Reservoir Sedimentation with the Sanmenxia Reservoir as a Case Study

Baosheng Wu Tsinghua University

August 24, 2007, Incheon, South Korea

Outline of Lecture
Part I: Basic Concepts of Reservoir Sedimentation Part II: Sedimentation Management of the Sanmenxia Reservoir

Part I
Basic Concepts of Reservoir Sedimentation

 What is a Dam? What is a Reservoir?

What is a Dam or Reservoir?

A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, directs or slows down the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundments. A dam is a structure that blocks the flow of a river, stream, or other waterway. A reservoir is the storage tank or wholly or partly artificial lake for storing water. A reservoir is a large tank or natural or artificial lake used for collecting and storing water for human consumption or agricultural use.
In Australian and South African English, the word "dam" can also refer to the reservoir as well as the structure.

Why are dams important?

Dams store water in the reservoir during times of excess flow, so that water can be released from the reservoir during the times that natural flows are inadequate to meet the needs of water users. Dams are important because they help people have water to drink and provide water for industry, water for irrigation, water for fishing and recreation, water for hydroelectric power production, water for navigation in rivers, and other needs. Dams also serve people by reducing or preventing floods.

Hoover Dam

Itaipu Dam

Sanmenxia Dam

Worldwide Construction up to 1990

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 < 1900 1900-1909 1910-1919 1920-1929 1930-1939 1940-1949 1950-1959 1960-1969 1970-1979 1980-1989

There was a sharp upsurge in dam construction from 1950 onward.

Construction Rate of Large Dams in USA and China

USA Over 15m
Number of Ddams

China
700 600 500 400 300 220 200 100 0 4
<1900

583

Over 15m

479

177

150

1
1900

2
1910

1
1920

5
1930

3
1960 1940 1970 1980 1990 1950

Decade

The United States undertook large scale dam construction earlier than most countries, with the most suitable sites developed, the rate of dam construction has declined to low levels. A similar patterns is evident in China and other countries.

Why Sedimentation in Reservoir ?

Preimpoundment sediment balance: Prior to dam construction, most natural river reaches are approximately balanced with respect to sediment inflows and outflows. (Sediment inflow = Sediment outflow) Sediment deposition occurs as the flow enters the impounded reach of a reservoir due to a decrease in flow velocity and drop in transport capacity of the flow. Coarse sediment is deposited first in the upper part of the reservoir, while finer sediment is transported further into the reservoir. The impounded reach will accumulate sediment and lose storage capacity until a new balance with respect to sediment inflow and outflow is again achieved.

Rate of Storage Loss

The worldwide average annual rate of storage loss due to reservoir sedimentation is on the order of 0.5 to 1% of total storage capacity (Mahmood, 1987). 66 reservoirs in the United States had an average storage loss rate of 0.71%. 20 reservoirs in the China had an average storage loss rate of 2.26%. The Sanmenxia Reservoir had a reservoir capacity of 9.75109m3 in 1960, reduced to 5.7 109m3 by 1964.

Need for Sediment Management

Reservoirs have traditionally been planned, designed, and operated on the assumption that they have a finite life, frequently as short as 100 years, which will eventually be terminated by sediment accumulation. Little thought has been given to reservoir replacement when todays impoundments are lost to sedimentation, or to procedures to maintain reservoir services despite continued sediment inflow. There has been the tacit assumption that somebody else, members of a future generation, will find a solution when todays reservoirs become seriously affected by sediment.

Need for Sediment Management

Sedimentation problems are growing as todays inventory of reservoirs ages, and severe sediment problems are starting to be experienced at sites worldwide, including major projects of national importance. Sediment management in reservoirs is no longer a problem to be put off until the future; it has become a contemporary problem. Sustainable development: Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

Need for Sediment Management

New Projects: The sustainability criteria suggested for new reservoirs is to design for a minimum of 1000 years of operation. (Morris & Fan, 1998) Existing reservoirs: At existing reservoirs, sustainable sediment management should seek to balance sediment inflow and outflow across the impounded reach while maximizing long-term benefits.

Reservoir Characteristics

Dead storage is the volume that is below the invert of the lowest-level outlet and which cannot be drained by gravity. Inactive storage is the lower part of the conservation pool that is normally not used. Active or conservation storage is the volume that can be manipulated for beneficial use, but excluding flood storage. It lies above the minimum operating level and below the bottom of the flood storage pool. Live storage is the total volume below full reservoir level less dead storage. flood storage is the upper portion of the pool dedicated to flood detention.

Reservoir Operation
1) Top of gates 2) Guide curve for maximum pool level 3) Flood control storage 4) Drawdown period for sediment flushing 5) Flood detention and release

Geomorphic Stages of Reservoir Life

Reservoir life can be described in geomorphic terms as a three-stage process:
Stage 1 Continuous Sediment Trapping Stage 2 Main Channel and Growing Floodplain Stage 3 Sediment Balance

Stage 1 Continuous Sediment Trapping

Coarse bed material load is deposited as soon as stream velocity diminishes as a result of backwater from the dam, creating delta deposits at points of tributary inflow. Most finer sediments are carried further into the reservoir by either stratified or nonstratified flow and accumulate downstream of the delta deposits. These finer sediments first fill in the submerged river channel, after which continued deposition produces horizontal sediment beds extending across the width of the pool. Sediments are trapped during all flood events.

Stage 2 Main Channel and Growing Floodplain

When sedimentation reaches the spillway crest, the reservoir transits from continuous deposition to a mixed regime of deposition and scour. A main channel will be maintained by scour, and its base level will be established by the spillway. Sediment deposition continues on floodplain areas on either side of the channel, causing the floodplain elevation to rise above the spillway elevation.

Stage 2 Main Channel and Growing Floodplain

The channel-floodplain configuration may also be created by reservoir drawdown for sediment routing or flushing, in which case both the main channel and adjacent floodplains will be submerged during normal impounding and the base level of the main channel at the dam will be established by the elevation of the low-level outlet. Sediments will be deposited in both channel and floodplain areas during impounding. Scouring during drawdown will remove sediment from the channel but not the flood plains, which will gradually rise in elevation as sediment continues to accumulate. .

Stage 3 Sediment Balance

Note: Sediment movement through the reach is not necessarily the same as preimpoundment conditions Sediment inflow and outflow are essentially in full long-term balance when the amount and grain size distribution of sediment entering the reservoir is balanced by the material passing the dam. Considerable upstream aggradation may occur above the spillway crest, and delta deposits must reach the dam before this balance is reached. Sediments of all sizes may accumulate upstream of the dam during smaller events, but major floods can wash out large volumes of accumulated sediment. In reservoirs subject to hydraulic flushing, the sediment release may be asynchronous with respect to the seasonality of sediment inflow.

Deposition Pattern
Generalized depositional zones in a reservoir
1. Topset beds correspond to delta deposits of rapidly settling sediment. reservoir.
Generalized depositional zones in a reservoir 2. Foreset deposits represent the face of the delta advancing into the reservoir and are differentiated from topset beds by an increase in slope and decrease in grain size. 3. Bottomset beds consist of fine sediments which are deposited beyond the delta by turbidity currents or nonstratified flow.

Longitudinal Deposit Geometry

Longitudinal patterns of sediment deposition in reservoirs Longitudinal deposition patterns will vary dramatically from one reservoir to another as influenced by pool geometry, discharge and grain size characteristics of the inflowing load, and reservoir operation. Deposits can exhibit four basic types of patterns depending on the inflowing sediment characteristics and reservoir operation

Complex Depositional Patterns

Longitudinal profile in Sakuma Reservoir, Japan, after 24 years of operation.

Kulekhani Reservoir, Nepal

Reservoirs may exhibit different depositional processes from one zone to another, resulting in a complex depositional patter. As shown in the figure, the thalweg profile consists of both delta and turbidity current deposits.

Turbidity Currents
Schematic diagram of the passage of a turbid density current through a reservoir and being vented trough a low-level outlet.

Turbidity currents occur when sediment-laden water enters an impoundment, plunges beneath the clear water, and travels downstream along the submerged thalweg.

Part II
Sedimentation Management of the Sanmenxia Reservoir

1. Introduction
Sanmenxia Dam, located in the Yellow River, was completed in 1960. Severe sedimentation problems became evident immediately after impoundment. To cope with the sedimentation problems:
The dam has been reconstructed to provide high sediment releasingcapacity of outlet structures. The reservoir operation has been substantially changed to achieve a balance between sediment inflow and outflow.

The purposes are to report:

the complex sedimentation processes in response to the dam reconstruction and operation, and the engineering experience and lessons learned for sedimentation management.

2. Sanmenxia Dam

Yellow River Basin Drainage area above dam: Annual mean discharge: Height of dam: Normal pool level: Storage capacity: 690,000 km2 1,400 m3/s 106 m 335 m 9.6 billion m3

Original Face of the Damsite

Overview of Sanmenxia Reservoir

Overview of Sanmenxia Reservoir

4. Sedimentation Problems in the Reservoir

Annual sediment load: 1.6 billion tons Average sediment concentration: 35 kg/m3 Max sediment concentration: 911 kg/m3

Loess Plateau

Sanmenxia Dam

Sedimentation Problems in the Reservoir

Dam
Wei River

Tongguan Lossriver of 20% the effective storage capacity and half years, The is of constricted from a width ofwithin moreone than 10 km to 60%than in 6 years. less 1 km at Tongguan, forming a naturally constricted reach. river Rapid upstream extension of sediment deposition in the backwater zone: The at Tongguan servers as awas hydraulic bed 1960 elevation to 1962, the channel bed at Tongguan station raised 4.5 control m. for both the Yellow and Wei Rivers upstream.
Backwater sediment deposition extended over about 74 km in the lower Wei River, upstream of Tongguan.

Aggradation in a Tributary of Wei River

1974
The bridge piers have been increased two times, adding total height of 6.4m.

1969

Abandoned Drainage Outlet to Wei River

3m

Channel bed aggradation in the lower Wei River

338

Elevation (m)

334 330 326 322 318 4700 (a) Cross sect ion no. 2 4900 5100 5300 5500 5700 5900 6100 1960 2001

6300

6500

Distance (m)
345

Elevation (m)

340 335 330 325 500 1960 2001 1700 2000 2300 2600 2900 3200

(b) Cross sect ion no. 7 800 1100 1400

Distance (m)

2003 Flood in the lower Wei River

A 2-year flood on Sept.1, 2003
peak discharge of 3,570 m3/s the highest stage record of 342.76 m Five levee breaches occurred around Huaxian city; More than 20,000 people had to be evacuated; Loss of 280 million US dollars.

A 20 m wide of dike breach occurred on Sept. 1, 2003, at the right bank of Luowen River, a tributary of the Wei River

A 30 m wide of dike breach occurred on Sept. 1, 2003, at the right bank of Fangshan River

Inundated floodplains

A part of the inundated Weinan city, Sept. 2, 2003

Inundated Huaxian hydrologic station, Sept. 1, 2003

5. Dam Reconstruction
First stage reconstruction from 1965 to 1968 Second stage reconstruction from 1970 to 1973 Supplementary works from 1984 to 2000

First stage of reconstruction from 1965 to 1968

Two tunnels at elevation 290 m were added, and four penstocks remodeled into outlets for sluicing sediment. The discharge capacity had been increased from 3,080 m3/s to 6,100 m3/s at a water level of 315 m. However, the sills of the outlet structures were too high and the capability of the reservoir to release floodwater was inadequate. The ratio of outflow-inflow sediment reached 80%, the amount of backwater deposition increased accordingly and the bed elevation at Tongguan continued to rise.

Second stage of reconstruction from 1970 to 1973

8 bottom outlets at elevation 280 m previously used for diversions were reopened for sluicing sediment; the intake elevation of the penstocks No. 1-5 were lowered from 300 m to 287 m. The releasing capacity of all the outlets increased from 6,100 m3/s to about 9,100 m3/s at an elevation of 315 m.
No significant backwater could accumulate immediately behind the dam in medium or minor flood conditions, and the outflow and inflow ratio of sediment had reached 105%. A part of the reservoir capacity was restored, and the bed elevation at Tongguan dropped by 2 m.

Supplementary works from 1984

to 2000
Due to surface abrasion and cavitation, bottom sluices no. 1 to 8 underwent repairs from 1984 - 1988.
the total discharge capacity of 8 bottom sluices was reduced by about 471 m3/s due to compression.

Two more bottom sluices, no. 9 and 10, were opened in 1990 to compensate for the reduction resulting from bottom sluice repairs. Penstocks no. 6 and 7 were converted back to power generation in 1994 and 1997, respectively. The last two bottom sluices, no. 11 and 12, were opened in 1999 and 2000, respectively.

Front View of the Outlet Structures

Before

300

12 deep holes

8 penstocks

After
12 deep holes 1 flushing pipe 2 penstocks
300 290 300

2 tunnels

280

12 bottom sluices

5 penstocks

27 Outlets at Sanmenxia Dam

Outlet Dimensions Total Serial Invert Q at 335m number number elevation (m) (m3/s) 12 12 2 1 2 5 1-12 1-3 1-2 8 6-7 1-5 300 280 290 300 300 287 503/each 497/each 1,410 290 230/each 210/each Deep holes wd=38 m Bottom sluices wd=38 m Tunnels D = 11 m Flushing pipe D = 7.5 m Penstocks

27

16,620

Reservoir Outlet Capacity

340 330

1960

1968

1973

Elevation (m)

320 310 300 290 280 0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000

315m

Outlet Discharge (m^3/s)

3080

6100

9101

Two Tunnel Outlets

Four Remodeled Penstocks

Eight Bottom Outlets at 280 m

Releasing Sediment Through the Bottom Sluices

No significant backwater would occur immediately behind the dam in case of medium and minor floods

6. Dam Operation
In addition to the increased the discharge capacity by reconstruction of outlet structures, the Sanmenxia Reservoir has adopted three different modes of operation:
Storage ( Sep. 1960 to Mar. 1962 ) Flood detention ( Mar. 1962 to Oct. 1973 ) Controlled release (Nov. 1974 to present)

Different Modes of Operation

1. Storage ( Sep. 1960 to Mar. 1962 ) Initial period of reservoir impoundment, when the reservoir was operated at high storage level throughout the whole year. 2. Flood detention ( Mar. 1962 to Oct. 1973 ) Period of flood detention and sediment sluicing, water being released without any restrictions. The reservoir was operated at low storage level throughout the year.

Different Modes of Operation

3. Controlled release (Nov. 1974 to present) Period of impounding relatively clear water in non-flood seasons (Nov.-June) and discharging the turbid water in flood seasons (July-Oct.). The reservoir has been operated at high water level in non-flood seasons, and at low storage level during flood seasons, and all outlets were to be opened in time of flood peaks to sluice the sediment as much as possible.

Typical Operation Schemes

340 335 330

Non-flood season
1960-1961

Flood season

Elevation (m)

325 320 315 310 305 300 295 0

11 12 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1963-1973 1974-2001

50

100

150

200

250

300

350

Time (day)

Variation of the Pool Levels

335 330 325 320 Pool level / m 315 310 305 300 295 Storage 290 285 1955 Flood detention 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 Time / year Controlled release 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Flood season Water year Non-flood season

II

III

Accumulated Deposition in the Reservoir

4.0 m)
3

II

III

3.5 3.0 2.5 2.0 1.5 1.0 0.5 0.0

Tongguan to dam

Accumulated deposition (10

Longmen to Tongguan

Lower Wei River

1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Time (year)

Variation of Reservoir Capacity

7 Reservoir storage capacity (10 m )
3 9

II

III

6 5 4 3 2 1 0 1960

Pool level < 330 m Pool level < 323 m

1965

1970

1975

1980

1985

1990

1995

T ime (y ear)

Cross-Sectional Profiles
Cross Section No. 22
345 April, 1960 340 335 Oct., 1961 Oct., 1964

Cross Section No. 31

345 April, 1960 340 Oct., 1961 Oct., 1964 Sept., 1973 Oct., 1995

m Elevation

330 325 320 315 310 305 300 295 1700

Oct., 1995

m Elevation

Sept., 1973

335 330 325 320 315 310 305 500

1900

2100

2300

2500

2700

2900

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

4000

Distancem

Distance (m)

Longitudinal Profiles
Average channel bottom elevation (m)
340 330 CS 4 8 320 CS 4 1 310 Ap ril, 1 9 6 0 300 290 280 150 125 100 75 50 25 0 Oct ., 1 9 6 1 Oct ., 1 9 6 4 Sep t ., 1 9 7 3 Oct ., 1 9 9 5 CS 1 2 CS 2 2 CS 3 7 CS 3 1

Distance from dam (km)

Variation of elevation of Tongguan

330 I 329 Elevation of Tongguan (m) 328 327 326 325 324 323 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Time (year) II III

Operation scheme: I. Storage II. Flood detension III. Controlled

The river is constricted from a width of more than 10 km to less than 1 km at Tongguan, forming a naturally constricted river reach. The bed elevation at Tongguan servers as a hydraulic control for both the Yellow and Wei Rivers upstream.

7. Influence of Water Resources Development

Mean annual runoff: 58 billion m3 Water diversion (1990s) : 40 billion m3 Sediment flushing : 20-24 billion m3
If the water consumption keeps growing, there will not be enough flow to carry the sediment out the reservoir, and all the way to sea.

Statistics of water runoff and sediment load at Tongguan station

Year 1960-1969 1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999 Runoff (109 m3) 45.07 35.66 36.75 25.12 Sed. Load (109 tons) 1.42 1.32 0.78 0.79

Decrease of annual runoff and flood flows

(a) Annual runoff
80 m )
9 3

(b) Number of flood flows

120 100 Number of days 80 60 40 20 0 1960 no. of days with Q>3000m^3/s average number of days

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Time (year)

Annual runoff (10

1965

1970 1975

1980

1985

1990 1995

2000

2005

Time (year)

The peak discharge and the frequency of floodwaters entering the reservoir have been decreasing.

Percentages of flow and sediment in flood seasons at Tongguan station

Year 1960-1969 1970-1979 1980-1989 1990-1999 Runoff (%) 58.6 54.9 56.8 43.2 Sed. Load (%) 84.7 84.9 80.3 73.8

The temporal distribution of runoff within a year has been changed.

Variation of elevation of Tongguan

330 I 329 Elevation of Tongguan (m) 328 327 326 325 324 323 1955 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005 Time (year) II III

Operation scheme: I. Storage II. Flood detension III. Controlled

Lanes Geomorphic Relationship

QS ~ Q s D50
Q

D50

Q s = f ( QS )

Qs

330 Elevation of Tongguan / m

1969 - 1973

1969 - 1973
329
Tongguan's elevation (m)

1974 - 2001

329 328 327 326 1969 - 1973 325 294 296 298 300 302 304 306 308

328 327 326 50 325 324 40 Annual runoff 30 323 20 322 Tongguan's elevation

Average pool level (m) Annual runoff (109m3)

Average pool level in flood season / m

329 Elevation of Tongguan / m

1974 - 2001
(b)

315 321 320 310 Pool level 305 319 318 300 295 317 1965

328

327 Ztg = -0.0005W a + 328.95

326

1970

1975

1980

1985 Year

1990

1995

2000

2005

325 10 20 30 40 50 60 Annual runoff / 10 9 m 3

3.4
Accumulated deposion below TG (10 m )

324
Annual weighted-average pool level (m)l
9

3.3 Accumulated deposion below TG (10 m )

3

3.2 3.0 2.8

Accumulated deposition

321 318 315 312

3.2 3.1 3.0 2.9 2.8

1969-1973 1974-2001

2.6 309 2.4 2.2

Pool level

306 303

(a)
2.0 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 Year 1990 1995 2000 300 2005

(c)
2.7 300 302 304 306 308 310 312 314

Annual discharged-weighted average pool level (m)

321
9

3.4
Accumulated deposion below TG (10 9m3)

3.3 Accumulated deposion below TG (10 m )

Five years' superimposed pool level (m)t

3.2 3.0 2.8 2.6 2.4 2.2

Accumulated deposition

318 315 312 309

3.2 3.1 3.0 2.9 2.8

1969-1973 1974-2001
1.821 V s = 0.0153 Z d5

~ Vs = 0.0973Z d 5 27.126

8 ( Z d 5 308.60 ) + 0.01025 ln 1 + e

Superimposed pool level

306 303

(b)
2.0 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 Year 1990 1995 2000 300 2005

~ Vs = 0.0153Z d 5 1.821

(b) (d)
308 310 312 314

2.7 300

302

304

306

Five years' superimposed pool level (m)

Adjusting the pool level

The operation level (controlled release scheme) was determined based on earlier inflow conditions which are no longer relevant. The current level is no longer compatible with the changed inflow conditions, notably the reduced annual runoff that has been recorded since 1986. Lowering the pool level could compensate, at least partially, for the negative effect of reduced runoff, and could also prevent backwater extension.

Adjusting the pool level

The best operation scheme
Preventing backwater deposition, Having minimum effect on the newly formed ecological system in the reservoir area below Tongguan, and Having minimum lose of hydropower generation.

Adjusting the pool level

The preliminary plan
Allowing the flood flows to pass through the dam without any control in flood seasons; Lowering the maximum pool level from 321323 m to 318 m in non-flood seasons, with the average pool level not higher than 315 m;

Decommissioning the dam

Decommissioning the Sanmenxia Dam and allowing the flow to run freely without control.
Lowering the elevation of Tongguan by 2 4 m. Slowing down the sedimentation process in the lower reaches of the Wei River, and reducing the flooding risk.

Other Countermeasures
River training in the river reaches upstream and downstream of the backwater zone; Dredging the channel in the vicinity of the backwater zone; Strengthening soil conservation practices in the Loess Plateau; Building sediment detention reservoirs on river reaches above Sanmenxia Dam.

Jet ship used for sediment flushing

A close look of the jet ship

A close look of the jet ship

ejector nozzle

60-90

0.6-0.8m

8. Concluding Remarks
The original reservoir planning and design were conducted according to the standard and experiences for clear water. The principle of streamflow regulation adopted was basically the same as that used in reservoirs on non-sediment-laden rivers.

8. Concluding Remarks
Difficulties of resettlement of inhabitants lived in the reservoir area was underestimated. In the original design, anticipating that the sediment inflow of the reservoir would be rapidly reduced was too optimistic and unrealistic, say, by 50% in less than 15 years, by the proposed sediment retention reservoirs to be built in the upland area and soil conservation works.

8. Concluding Remarks
Both water and sediment need to be regulated Enough outlet discharge capacity is necessary The operational mode of controlled release should be adopted The dams operation level should be adjusted timely in accordance with changing inflows of water and sediment

Thank You !