APPLIED INDUSTRIAL ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT

Z. K. Morvay, D. D. Gvozdenac Part III: FUNDAMENTALS FOR ANALYSIS AND CALCULATION OF ENERGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE

Applied Industrial Energy and Environmental Management Zoran K. Morvay and Dusan D. Gvozdenac John Wiley & Sons, Ltd

Toolbox 11 HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

1. Heat Exchanger Definition: In a two-fluid heat exchanger two fluids are separated by a thin wall (parting sheets or tube walls) through which heat flows. This exchanger is also known as a recuperator. The first law of thermodynamics has to be satisfied in any exchanger design procedure both at the macro and micro levels. The overall energy balance for any two-fluid heat exchanger is, in an explicit form, as follows:
m h c ph Th ,in Th ,out m c c pc Tc,out Tc,in

(11.1)

This equation certainly satisfies the macro energy balance under the assumptions that are usual for the basic design theory of heat exchangers. The main assumptions assume that the Overall heat transfer coefficient (U) and the Isobaric specific heat of fluids (cp) are constant. The next important assumptions are that Heat losses are negligible and that Flow rates of fluids are constant. However, it is often not very obvious that the NTU relation in its general form:

( NTU, , flow arrangemen t )

(11.2)

is the statement that expresses the micro energy balance for a particular two-fluid heat exchanger under the same assumptions. This particularity is due to the uniqueness of the solution of the governing differential equations and the boundary conditions for a particular flow arrangement. These differential equations, describing the fluid-temperature fields in the heat exchanger core, are the statements of the micro energy balances for an arbitrary differential control volume of that particular core. The boundary conditions specify where the fluids at temperatures T h,in and Tc,in enter the core in a particular flow arrangement. The solution of such a mathematical model, which introduces the overall heat transfer coefficient U and the total heat transfer surface A, gathered in the overall conductance UA, enables the evaluation of both fluid outlet temperatures (T h,out and Tc,out) for the particular flow arrangement. Owing to the simplifying classical assumptions underlying the theory, the mathematical model is linear and tractable by the available methods of calculus. This means that the effectiveness relationship of Equation (2) can be derived for any heat exchanger, no matter how complicated the flow arrangement is. This fact makes the NTU analysis universal.

Part III Toolbox 11: HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

In the case of a condenser and evaporator, one of the fluids changes the phase and the isobaric specific heat becomes infinite. This indicates that product (m cp) is then also infinite and the fluid temperature passing the heat exchanger is constant. In these cases, effectiveness depends only on the number of transfer units (NTU). The micro and macro energy balances are equal. 2. Heat Exchangers Dimensionless Groups: The second important feature of the NTU method is the thermodynamic significance of the dimensionless groups appearing in the analysis. The fluid heat capacity rate ratio is defined as follows:
Wm in Wm ax

(11.3)

In this equation, Wmin means the lower heat capacity of two streams (Wmin = min (Wh, Wc)). If the stream with lower heat capacity is recognized, then the other will be Wmax. One of the special cases appears when Wh = Wc (the temperature changes of both streams are equal). Simply, the ratio of the smaller to the larger heat capacity rate for the two fluid streams is as follows:

(11.4)

and represents the dimensionless group suitable for understanding the overall fluid temperature changes. The condition = 0 indicates the tendency of the strong stream towards the isothermal change, while = 1 the trend of each stream to undergo the same temperature change from the inlet to the outlet of the exchanger (balanced streams). The temperature profiles of counter-flow heat exchanger for 0 1 are presented pictorially in Fig. 11.1.
Th,in
Temperature Temperature

Tc,out Th,out Wh > Wc

Flow length

Temperature

Th,in Tc,out Th,out

Th,in Wh < Wc Tc,out

Tc,in

Wh = Wc
Flow length

Tc,in
Flow length

Th,out Tc,in

Figure 11.1: Temperature Distribution in Counter-Flow Heat Exchanger Similarly, thermodynamic reasoning can be associated with the second dimensionless group, the number of heat transfer units:
NTU UA Wm in

(11.5)

Simply, it is the ratio of the overall conductance UA and the smaller heat capacity rate (Wmin). The range 0 NTU < in practice has a finite upper limit, but thermodynamically speaking, the higher the NTU (higher overall conductance and smaller weak stream capacity), the smaller are the local temperature differences across the heat transfer surface area and consequently the irreversibility is lower. This means that better heat exchanger flow arrangements must have a monotonically increasing effectiveness with NTU.

Part III Toolbox 11: HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

3. Heat Exchanger Effectiveness: The effectiveness () of any two-fluid heat exchanger is essentially a dimensionless measure of the heat quantity which is actually transferred between two streams normalized with the maximum possible fluid enthalpy change in the system. This hypothetical quantity of heat can be seen as the enthalpy change of the weak stream (stream with lower heat capacity) undergoing the maximum possible temperature change (T h,in - Tc,in) without any losses. The heat exchanger effectiveness is then simply defined as:
Q act Q m ax Wh (Th ,in Wm in (Th ,in Th ,out ) Tc,in ) Wc (Tc,out Wm in (Th ,in Tc,in ) Tc,in )

(11.6)

and it is a unique measure of its thermal performance. Uniqueness in this context means that the same effectiveness, , is obtained by writing Qact either in terms of hot fluid parameters or in terms of cold fluid parameters. Effectiveness is to be obtained from the solution of the mathematical model mentioned above and will, thus, depend on two dimensionless groups which are the heat exchanger parameters NTU and . A summary of the necessary steps to derive an effectiveness relationship is as follows: Write the differential equations describing the local heat transfer in the heat exchanger core and specify the inlet (boundary) conditions. Identify (between the hot and cold fluid stream) the weak stream, and assign a subscript min to all its entities, assign max to the corresponding entities of the other fluid. Solve the mathematical model by some appropriate method of calculus to obtain the temperature distributions within the heat exchanger core. Heat exchanger effectiveness calculation. 4. Heat Exchanger Operating Point: The operating point of an exchanger is the set of , NTU and values that satisfy identically both its macro and micro energy balance. The flow arrangement as an argument of the NTU relation makes the heat exchanger operating point unique for the particular flow arrangement. Here, uniqueness implies that the three values (, NTU, and ) are the ordered ones for the specified flow arrangement. Different flow arrangements have different operating points even for the same values of two chosen arbitrarily out of three corresponding parameters (, NTU, and ). If this is not the case, the flow arrangements are said to be equivalent. In practice, a designer is faced with the problem of seven physical entities (for a specific flow arrangement and for 0 1 ) that have to satisfy just two equations, namely Equations (11.1) and (11.2). These equations state an unambiguous relationship of the type:
. .

f (Th ,in , Th ,out , Tc,in , Tc,out , UA, (m c p ) h , (m c p ) c , flow arrangemen t )

(11.7)

For an arbitrary, but specified flow arrangement, any five of the seven variables must be known for heat exchanger operating point determination. Depending on the combination of the two unknowns that have to be determined in order to satisfy Equations (11.1) and (11.2), there are 21 possible problems for the determination of the heat exchanger operating point. They are shown in Table 11.1 classified in six groups. It can be stated that data on mass flow rates and fluid types are included in Wi m c p i (i = h, c) or so cold strongness of fluid streams. The units of these heat capacities are the same as for UA [W/oC]. The dimensionless heat exchanger groups: NTU and , are combinations of these dimension values. As overall heat transfer coefficient (U) can be defined independently of the size of heat transfer surface area (A), complex UA has not to be divided into constituents. However, complexes Wi have different nature. Known Wi assumes that both mass flow rate (mi) and isobaric specific heat of fluid (cp,i) are known. If one of these two values is not known, this means that the heat capacity is not known.

Part III Toolbox 11: HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

By defining all seven basic heat exchanger parameters according to the energy balance it is possible to define the Heat Exchanger Operating Point (HEOP). The sizing problems in groups I and II, and the rating problems in groups III and IV can readily be recognized. However, the problems in groups V and VI may be described as regime problems. They are the most difficult to solve because there is no possibility for the identification of fluid streams according to their relative strongness and Equations (11.1) and (11.2) must be treated and resolved simultaneously based upon a guess made for the Wmin stream. Also, problems 14 to 21 always have one trivial ( = 0) solution. Table 11.1: Twenty-One Problems to Determine the Heat Exchanger Operating Point
Group No. I Problem No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 UA [W/K] ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? mhcph [W/K] mccpc [W/K] Th,in [K] ??? Th,out [K] ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? ??? Tc,in [K] Tc,out [K]

II III

IV

VI

In the case when = 0, there are two special types of heat exchangers named Condensers and Evaporators. A condenser is a device in which the hot stream is converted from vapor to liquid by using the cold stream. The hot stream heat capacity rate is then Wh and the temperature of the vapor-liquid mixture is constant and equal to Tcon = Th,in = Th,out (isothermal change). As the cold stream heat capacity rate is greater than zero and less than infinity (0 < Wc < ) and as the temperature of the inlet cold fluid is less than outlet temperature (Tc,in < Tc,out), the heat capacity rate ratio is:
Wc Wh 0

(11.8)

The effectiveness of any flow arrangement of evaporators and condensers is as follows:

1 exp( NTU)
The list of possible problems that can appear is given in Table 11.2.

(11.9)

Part III Toolbox 11: HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

Table 11.2: Five Problems to Determine the Condensers Operating Point

Group No. I & II III & IV Problem No. 1 2 3 4 5 UA [W/K] ??? mccpc [W/K] ??? ??? ??? ??? Tcon [K] Tc,in [K] Tc,out [K]

An evaporator is a device in which the cold stream is converted from liquid to vapor by using the hot stream. The cold stream heat capacity rate is then Wc and the temperature of vapor-liquid mixture is constant an equal to Teva = Tc,in = Tc,out (isothermal change). The hot stream heat capacity rate is greater than zero and less than infinity (0 < Wh < ) and thus the heat capacity rate ratio is = 0. The list of possible problems that can appear is given in Table 11.3. Table 11.3: Five Problems to Determine the Evaporators Operating Point
Group No. I &I I III & IV Problem No. 1 2 3 4 5 UA [W/K] ??? mhcph [W/K] ??? ??? ??? ??? Th,in [K] Th,out [K] Teva [K]

5. In design work, the mean overall coefficient of heat transfer U is generally specified by the use of design correlations for the mean coefficients of heat transfer for both sides of the heat exchanger (hh [W/(m2 oC)] and hc [W/(m2 oC)]) in terms of Reynolds, Prandtl, etc. numbers. The nature of these correlations is dependent on geometry, flow arrangement, and laminar or turbulent flow. In the thermal analysis of existing heat exchangers, U can be readily determined on the basis of recorded measurements for terminal temperatures and flow rates by the use of solutions for heat exchanger effectiveness (). For example, can be calculated from Equation ( 11.7) and can be obtained from the defining relation (Eq. (8)). Known and and NTU curve, which corresponds to the geometry and flow arrangement of selected heat exchanger, can be used to calculate the number of transfer units NTU. Now U can be calculated by using Equation (11.5) in the form:

Wmin NTU A

(11.10)

Calculations for U obtained in either of these ways account for all of the various complicating factors that may exist, such as fouling, fins and baffles. 6. When energy was cheap, little attention was paid to designing heat exchangers which made the optimum use of available energy resources. Then, the primary constraints concerned the heat exchanger duty (the amount of required heat exchange and the required heat transfer surface area to satisfy this duty). The duty is a thermal constraint, while the size is an economic constraint since the costs of materials and manufacturing are directly related to the heat transfer area. Potential energy savings, along with economic incentives, have led to increased efforts to produce heat exchanger configurations that can be used to: reduce the size of a heat exchanger for a specified heat duty; upgrade the capacity of an existing heat exchanger; reduce the approach temperature difference for process streams; reduce pressure drop and pumping power.

Part III Toolbox 11: HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

7. Software for Heat Exchangers Operating Point Determination can be used for solving any of the 21 tasks ( 0 1 ) given in Table 11.1 and any of the five tasks for solving condensers (Table 11.2) and evaporators (Table 11.3). It is possible to choose one of the following flow arrangements: Parallel Flow Counter Flow Shell & Tube: One shell pass, 2, 4, 6, tube passes Shell & Tube: Two shell passes, 4, 8, 12, tube passes Cross Flow (both fluid unmixed in pass) Cross Flow (both fluid mixed in pass) Cross Flow (hot fluid (wh) mixed and cold fluid (wc) unmixed in pass) Cross Flow (Hot fluid (Wh) unmixed and Cold fluid (Wc) mixed in pass The schemes and formulae for effectiveness calculation for all of these flow arrangements are given in Table 11.4. The heat flow rate is defined as follows:
Q Wh (Th ,in Th ,out ) Wc (Tc,out Tc,in ) UA T

(11.11)

The biggest temperature difference between streams (T) of all flow arrangements appears in the counter flow heat exchanger (for the same inlet and outlet conditions) and it is called the logarithmic mean temperature difference. For this flow arrangement it is:
Tln (Th ,in Tc,out ) (Th ,out Th ,in Tc,out ln Th ,out Tc,in Tc,in )

(11.12)

For Wh = Wc or
Tln (Th ,in

= 1 it is:
Tc,in )

Tc,out ) (Th ,out

(11.13) ) it is:

For condensers (Tc = Th,in = Th,out and Wh

Tln (Tcon Tc,out ) (Tcon Tc,in ) Tcon Tc,out ln Tcon Tc,in

(11.14)

For evaporators (Teva = Tc,in = Tc,out and Wc

Tln (Th ,in Teva ) (Th ,out Teva ) Th ,in Teva ln Th ,out Teva

) it is:

(11.15)

Software calculates this temperature difference which can be compared with the real temperature difference for the desired flow arrangement which is also calculated by software. The ratio between real and counter-flow temperatures is always less than one and gives the designer an opportunity to estimate the quality of the heat transfer of the desired heat exchanger flow arrangement as compared to the best one (counter-flow). The mean temperatures of both fluids are also calculated by software. These temperatures can be used for the calculation of mean isobaric specific fluid heat and mass flow rates. The mean pressures of fluids are assumed to be known.

Part III Toolbox 11: HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

For condensers and evaporators, the mean temperature differences are defined by Equations (11.14) and (11.15), respectively, and are equal for any flow arrangement. The first FORM that appears in the software is used for the selection of the heat exchanger. The option buttons offer three possibilities: 1. General (both fluids change temperatures passing the heat exchanger), 2. Condenser (only cold fluid changes temperature passing the heat exchanger and hot fluid is at a constant temperature changing the phase, and 3. Evaporator (only hot fluid changes temperature passing the heat exchanger and cold fluid is at constant temperature changing the phase). After selecting the General type of heat exchanger and pressing the NEXT button the window SELECTION OF FLOW ARRANGEMENT will be opened. Eight types of heat exchanger arrangements (listed above) are offered. Using the Horizontal Scroll Bar the flow arrangement can be selected. By pressing the button NEXT, the window PROBLEM DEFINITION is opened. By entering five known values, any of 21 problems can be solved. By using the Horizontal Scroll Bar, the problem can be selected. Text boxes with unknown values will contain the text UNKNOWN. After data input by clicking on the button Calculation, the program will calculate the unknown data and display all the data including the performance of heat exchanger and heat flow rates. This program assumes that fluid stream heat capacity rates are known (in some of the problems). This means that specific heats and mass flow rates of fluids have to be known. It is not always possible to know these values. This means that they have to be assumed, and after performing the calculation in the next window, the correction has to be made and the calculation has to be repeated. The final window is used for the calculation of mass and volume flow rates for given fluids. The program offers nine fluids to be selected and, if none corresponds to the actual fluid, the user can input its own density and specific heat. The fluids offered by the program are: 1. Hydrogen 2. Nitrogen-clear 3. Oxygen 4. Carbon Monoxide 5. Carbon Dioxide 6. Sulfur Dioxide 7. Dry Air 8. R717 (Ammonia) Liquid 9. R22 Liquid After selecting the fluids by using the Combo Boxes and inputting the mean pressure of fluids by clicking on the button Calculation, the results appear in the proper Text Boxes. For any correction of the calculation performed, the button Previous has to be used. For printing the results, after finishing the calculation, the button Printing has to be used. A very similar procedure is used for the calculation of either the Condenser or Evaporator. Of course, other fluids are offered by the program and the enthalpy of saturated vapor and boiling fluid are calculated. Table 11.4: Effectiveness Relations for Various Heat Exchangers
Name and Scheme Single-pass parallel flow
Wc, tc,in

( NTU, , flow arrangemen t )

=0 0<
1 exp

<1
NTU(1 1 )

=1
1 exp 2 NTU 2

Wh, th,in Wc, tc,out Wh, th,out

Single-pass counter-flow 2
Wc, tc,out Wh, th,in Wh, th,out Wc, tc,in

1 exp( NTU)

1 exp NTU(1 ) exp NTU(1 )

NTU 1 NTU

Shell & Tube: one shell pass, 2, 4, 6, tube passes 3

Wc, tc,out Wh, th,out

2 1 exp 1 1
2

NTU NTU

1 1

2
2

1 exp 1 exp

NTU NTU

2 2

Wh, th,in Wc, tc,in

1 exp

Part III Toolbox 11: HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

Shell & Tube: two shell passes, 4, 8, 12, tube passes

Wc, tc,in

1 1 1 1

1
2

Wh, th,in

1 1 1 2

Wh, th,out Wc, tc,out

where * is computed for the scheme 3 for NTU/2

1 exp I 0 2 NTU (1 ) NTU I1 2 NTU 1
n 2 n/2

and

Cross-flow: both fluids unmixed

Wc, tc,in

Wh, th,in

Wh, th,out

I n 2 NTU

1 exp I0 2 NTU

2 NTU I1 2 NTU

Wc, tc,out

Cross-flow: both fluids mixed

Wc, tc,in

NTU

Wh, th,in

Wh, th,out

NTU 1 exp( NTU)

1 exp(

NTU NTU)

1
1

NTU NTU exp( NTU)

Wc, tc,out

Cross-flow: Wc mixed, Wh unmixed

Wc, tc,in

1 exp
1 exp

1 exp( NTU)
1 exp( NTU)

(Wc
( Wh

Wmax)

Wh, th,in

Wh, th,out

1 exp
Wm ax)

1 exp( NTU)

Wc, tc,out

Cross-flow: Wc unmixed, Wh mixed 8

Wh, th,in Wc, tc,in Wh, th,out

1 exp

1 exp(

NTU)

( Wh

Wm ax)

1 exp

1 exp( NTU)

1 exp
(Wc Wmax)

1 exp( NTU)

Wc, tc,out

8. Example: A cross flow heat exchanger (both fluids unmixed) is designed to heat 2.5 kg/s of dry air at 1 bar from 15 oC to 30 oC. Hot water at 52.5 oC is used for this purpose. The outlet water temperature is 24 oC (Fig. 11.2). The mean overall coefficient of the heat transfer surface is 300 W/(m2 oC)]. The other performance indicators of heat exchanger have to be determined.
Air, Mc = 2.5 kg/s pc = 1 bar Tc,in = 15.0 oC

Water, Th,in = 52.5 oC

Water, Th,out = 24.0 oC

Air, Th,out = 30.0 oC

Figure 11.2: Cross Flow Heat Exchanger (both fluids unmixed) The software accompanying this Toolbox can be used for problem solving. Firstly, we select the GENERAL option (Option Button) and by clicking on the button NEXT the second window is opened offering eight types of heat exchanger arrangement. We select flow arrangement No. 5 (Cross

Part III Toolbox 11: HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

Flow Heat Exchanger: both fluids unmixed) and after that, the software switches automatically to the Table containing possible problems. We select problem No. 5. However, in our case only the mass flow rate of air is given and we have to find the heat capacity of this stream. In the case of dry air, the specific heat is approximately 1 kJ/(kg oC) which means that the heat capacity is around that value. It will be the first iteration. In the next step, the program calculates the mean fluid temperatures and specific heat of fluids. Multiplication of this specific heat and given air mass flow rate gives the new and different heat capacity of the cold stream. By selecting the previous window and typing in the new air heat capacity the calculation has to be repeated. In Fig. 11.3, the input data and calculated results are presented. It must be noticed that at this stage of the calculation the type of fluids does not have to be known. This simplifies the problem solving as the definition of the weak and strong stream is not necessary.

Figure 11.3: PROBLEM No. 5 Step 3 After the input of all the data and by clicking on the button CALCULATION, the results will appear in the frame Output Data. Now, we know the fluid heat capacities, four temperatures and the size of the heat exchanger represented by UA. Effectiveness, NTU and are 0.7600, 2.32 and 0.5263, respectively. The heat transfer flow rate is 37.7 kW and as we know the mean overall coefficient of the heat transfer, we can calculate the required surface in the following way (Equation (11.9)):
A Q U Tf 37.7 1000 300 12.3 10.2 [m 2 ]

(11.16)

It is always necessary to know how the value U = 300 [W/(m2 oC)] is specified (on finned or unfinned surface, hot or cold fluid side, etc.). The mean temperature difference between the fluids is in this case 12.3 oC and it is less than the logarithmic mean temperature difference (LMTD) which is 14.7 oC. The reason for that is the use of the cross flow heat exchanger although the best solution is a counter flow heat exchanger. The next step (step 4) in the calculation is the definition of the fluids and the determination of fluid properties. Actually, we have already assumed the specific heat of the cold fluid and performed the calculation in step 3. The mass flow rate of the cold stream is given and with a couple of iterations we have to adjust the cold stream heat capacity to fit the given flow rate. For this, we have to know the pressure of the air (cold fluid). By selecting hot fluid (Water) and its pressure (1 bar), the program calculates the hot fluid flow rate. As cold fluid is air at the pressure of 1 bar, the program calculates the appropriate flow rate. The density and specific heat are calculated for the mean cold fluid

Part III Toolbox 11: HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

10

temperature. As the calculated flow rate is practically the same as the given one (2.5 2.4996), the calculation is finished.

Figure 11.4: PROBLEM No. 5 Step 4 The final results can also be presented in the EXCEL worksheet. From Excel it can be printed out (Fig. 11.5).

Figure 11.5: EXCEL Report

Part III Toolbox 11: HEAT EXCHANGER OPERATING POINT DETERMINATION

11

Notation: A total heat transfer surface area, [m2] cp specific heat of fluids at constant pressure, [J/(kg oC] m mass flow rate, [kg/s] NTU number of heat transfer units, [] T temperature, [oC] T temperature difference between streams, [oC] U overall heat transfer coefficient, [W/(m2 oC)] UA overall heat transfer conductance, [W/oC] W fluid stream heat capacity rate, [W/oC] heat exchanger effectiveness, [] heat capacity rate ratio, [] Subscripts: c cold h hot min refers to fluid with (mcp)min max refers to fluid with (mcp)max con refers to condenser eva refers to evaporator

References
Baclic, B.S, Gvozdenac, D.D, Sekulic, D.P. (1982) Study of the Thermal Performances of Compact Heat Exchangers, Vol. 2 of the Research Project No. 01.804/3-81, Institute of Energy and Process Engineering, University of Novi Sad, Yugoslavia. Bosnjakovic, F. (1976) Nauka o toplini, II dio, IV izdanje, Tehnika knjiga, Zagreb, Croatia. Kays, W.M., London, A.L. (1984) Compact Heat Exchangers, 13th ed., McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York. Thomas, L.C (1982) Heat Transfer, Prentice Hall, New Jersey.