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13.4 State and Explain Ohm’s Law. Give its graphical representation.
Ohm’s Law:
“current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the potential difference across its
ends provided that the physical state (temperature etc.) of the conductor remains constant”.
Therefore; I ∞ V or V = I R ------- {13.2}
Where “R” is constant of proportionality and is called resistance of the conductor.
Resistance: it is the opposition to the flow of electrons.
From equ. 13.2, we have:
R = V/I
“resistance of a conductor is the ratio of potential difference across its ends to the current flowing
through the conductor”. The resistance of a conductor depends upon:
1. Nature of the conductor (copper, iron etc.)
2. Dimensions (length, thickness etc.) of the conductor
3. Physical state (temperature, density, hardness etc.) of the conductor
The S.I unit of resistance is Ohm, denoted by Ω. From equ. 13.3,
1 Ω = 1V/1A
“resistance of a conductor is one ohm when potential difference of 1 V produces a current of 1 A
through the conductor”
Graphical Representation:
A conductor is said to obey ohm’s law if its resistance R remains constant, i.e., the graph of V vs. I is
exactly a straight line (a). The conductors obeying ohm’s law are called Ohmic conductors. The
devices which do not obey Ohm’s law are called non Fig 13.4 a b c
Ohmic (e.g., filament bulb, semiconductor diode).
If resistance increases with temperature (filament I I I
lamp), the graph is not a straight line (13.4b).
For semi-conductor diode, current-voltage plot is not V V V
a straight line (13.4c), showing that the semiconductor is also non Ohmic device.
b) Parallel combination:
If different resistances are joined (to a common point) such that there are more than one path for
the flow of current in a circuit then the combination of resistances is called Parallel Combination.
1. Current through each resistor is different.
2. Potential difference across each resistor is same.
3. Equivalent resistance of circuit is always less than either of the resistances
in the circuit. 1/Re = 1/R1+1/R2+1/R3 + ….. + 1/Rn
Second band gives 4th band indicates the Color Value Tolerance Tolerance is the
the second digit tolerance in %age Black 0 Golden = ±5 %
possible variation
Brown 1 Silver = ±10 %
from the marked
Red 2 No band = ±20 %
Orange 3
value. e.g., a 1000 Ω
Yellow 4 resistor with a
3rd band indicates no. of Green 5 tolerance of ±10% will
zeros after the 1st two digits Blue 6 have an actual
Violet 7 resistance b/w 900 Ω
First band indicates the first and 1100 Ω.
digit in numerical value Gray 8
White 9
13.6.1 RHEOSTAT:
It is a variable resistor consisting of a manganin (alloy of copper, manganese & nickel) wire
wound over an insulating cylinder. Ends of the wire are connected to two contacts which can be
moved over the wire (Fig 13.6a). It can be used as variable resistor and a potential divider.
A
V C C
B VAC
A B
13.6c) Rheostat as a potential divider 13.6b) rheostat as variable resistor 13.6a) A Rheostat
13.6.2 THERMISTOR:
A semi conducting, heat sensitive resistor is called thermistor which consists of a mixture of
oxides of manganese, nickel, cobalt, copper, iron etc. The resistance of a thermistor decreases with
increasing temperature (i.e. temperature coefficient of thermistor is negative). Thermistors with
positive temperature coefficient are also available.
Thermistors with high negative temperature coefficient (very low resistance) are very accurate
for measuring low temperature, especially near 10 K. They are used as fire alarms and temperature
sensors in which, changes of voltage are converted into electrical voltage.
Abu Bakkar Marwat--B.Sc Textile Engineering (Spinning} NTU, Faisalabad. textilian4u@yahoo.com
F.Sc-PHY (Part-II) 13-CURRENT ELECTRICITY 6
13.7 ELECTRICAL POWER & POWER DISSIPATION IN RESISTORS:
“the electrical energy supplied by the battery in unit time is called electrical power of battery”.
In the circuit (Fig 13.7), I is the current supplied by the battery. Terminal A
I -
is at higher potential than B, and potential difference b/w them is V. therefore, A
battery is continuously ding work in moving charge Q from low potential to high V C
potential, through the potential difference V.
B
Work done = ∆W = V x ∆Q
This is the energy supplied by the battery. The rate of supplying energy is called 13.7a)
electrical power.
Electrical power = Energy supplied / time taken = V ∆Q/ ∆t = V I {∆Q/ ∆t = I}
Electrical power P = V I ----- {a} {this power is dissipated in resistor R}
Also P = IR x I
P = I2 R ----- {b}
Also;
P = (V2/R2) R = V2/R ------ {c}
Unit of power:
The S.I unit of power is watt (W). from equ {a} 1 W = 1 V x 1 A
“when a current of 1 A passes through a potential difference of one volt then the power dissipated is
one watt”. watt is also equal to J/s
13.11 POTENTIOMETER:
Usually, a voltmeter is used to measure potential difference between two points. It is
connected between two points in parallel with the circuit. The resistance of the voltmeter must be
very large as compared to the resistance of the circuit otherwise; the voltmeter would alter the
potential difference between the two points by drawing current through itself. An ideal voltmeter
would have an infinite resistance.
Potentiometer is an electrical circuit which can measure and compare potential differences
accurately, without drawing any current through itself.
Construction and working:
It consists of a resistor R in the form of a wire on which a terminal C can slide (Fig 13.11a).
The resistance between A and C can be varied from 0 to R as the sliding contact is moved from A to
B. If a battery of emf E is connected across R, the current flowing through it is I = E/R. If resistance
between A and C is “r” then potential drop between A and C will be rI = r E/R. thus as C is moved
from A to B, “r” varies from 0 to R and potential drop between A and C changes from 0 to E.
Potential divider:
It is a circuit that is used to measure the unknown emf of a source (Fig 13.11b). Here R is in
the form of a straight wire of uniform area of cross section A. A source of emf Ex (whose emf is to be
measured) is connected between A and the sliding contact C through a galvanometer G. Positive
terminal of Ex and that of potential divider are connected to same point A. Now if in the loop AGCA,
the point C and negative terminal of Ex are at the same potential then two terminals of the
galvanometer will be at same potential and no current will flow through the galvanometer. Under this
condition, the emf Ex of the cell is equal to the potential difference between A and C whose value is:
Ex = Er/R.
In case of a wire of uniform cross section, the resistance is proportional to the length of the wire.
Therefore unknown emf is also given by
Ex = Er/R = E l/L {L total length of wire AB, l = length from A to C}
This method can be used to compare the emfs E1 and E2 of two cells. The balancing lengths l1 and l2
are found separately for the two cells. Then; E
E1 = E l1/L and E2 = E l2/L
Dividing these two equations; A B
r C
E1/E2 = l1/l2
i.e., the ratio of the emfs is equal to ratio of the balancing lengths. Fig 13.11a
E
-:---------------x---------------:- A B
C
Ex
Fig 13.11 b