part of the beneficial impact of therapist self-disclosures may arise from clients sense of therapists becoming more real and more human, of therapists trusting clients with information about therapists, and of being given a verbal gift of some part of therapists lives. A disclosure that is too impersonal, then, may not actually meet the threshold necessary for such effects. Referring to the previous example, had the therapist shared only that she / he had worked with many clients who had experienced difficulties with their partners, the client may not have felt a sense of normalization of her / his own struggles. The degree of intimacy in therapist self-disclosures thus must be carefully calibrated. Fit the Disclosure to the Particular Clients Needs and Preferences Not all types of therapist self-disclosure work effectively with all clients. For example, disclosures of strategies (e.g., Ive found when people do something annoying, I ask them politely, Please dont do that. I find that offensive) were rated as more helpful by Asian American volunteer clients than disclosures of insight (e.g., Sometimes in my past Ive felt like I got messages from my parents about what is right. I learned as an adult that I have to make decisions myself), feelings (e.g., If I screw up, I need to know that Im human and will be forgiven. Its painful), information (e.g., I graduated from the University of Maryland), or approval / reassurance (e.g., If someone is tailgating me, I get angry. I know a lot of people get angry) (Kim et al., in press). These results make sense

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given Asian Americans general liking of action-oriented strategies (Sue & Zane, 1987). We should note, however, that types of therapist disclosures have not been investigated with other ethnic groups, so we do not know if these results will generalize. But the results do suggest that different types of disclosures might work better for different types of clients. One could imagine, for example, that some psychologically minded clients might prefer disclosures of insight whereas insecure clients may prefer disclosures of reassurance /support.

Have Appropriate Reasons for Self-Disclosing Effective self-disclosures are given to serve the client and the therapy whereas ineffective and /or inappropriate self-disclosures may well obstruct those very goals. Reasons therapists have given for disclosure were to provide information, enhance the perceived similarity between therapist and client, model behavior, offer clients different ways to think and act, strengthen the therapy alliance, normalize and validate client experiences, or meet clients desires that therapists disclose (Hill & Knox, 2002). Therapists asserted that they often chose not to disclose when the intervention would meet therapists needs; shift the focus from client to therapist; disrupt clients flow of material; burden, confuse, overstimulate, or intrude on clients; blur the therapy boundaries; or contaminate the transference (Hill & Knox, 2002). We suggest, then, that therapists examine very closely their motivations for selfdisclosure. Disclosures given with the intention to aid the client and enhance the therapy often have powerful positive effects. For example, a lesbian client described her therapists disclosure of how her own coming out as a lesbian affected her family relationships. This revelation provided insight by giving the client a time line for the coming-out process. The client also reported using the perspective she gained from the disclosure to communicate with her partner about her struggles in her family relationships, and stated that her therapists disclosure enhanced the therapy relationship by making the therapist seem more credible, more real, less perfect, and safer. Additionally, the disclosure normalized the clients experiences and made her feel less alone and less crazy (Knox et al., 1997). In this example, the therapists perceived intentions of providing insight, normalizing the clients experience, and increasing the similarity between therapist and client had quite salutary effects on the client and the therapy relationship. There also may be circumstances in which it is particularly prudent for therapists to self-disclose. For clients who have difficulty connecting with therapists, self-disclosure may foster clients greater sense of comfort with their therapist. If they know something about their therapist as a real person, for instance, they may feel more comfortable in the therapy relationship. Similarly, in cross-cultural therapy dyads, especially when the client is from a minority culture, clients may want, and need, to know the therapist as a real person before they will trust the safety of therapy (Sue & Sue, 1999). Given the possibility of clients prior experiences with discrimination and oppression, they may require, whether overtly or covertly, that majority-culture therapists be more revealing before clients will feel safe to engage fully in the therapy. Therapist self-disclosures that appear to be given for reasons other than the service of the client and the therapy also illuminate the need for clinicians to reflect carefully on their motivations for such revelations. One therapist, for example, was working with the mother of an adolescent girl. The client / mother came home after one session particularly upset, and the clients daughter then called the therapist and was angry with him.

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Acknowledging that he was upset about the angry exchange with the clients daughter, the therapist disclosed to the client in a later session that the only person who had ever acted as badly toward him as the clients daughter was his own daughter. This statement made the client cry, and retriggered some previously bad experiences with men. She described the effect of this disclosure as throwing her up against a wall, and she continued to have lingering memories about the disclosure (Knox, 1996). Here, then, is an example in which the therapist appeared to be meeting his own needs, in this case to express his upset at the clients daughter via the client. Such a disclosure may well have disrupted the flow of client material. Thus, therapists should carefully examine their motives for self-disclosing, for not all reasons seem to lead to positive effects. Return the Focus to the Client After Therapist Self-Disclosure After delivering a self-disclosure, therapists should ensure that they return the focus back to clients. In this way, they follow their revelation with the implicit message that the proper focus of the therapeutic work is on the client, not the therapist. For instance, one of the therapists (i.e., Dr. A) in Hills (1989) study of eight cases of brief psychotherapy disclosed that he felt anxious when beginning therapy with his female client because his sessions with her would be taped and closely examined by the researchers. Dr. A stated, I felt a lot more anxiety than I expected to feel in some ways, especially at first. And, uh, I guess that sort of dissipated as we began to focus in on what was going on (p. 267). He then immediately followed this disclosure by asking his client whether she, too, felt anxious, illustrating to her that he shared this information not to dwell on his own anxiety, but instead to provide her a chance to talk about what she may be feeling in the situation. Thus, the disclosure may well acknowledge the therapists own discomfort as a way to model disclosure and normalize feelings, but then the attention is returned to the client. In support of this suggestion, therapists in one study (Geller & Farber, 1997) cited the shifting of the focus from the client to the therapist as a reason not to disclose. Rather than implying that disclosures should not occur, however, we advocate that therapists follow their revelations with a clear return of the focus to the client. Consider Using Disclosures of Immediacy Disclosures of immediacy are a bit different from other types of disclosure. These disclosures reveal therapists in-the-moment, here-and-now reactions to what is going on in therapy as it occurs. As such, they may possess a greater intensity, both for the therapist and for the client, than nonimmediate disclosures. Interpersonal theorists assert the value of these immediacy interventions (known by Kiesler & Van Denburg, 1993, as therapeutic impact disclosure), for such statements make the interaction between the therapist and client overt and put the relationship on the table (Teyber, 2000, p. 51). We suggest that immediacy disclosures may indeed be useful, in that they enable therapists and clients to discuss what is happening in therapy at the moment it is actually occurring. Such interventions may be very helpful in bringing to light the interactional processes between client and therapist, processes that also may be occurring with others in the clients life and may be contributing to her / his distress. For example, imagine that every time a therapist asks a client about his relationship with his spouse, the client looks away, becomes quiet, and changes the topic. The therapist notices this pattern, and comments: It seems like each time we approach talking about your spouse, you become uncomfortable. You no longer make eye contact with me,

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your voice changes, and you try to change the subject. I feel you pushing me away from this topic and I feel cut off from trying to help you. I wonder if we could talk about what might be going on for you at these times. Here, the therapist discloses her / his observations and feelings immediately as they occur, thereby providing a ripe opportunity for discussion of the clients feelings. What little empirical research exists on disclosures of immediacy suggests that they can indeed be helpful (Rhodes, Hill, Thompson, & Elliott, 1994). Consider Using Disclosures to Facilitate Termination Therapist self-disclosures at termination may be particularly effective, and therefore we also encourage therapists to consider using this intervention as therapy ends. As indicated earlier, a review of the literature regarding therapist self-disclosure found that the intervention made therapists more real and more human (Hill & Knox, 2002). Even those therapists who did not regularly disclose often did disclose at termination so that they and their clients could discuss their reactions to the therapy experience (Hill, 1989). As therapy reaches its conclusion and as clients prepare for their lives beyond therapy, it may be especially useful for therapists to foster clients sense of therapists as real, genuine, authentic human beings. Such an awareness may demystify therapists, as well as the therapeutic process, and thereby empower clients to continue their growth even after therapy ends. As an illustration, Dr. A devoted much of the final two sessions to the termination process so that both he and his client could discuss the gains made in therapy as well as talk about their feelings regarding the imminent ending of the therapy (Hill, 1989). Dr. A acknowledged that he felt sad about the ending, for he realized that he would likely not know how the client worked out [her] life (p. 268) and was giving up something that [had] been interesting (p. 268). His client rated these exchanges as extremely helpful, again asserting the positive effects of therapist self-disclosure. Ask Clients About Their Responses to Therapist Self-Disclosure We suggest that therapists ask clients about their responses to therapist self-disclosures, both with respect to immediate and long-term impact. Given the apparent infrequency, but high potency, of this intervention, it might be especially helpful for therapists to understand just how their revelations affect clients. If therapists disclose to normalize clients experiences or to enhance the connection between client and therapist, for example, are these the effects that indeed arise? How do clients respond to the delivery of more personal information from their therapists, information that is likely not a regular course of the therapeutic conversation? Although much of the extant research indicates that therapist self-disclosures have salutary effects on clients and therapy (Hill & Knox, 2002), negative effects are certainly possible. Thus, it might behoove therapists to explore with their clients just how the disclosure was received (e.g., How does my telling you this affect you?) so that they may adjust their future interventions accordingly. Similar questions might be prudent as therapy terminates. While it is hard to imagine that a single intervention will be identified as notably contributing to the therapeutic outcome, the reported novelty of therapist self-disclosure suggests that it may be useful to ask clients how, if at all, such interventions affected them over the course of therapy. Self-Disclose About Issues That You Have Mostly Resolved Rather Than Those With Which You Continue to Struggle Finally, we recommend that therapists self-disclosures focus on content that has been resolved. In doing so, therapists can ensure not only that the focus of the therapy remains

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on their clients but also that they have enough distance from and resolution of the topic to help clients. If therapists disclose about ongoing struggles, for example, it is possible that they may inappropriately use the therapy to address their own needs. It also is likely that these therapists will lack sufficient objectivity and perspective to be truly helpful to clients around such issues. We acknowledge that this suggestion is based more on our own clinical and training experiences than empirical evidence, but we nevertheless strongly recommend that therapists limit their disclosures to those issues with which they no longer struggle. Imagine, for example, a therapist who has suffered a miscarriage working either with a woman who also recently lost a pregnancy or with a woman who is struggling with the demands of being a new mother. If this therapist has not achieved resolution regarding her loss, she may be impaired in her abilities to help both the grieving or the new mother. Therapist self-disclosures should therefore involve content that has been resolved.

Conclusions Rare though this intervention usually is, therapist self-disclosure can be a helpful therapeutic skill. When used sparingly, when containing nonthreatening and moderately intimate content, and when done in the service of the client, therapist self-disclosure can help establish and enhance a therapeutic relationship, model appropriate disclosure, reassure and support clients, and facilitate gains in insight and action. We thus encourage therapists to consider using therapist self-disclosure, always, of course, mindful of the impact of their interventions on clients.

Select References / Recommended Readings

Barrett, M.S., & Berman, J.S. (2001). Is psychotherapy more effective when therapists disclose information about themselves? Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 69, 597 603. Bernstein, J.W. (1999). The politics of self-disclosure. Psychoanalytic Review, 86, 595 605. Billow, R.M. (2000). Self-disclosure and psychoanalytic meaning: A psychoanalytic fable. Psychoanalytic Review, 87, 6179. Bridges, N.A. (2001). Therapists self-disclosure: Expanding the comfort zone. Psychotherapy, 38, 2130. Edwards, C.E., & Murdock, N.L. (1994). Characteristics of therapist self-disclosure in the counseling process. Journal of Counseling and Development, 72, 384389. Freud, S. (1912). The dynamics of the transference (Standard ed.), 12, 97109. Geller, J.D., & Farber, B.A. (1997, August). Why therapists do and dont self-disclose. Paper presented at the annual convention of the American Psychological Association, Chicago. Goldfried, M.R., Burckell, L.A., & Eubanks-Carter, C. (2003). Therapist self-disclosure in cognitivebehavior therapy. Journal of Clinical Psychology/ In Session, 59, 555568. Goldstein, E.G. (1994). Self-disclosure in treatment: What therapists do and dont talk about. Clinical Social Work Journal, 22, 417 433. Goldstein, E.G. (1997). To tell or not to tell: The disclosure of events in the therapists life to the patient. Clinical Social Work Journal, 25, 4158. Hill, C.E. (1989). Therapist techniques and client outcomes: Eight cases of brief psychotherapy. Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Hill, C.E., Helms, J.E., Tichenor, V., Spiegel, S.B., OGrady, K.E., & Perry, E.S. (1988). The effects of therapist response modes in brief psychotherapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 35, 222233.

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Hill, C.E., & Knox, S. (2002) Therapist self-disclosure. In J.C. Norcross (Ed.), Psychotherapy relationships that work: Therapist contributions and responsiveness to patients (pp. 255265). Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. Hill, C.E., & OBrien, K.M. (1999). Helping skills: Facilitating exploration, insight, and action. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Jackson, J.M. (1990). The role of implicit communication in therapist self-disclosure. In G. Stricker & M. Fisher (Eds.), Self-disclosure in the therapeutic relationship (pp. 93102). New York: Plenum Press. Jenkins, A.H. (1990). Self-disclosure and the nonwhite ethnic minority patient. In G. Stricker & M. Fisher (Eds.), Self-disclosure in the therapeutic relationship (pp. 117134). New York: Plenum Press. Jourard, S.M. (1971). The transparent self. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold. Kaslow, R., Cooper, B., & Linsenberg, M. (1979). Family therapist authenticity as a key factor in outcome. International Journal of Family Therapy, 1, 194199. Kiesler, D., & Van Denburg, T. (1993). Therapeutic impact disclosure: A last taboo in psychoanalytic theory and practice. Clinical Psychology and Psychotherapy, 1, 313. Kim, B.S.K., Hill, C.E., Gelso, C.J., Goates, M.K., Asay, P.A., & Harbin, J.M. (in press). Counselor self-disclosure, East Asian American client adherence to Asian cultural values, and counseling process. Journal of Counseling Psychology. Knox, S. (1996). Client perceptions of the effects of therapist self-disclosure. Unpublished masters thesis, University of Maryland, College Park. Knox, S., Hess, S.A., Petersen, D.A., & Hill, C.E. (1997). A qualitative analysis of client perceptions of the effects of helpful therapist self-disclosure in long-term therapy. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 44, 274283. Lane, R.C., & Hull, J.W. (1990). Self-disclosure and classical psychoanalysis. In G. Stricker & M. Fisher (Eds.), Self-disclosure in the therapeutic relationship (pp. 31 46). New York: Plenum Press. Mahalik, J.R., VanOrmer, E.A., & Simi, N.L. (2000). Ethical issues in using self-disclosure in feminist therapy. In M.M. Brabeck (Ed.), Practicing feminist ethics in psychology (pp. 189 201). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. Ramsdell, P.S., & Ramsdell, E.R. (1993). Dual relationships: Client perceptions of the effect of clientcounselor relationship on the therapeutic process. Clinical Social Work Journal, 21, 195212. Rhodes, R.H., Hill, C.E., Thompson, B.J., & Elliott, R. (1994). Client retrospective recall of resolved and unresolved misunderstanding events. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 41, 473 483. Robitschek, C.G., & McCarthy, P.R. (1991). Prevalence of counselor self-reference in the therapeutic dyad. Journal of Counseling and Development, 69, 218221. Rogers, C. (1951). On becoming a person. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. Sue, D.W., & Sue, D. (1999). Counseling the culturally different: Theory and practice (3rd ed.). New York: Wiley. Sue, S., & Zane, N. (1987). The role of culture and cultural techniques in psychotherapy: A critique and reformulation. American Psychologist, 42, 37 45. Teyber, E. (2000). Interpersonal process in psychotherapy: A relational approach (4th ed.). Belmont, CA: Brooks / Cole. Truax, C.B., & Carkhuff, R.R. (1967). Toward effective counseling and psychotherapy. Chicago: Aldine. Watkins, C.E. (1990). The effects of counselor self-disclosure: A research review. The Counseling Psychologist, 18, 477500.