1] Electroschematics.com 2] http://www.electronicsforu.com/electronicsforu/lab/ Here is an ideal solution to harvest Solar energy for charging purpose.

This charger can replenish almost all types of batteries including Mobile phone battery. t uses a Solar Module to convert light energy into electrical energy The circuit is self e!planatory. " 12 volt # $att solar panel is used as the source of current. The cells in the panel are made up of semiconductor material which transforms light energy into electrical energy. $hen the sunlight is ma!imum% the solar module can generate around 16.5 volts at 400 mA. This current is used to charge the battery. &iode &1 allows current into three regulator ICs to provide regulated voltage to the load. '1 ()12 gives 12 volts and *++ m" current to charge a Lead A id battery. The battery can be connected to point ' and ground. '2 ()+, gives regulated , volts to charge !iCd battery. -esistor -. restricts the charging current. '. ()+# provides regulated # volts to charge all types of Mobile phone batteries which are rated at .., volts. -esistor -2 restricts charging current to a safer level. /oint " can also used to charge Lithium ion and !iMh batteries. High value capacitors '1 and '2 act as current buffers so that a short duration interruption in current flow from the panel will not affect the charging process. -ed 0E& indicates the charging process. "esigned by ".Mohan#umar 1olar based 2ultipurpose 'harger 'ircuit

This 3utdoor 4arden 1olar 0ights pro5ect is a hobby circuit of an automatic garden light using a 0&- and ,6/#$ solar panel. &uring day time% the internal rechargeable , 6olt 10" battery receives charging current from the connected solar panel through polariy protection diode &7 and current limiting resistor -1+. f ambient light is normal% transistor T1 is reverse biased by '1 802###9. Here '1 is wired as a medium current inverting line driver% switched by an encapsulated light detector 81+mm 0&-9. 2ulti:turn trimpot /1 sets the detection sensitivity. $hen ambient light dims%transistor T1 turns on to drive the white 0E&

string 8&1:&)9. ;ow this lamp load at the output of T1 energises. -esistors -1:-) limits the operating current of the 0E&s. $hen the ambient light level restores% circuit returns to its idle state and light8s9 switched off by the circuit. "ssemble the 3utdoor 1olar 0ights circuit on a general purpose /'< and enclose the whole assembly in a transparent plastic bo!. &rill suitable holes on the top of the encloure to mount the mini solar panel 81/19 and the light sensor 80&-9% and in front for fitting power switch 8119 and the sensitivity controller 8/19. =i! the battery inside the cabinet using a double:sided glue tape/pad. =inally% the 0&- should not be mounted to receive direct sunlight. t must be mounted at the top of the enclosure% pointing to the s>y say southwards. This circuit is very simple. 1o interested and e!perienced hobbyists can alter/modify the whole circuit as per their own ideas without any difficulty 8?ust try a ,6 relay with T1 to drive more number of 0E& strings9

$utdoor Solar Lights Cir uit S hemati

This circuit can do the 5ob of a %ate#eeper and intimates you if someone passes through the gate. The alarm can be an "' bell or a 0amp. The alarm turns on for 1 minute and stops if the light barrier is restored again. nfrared rays are used as the light barrier to activate the alarm system based on a /hototransistor. The high gain ;/; &arlington phototransistor 01*=1 conducts when its face is illuminated with - rays. This brings its collector to ground potential. '1 is used as a simple voltage comparator with a potential divider -2 and -. connected to its inverting input. 1o that half supply voltage 8, volts9 is available to its inverting input. ts non inverting input is connected to the collector of the phototransistor. ;ormally the output of '1 will be low since T1 is conducting. $hen the - beam brea>s% the collector of T1 becomes high and the voltage at the non inverting input of '1 increases above the voltage at the inverting input and output becomes high. This triggers the relay driver T2 and relay turns on. 'apacitor '1 gives a short delay at the non inverting input of '1 to prevent false triggering. 'apacitor '2 >eeps the base of T2 high for a short time even if the rays restore.

&le troni %ate 'eeper S hemati s

Settings( 1. - rays should be aligned e!actly to the /hototransistor so as to >eep the alarm off. 2. ;ormal range of the circuit is ) meters. This can be increased to # meters if a onvergent lens is used in front of the - 0E&s. .. " bu@@er can be used in the place of the relay% if "' alarm is not reAuired. *. nstead of - 0E&s% a Laser pointer can be used to increase the range up to 2# meters. #. f 0aser is used% ta>e all pre autions to prevent dire t vie*ing. ,. Enclose to the /hototransistor in a small case with an opening in front. This prevents the entry of ambient light. (. =i! the - 0E&s on one gate pillar and the /hoto transistor on the opposite pillar with e!act alignment The design of the 0E& night lamp circuit 8bedroom light9 is similar to that of many commercially available products. However% the light circuit does not use any >ind of bul>y and noisy stepdown transformers% but a capacitive potential divider is inserted in a simple manner to provide a constant current for driving the light source. Here a high:efficiency% low current blue 0E& is used as the light source. The design is safe% simple and stableB

!ight Lamp Cir uit S hemati

$hen input power 8"' 22+69 is available% capacitor '2 is charged through '1 and -2 and bridge rectifier assembly &1: &*. Cener diode &# limits the voltage across '2 to a safe value of near 1#6. This low voltage dc supply is then fed to the 0E& 8&,9 via current limiting resistor -.. $hen the input supply is removed% 0E& stays on unchanged for a short time and then diminishes gradually. ;o instant dar>ness when the supply is switched offB

"fter construction% enclose the circuit in a small plastic bo!. &rill a #mm hole in the centre of the enclosure and fit the 0E& in a suitable 0E& holder in the #mm hole. =inally fit a supply input soc>et and% optionally an on/off switch at the rear/side of the enclosure. +A,!I!%- %reat are should be ta#en *hen *or#ing *ith this led night lamp ir uit sin e it is onne ted dire tly to the .atal mains supply. Here is a simple D1< lamp powered from the /S0 so #et of /'. t uses #mm high bright+hite L&"s to give ample light to wor> in the 'eyboard if the room light is not sufficient. ;o /'< is reAuired to ma>e this circuit The circuit is too simple and can be wired through lead:to:lead soldering. The 0Eds are connected to current limiting resistors -1 through -*.The cathode of all 0E&s are 5oined together and soldered to the bla # *ire o. /S0 able. =ree leads of all the resistors are 5oined together and connected to the ,ed *ire o. /S0 able. Eou can use a discarded D1< cable with 'lass " type connector. 'ut the 4reen and $hite wires of the D1< cable and use only -ed and <lac> wires. D1< soc>et of /' provides # volts so that the 0E&s give bright light. 0E&s can be fi!ed in the Fey board by drilling # mm holes.

/S0 Lamp Cir uit S hemati

This is an L", based &mergen y Lamp that turns on a 1igh *att +hite L&" when there is dar>ness in the room. t can be used as a simple emergency lamp in the childGs room to avoid the panic situation in the event a sudden power failure. t gives ample light in the room. The circuit is too simple so that it can be enclosed in a small bo!. " 12 volt miniature battery is used to power the circuit. Two transistors T1 and T2 are used as electronic switches to turn on / off the white 0E&. $hen there is sufficient light in the room% 0&- conducts so that the base of the 2!2 transistor T1becomes high and it remains off. T2 also remains off

since its base is grounded. n this state% $hite 0E& remains off. $hen the light falling on the 0&- decreases% it cease to conduct and T1 forward bias providing base current to T2. t then turns on and $hite 0E& switches on.

Mini &mergen y Light Cir uit

$hite 0E& used in the circuit is 1 watt 1igh bright Lu3eon L&" . 1ince 1 watt $hite 0E& consumes around .++ milli ampere current% it is better to switch off the lamp after few minutes to conserve battery power. The "d5ustable Timer circuit starts timing when switched on. The green 0E& lights to show that timing is in progress. $hen the time period is over the green 0E& turns off% the red 0E& turns on and the bleeper sounds. The time period is set by ad5usting the variable resistor. t can be ad5usted from 1 to 1+ minutes 8appro!imately9 with the parts shown in the diagram. Eou can mar> the times on a scale drawn on the bo!. /lease note that the range of time periods is only appro!imate. $ith perfect components the ma!imum time period should be *H minutes% but this is typically e!tended to about 1+ minutes because the 22+I= timing capacitor slowly lea>s charge. This is a problem with all electrolytic capacitors% but some lea> more than others. n addition the actual value of electrolytic capacitors can vary by as much as J.+K of their rated value.

Ad4ustable 10 minute timer s hemati

Here is a simple toggle switch that can be operated through sound signals such as whistle or clap. The output of the toggle remains either low or high until the microphone senses the ne!t sound signal. The circuit is too sensitive and can be used to control "' loads through the relay. The sound signal received by the condenser mic will be amplified by '1. T0+(1 is the high gain 3perational "mplifier used in the preamplifier section of radio and tape recorder. The amplified output is used to control the ?F =lip =lop ' '&*+2( designed in the toggle mode. $hen the cloc> input pin 1* of '2 gets a low to high pulse from '1% its output turns high and remains as such. $hen the ne!t pulse arrives% the output of '2 turns low. n this way it functions as a toggle switch. 6ariable resistor 6- ad5usts the sensitivity of 2 ' at the particular sound level. -elay driver T1 can be used to operate the relay.

Sound Controlled 5oggle S*it h

1afe 126 car adapter described here can be used to limit a L12 volt car battery current% available from the in:dash cigar lighter power port% to below 2., "mperes for use with portable electronic gadgets and travel chargers on long car 5ourneys. This circuit will protect the car electric system against possible short circuits across the cigar power port. The 12 volts car adapter circuit is connected to the car L126 electric system via the cigar lighter plug ?1. The L126 arrives on the board via a reverse voltage protection diode &1. 'apacitor '1 decouples the input to the circuit. The current limited

126 output can be ta>en from the cigar lighter soc>et ?2.-ed 0E& 8&29 is a simple power status indicator. "fter construction%bo!ed up the unit using a suitable "<1 enclosure. $or>ing of this electronic fuse is very simple. Dsually%the mosfet switch T1 is driven via resitor -2 and the 126 from the car battery is available at the output 5ac> ?2. The current flow through sense resistor -1 produces a voltage drop%which is at a certain level will force transistor T2 to switch on. This in turn switches off T1 somewhat and the output supply current to the connected electrical load is reduced to prevent costly disasters. ;ote: Dse a good Auality heatsin> for T1. 3nly for cars with negative ground onlyB

1) volts ar adapter ir uit diagram

This simple flashing light circuit is powered with , volts/+.#" and has a low current consumption when the light bulb is off. The flashing freAuency is set by only one capacitor. Transistor T1 may be replaced with <'1,+ and T2 with <'1*+.

Simple 6lashing Light Cir uit "iagram

This /rocessor =an 'ontrol circuit is intended to be used with relatively old /'s% since more recent models generally have a fan control circuit already integrated into the motherboard. These controllers ensure that the amount of cooling is increased if the processor becomes too warm and decreased if the processor temperature is relatively low. The circuit described here consists of only a handful of components% which you will probably already have in a drawer some:where. Transistors T1 and T2 are driven into conduction by the base current Mowing to the fan via /1 and &1. There will always be a current Mowing through -1% and it will be appro!imately 12+ times as large as the current through -2. -. has been added to prevent the base current of T2 from becoming too large when /2 is set to its minimum resistance. &1 ensures that even at this e!treme setting% the voltage on the base:emitter 5unction of T. will still be large enough to allow it to conduct.

2ro essor 6an Control "iagram

The Electronic 1iren circuit described here can create three different D1:style siren sounds: police% ambulance and fire engine. The desired sound can be selected using switch 11. The circuit can be used in toys 8such as model vehicles9% as part

of an alarm system% and in many other applications. =or use in a toy% a <'..( is an adeAuate device for driver T#% since it is capable of directly driving a 2++m$ 8)N9 loudspea>er. n this case the current consumption from a 7 6 power supply is around 1*+ m". f a louder sound is reAuired% a <&1., is recommended: this can drive a #$ 8)N9 loudspea>er. This will be the sound produced with the switch 11 on this positions: a( 6ire 0rigade Siren b( 2oli e Siren ( Ambulan e Siren The current consumption of the electronic siren from a 12 6 supply will then be about 1)+m". f still more volume is desired% then T# 8a <&1.,9 can be used as a first driver stage% and a 1#$ 8)N9 loudspea>er can be connected via output transistor T,. Here an "&1,2 or an 2?27## can be used% which% for continuous operation% must be provided with cooling. The pea> current consumption of the circuit will now be about #++m" with a 126 power supply. 'apacitor '1 is not reAuired for battery operation. 1ent by 2ihai &orin% -omania. Than>sB

&le troni Siren Cir uit "iagram

2arts List -1 O -7 O 2.2FP -2 O *(+P -. O *(FP -* O -) O 22FP -# O -, O -( O 1)FP -1+ O ...FP '1 O 1++I=/1,6 '2 O 2.2I=/1,6 '. O 1+I=/1,6 '* O *(I=/1,6 '# O 22n= ', O ..n= '( O *(+I=/1,6 T1 O T2 O T. O T* O <'#*(

T# O see te!t T, O 2?27##% "&1,2 Here are some of ,v to 12v converter circuits that can be used to convert a small voltage of about , volts to a higher voltage of 12 volts but ofcourse with a lower current rating.

6 volts to 1) volts onverters

5his inverter ir uit an provide up to 700mA o. 1)8 po*er .rom a 68 supply. =or e!ample% you could run 126 car accessories in a ,6 car. The circuit is simple% about (#K efficient and Auite useful. <y changing 5ust a few components% you can also modify it for different voltages. 1ource: http://www.aaronca>e.net/circuits/,:12conv.asp

/arts 0ist: -1% -* : 2.2F 1/*$ -esistor -2% -. : *.(F 1/*$ -esistor -# : 1F 1/*$ -esistor -, : 1.#F 1/*$ -esistor -( : ..F 1/*$ -esistor -) : 1+F 1/*$ -esistor '1%'2 : +.1u= 'eramic &isc 'apacitor '. : *(+u= 2#6 Electrolytic 'apcitor &1 : 1;71* &iode &2 : 1;*++* &iode &. : 126 *++m$ Cener &iode Q1% Q2% Q* : <'#*( ;/; Transistor Q. : <&,(7 ;/; Transistor 01 : 1ee ;otes on the website 2 1' : Heatsin> =or Q.% <inding /osts 8=or nput/3utput9% $ire% <oard 5his 68 to 1)8 onverter ir uit is made *ith an IC .rom S%S *ith several additional omponents. The ' is a T&"2++. but it can be replaced with a T&"2++2. The cost of building the ,volts to 12 volts converter should be low enough to 5ustify constructing it instead of modifying the entire eAuipment setup to wor> directly with a , volts power supply. The two principles of simplicity and functions properly without the need of the transformer.

Here is a simple Anti the.t ar alarm devi e for your 'ar. t generates a loud alarm when there is an attempt of theft. $hen the intruder opens the door% the circuit senses the attempt of theft and after 2 minutes% the alarm will be activated. The time delay is provided to help the user to leave the car after arming with the device The anti theft alarm circuit taps power supply from the car battery. S*it h S1 is the on/ off switch of the alarm circuit. $hen the circuit is activated through 11% the .lashing L&" blin>s indicating that the car is armed. <ut the alarm generator wor>s only if the "ome lamp of the car is switched on through the door switch. This switch turns on the dome lamp% if any one of the door is opened. The user can put 11 in the on position before leaving the car. There will be a delay of 2 minutes so that the alarm will not be generated. $hen the intruder opens the door% &iode &1 forward biases and capacitor '1 charges through -1. t ta>es around 1 minute to charge '1. $hen '1 fully charges% the 12 volt Cener conducts to trigger the ;/; transistor T1.Cener diode switch is provided to avoid false triggering and T1 conducts only when '1 charges fully. $hen T1 conducts '2 charges and the voltage in '2 triggers the gate of 1'-. The Horn connected to the "node of the 1'- sounds indicating the theft. The horn can be either a spare car horn or a Hooter that gives loud alarm.

Anti9the.t Car Alarm Cir uit diagram

!ote( <efore leaving the car% switch on 11 and after entering the car switch off 11. Hide 11 in a place that cannot be detected. This 1imple circuit can be used to %uard your bi>e from theft. t gives a loud alarm tone if somebody tries to start the bi>e. The alarm disables only when the hide switch 12 is opened. The circuit has little component count and can be easily fi!ed in the bi>e. $or>ing of the circuit is simple. The alarm generator bu@@er or Horn is activated by an SC, and its triggering is under the control of the transistor T1. n the Armed position% 1witch S) is losed and 11 8Fey switch of the bi>e9 is opened. n this state% T1 will not conduct and 1'- and <u@@er remains idle in armed position. $hen somebody turns on the Fey switch of the <i>e using a dupli ate #ey% 'apacitor '1 charges through -1% &1 and -2. t will ta>e a time delay of few minutes to attain full charge in '1. $hen '1 fully charges T1 conducts and triggers the 1'-. <u@@er connected to the Anode o. SC, gets electrical path and it sounds the alarm. 0E& also lights to indicate the theft. The time delay is added through '1 so that the alarm will sound only after the bi>e is started .This aborts the attempt of theft.

0i#e %uard Cir uit diagram

The unit should hide in a place li>e the Carrier 0o3. 1o that switch 12 can be protected. "n additional bi>e horn can be connected in the place of the bu@@er to get loud sound. 'onnection point from -1 should go to the >ey switch point that goes to the engine so thatR the unit will be activated only if the >ey switch is closed. Time delay can be changed by changing the value of '1 or -2. Hide switch 12 should be >ept closed for arming the bi>e only after removing the switch >ey. /ower to the circuit is obtained from the ,/12 volt bi>e battery. High current type transistor T1 and 1'- are used to handle the high power of bi>e battery.Dse 1 watt resistors to handle high power. !ote( This circuit is not sufficient if the tric>y thief >nows some electronics. This automatic light switch with 0&- automatically turn 3; the light when the surrounding light dims to a preset level. t can be used as an automatic par> light switch. The first circuit diagram is an ;/; design intended for negative grounded chassis. The second diagram is the /;/ version intended for a positive grounded chasis. The dim level at which the circuit activates is set through the potentiometer /1. The printed circuit board layout can be used for both the negative and positive polarity chassis. Ta>e note that the transistors and different for each chassis type. The connectors labeled in the parts placement diagram have the following connections: / O /ower live of the car ' O 'ar chassis < O /ar> light bulb

Automati 2ar# Light S*it h 2ositive %round

Automati 2ar# Light S*it h !egative %round

This is a pulse generator with ad5ustable duty cycle made with the ### timer '. The circuit is an astable multivibrator with a #+K pulse duty cycle. The difference from the standard design of a ### timer is the resistance between pins , and ( of the ' composed of /1% /2% -2% &1 and &2. The diodes &1 and &2 set a definite charging time for '1 which produces a #+K duty cycle in a normal case. The duty cycle 8n9 is dependent on /1 and /2 in the following manner: n : 1 ; 2)<21 f /2 O + 8n O 1++K9 then the freAuency can be appro!imately calculated with the following formula: . : 0.6=<>>)?21 ; 2) ; 4.@#AB?C1B

2ulse generator ir uit diagram

f the lead a id battery is not using for long time% sel. dis harge ta>es place at the rate of 4 C per wee> at 2( degree. =or e!ample% a 1)5 Ah tubular battery self discharge at the rate of # "mps current per wee> if it is not in charge / discharge cycles. This add on circuit can be used to detect the self discharge of the 12 volt lead acid battery below the safe level of 11., volts. t is ideal to monitor the charge level in the battery% it the battery is not using for long period. The <attery 1elf discharge ndicator circuit uses only a few components and its wor>ing is simple. " 2!2 transistor T1 act as a switch to light the 0E&% if the battery voltage drops below the safe level. The base bias of T1 is controlled by a Dener diode D". ts rating is 1+ volt 1 $. The Cener diodes usually reAuires 1., volts e!cess than its rated value to enter into the EAvalan he stateF.

0attery Sel. dis harge Indi ator Cir uit

1o% as long as the battery voltage is above 11., 81+L1.,9% Cener conducts and >eeps the base of T1 high. 1ince T1 is a /;/ transistor% it will not conduct till its base becomes negative. 1o 0E& remains dar>. $hen the voltage in the battery reduces below 11 volts% Cener turns off and the base of T1 becomes negative. T1 then conducts and 0E& lights. 1o the battery can be charged again to >eep it in top condition. /reset 6- can be used to set the e!act point at which 0E& turns on. Here is a Simple L&" 8oltmeter to Monitor the harge level in Lead A id 0attery or 5ubular battery . The terminal voltage of the battery is indicated through a four level 0E& indicators. The nominal terminal voltage of a 0ead "cid battery is 1G.7 volts and that of a Tubular battery is 14.7 volts when fully charged. The 0E& voltmeter uses four Dener diodes to light the 0E&s at the precise brea>down voltage of the Cener diodes. Dsually the Cener diode reAuires 1., volts in e!cess than its prescribed value to reach the brea>down threshold level. $hen the battery holds 1.., volts or more% all the Cener brea>down and all 0E&s light up. $hen the battery is discharged below 1+., volts% all the 0E&s remain dar>. 1o depending on the terminal voltage of the battery% 0E&s light up one by one or turns off.

L&" 8oltMeter Cir uit

This electronic organ circuit is very simple to construct and is basically an emitter:coupled oscillator composed of T2 and T.. "n sAuarewave voltage can be sampled from the collector of T. 8S29. This signal gives a clarinet character to the tone. $ithout the sAuarewave signal% the sound produced by emitters of T2 and T. 8S*9 has a violin character. "n additional vibrato signal can be added to this basic sound through switch 11. The freAuency of the vibrato is around , H@. ts amplitude is determined by the -*. The value of -* can vary from 1++ up to .++FP but you can e!periment with different values. The organ >eys can be made of either metal plates or etched printed circuit. The trimmers /1 up to /) ad5ust the pitch of each tone. The tones can be drastically changed by changing the value of '*.

&le troni $rgan ir uit diagram

Here is a /ower 1upply 4uard circuit that can be used as a protective device in po*er supply bo!es. This type of Spi#e prote tion ir uit is present in the multi soc>et switch boards used to connect computer peripherals. This circuit is useful to guard the electronic or electrical devices from mains transients and spi>es. f heavy transients develop in the mains% the M$8 in the circuit short circuit the lines and the fuse will blow out. The /ower 1upply 4uard circuit uses a 2etal 3!ide 6aristor *.1F&1*% a +.1 u= S2 rated "' capacitor% a Toroidal transformer and two 2F6 disc capacitors. 'omponents: Metal $3ide 8aristor 2etal 3!ide 6aristor 82369 contains a ceramic mass of @inc o!ide grains% in a matri! of other metal o!ides such as small amounts of bismuth% cobalt% manganese etc. sandwiched between two metal plates which forms the electrodes. The boundary between each grain and its neighbour forms a diode 5unction% which allows current to flow in only one direction. $hen a small or moderate voltage is applied across the electrodes% only a tiny current flows% caused by reverse lea>age through the diode 5unctions. $hen a large voltage is applied% the diode 5unction brea>s down due to a combination of thermionic emission and electron tunneling% and large current flows. 6aristors can absorb part of a surge.The effect depends on the eAuipment and details of the selected varistor. M$8

" varistor remains non:conductive as a shunt mode device during normal operation when voltage remains well below its Tclamping voltageU. f a transient pulse is too high% the device may melt% burn% vapori@e% or otherwise be damaged or destroyed. 5oroidal 5rans.ormer 5oroidal trans.ormers are built around a ring:shaped core. The primary and secondary coils are often wound concentrically to cover the entire surface of the core. This minimi@es the length of wire needed% and also provides screening to minimi@e the coreGs magnetic field from generating electromagnetic interference. n the circuit% the toroidal

transformer is made using primary and secondary winding each having )0 turns of )) S+% enameled copper wire. The core can be procured from the damaged power supply boards of D/1 or 12/1.

2o*er Supply %uard Cir uit

5oroidal trans.ormer

5oroid Core

) '8 Capa itor

+.1 u= S rated "' 'ap 2#+ volt 2o*er supply %uard H Assembled 0oard

IC @7II Series includes three terminal positive voltage regulators commonly available in 5$ ))0 pa #age. These are useful in wide range of applications to give precise output voltage. These regulators have internal current limiting% and

thermal shutdown circuitry etc. f good heat sin>ing is provided% these 's can deliver 1 "mps current. These are generally considered as fi!ed voltage regulators but their functions can be manipulated to convert them into variable voltage regulators () SS -E4D0"T3- ' . 5he important parameters o. @7 II series are 1. 2a!imum output current 1.#" 2. 3utput voltages V #%#.2%,%)%7%1+%12%1#%1)%2*volts .. Thermal overload protection *. 1hort circuit protection The following circuits give an idea about the input voltage at which the ' gives precise output. =ig 1 and 2 shows the conditions in which the '()+# is giving precise # volt output. ()+# ' reAuires minimum ,.# volts to give # volt output. To monitor this% a Cener and 0E& are included at the input. Cener voltage is *.( volts and the forward voltage drop of the ordinary diffuse type -ed 0E& is 1.) volts. $hen the input voltage is above ,.# volts 8*.(L1.)9% Cener conducts and 0E& turn on. This indicates that ' is getting input voltage above ,.# volts. $hen the input voltage reduces below ,.# volts% Cener cut off and 0E& turns off.

@705 Cir uit 1

=ig 2 shows another 0E& indication. The brightness of 0E& reduces as the input voltage reduces below ,.# volts.

This is a simple led flashing circuit with 2 leds. t illustrates the behavior of transistors and capacitors and if you use an oscilloscope it will be very easy to determine what happens in this astable multivibrator circuit. tGs state is constantly changing and this change affect the flow of current and voltage and the effect will be visible with the two leds. 5he speed o. the led .lasher may be ad4usted with potentiometer /1. <eing an astable multivibrator% the circuit >nows no stable state but oscillates continuously between two states bac> and forth. The two transistors T1 and T2 turn and loc> each other by turn. The smaller the capacitor and the smaller the resistance % the faster goes out the appropriate diode% for the benefit of others% who then immediately turns on. The activation time of T2 is t% a O +.( ! -1 ! '1% the switch:off t off O +.( ! -2 ! '2. The switch from T1 is t% a O +.( ! -2 ! '2% the off t off O +.( ! -1 ! '1. The transistors do not necessarily have to be <' #*( <% you may use <' 2.) or similar small:signal transistors. t is recommended to always use the eAuivalent transistors. f one of the transistors is defective% wrong or have a malfunction % so does this to the full functionality of this circuit . "n 0E& lights up and the other only very wea>ly. 5he t*o led .lashing ir uit is designed .or = 8olts but it *or#s at even less voltages. n this designed we used red leds but by changing the series resistors -1 and -* you can also use different colored 0E&s.

5*o Led .lashing ir uit diagram

Components values -1 : *(+ 3hm -2 : *(+ 3hm -. : ..7 >3hm -* V ..7 >3hm /1 : #+ >3hm '1 V *( W= / 1,6 '2 : *( W= / 1,6 T1 : <' #*( < T2 : <' #*( < &1 : 0E& 1tandard % # mm % red &2 : 0E& 1tandard % # mm % red $hen a ,elay driver ir uit is used in Sensor based electronic circuits% false triggering may occurs due to unwanted relay clic>ing. The input signal level is not sharp in most sensor circuits and the transition stages are slow. 1o the relay driver transistor partially turns on / off . The relay coil will not become fully energi@ed leading to vibration of the relay contacts and heating. " Snap A tion relay driver with S hmitt trigger action can eliminates this. The diagram below is the relay driver circuit with Snap A tion for the clean switching of the relay. $hen the input signal at the base of 51 decreases% it turns off allowing 5) to conduct by giving base current through -..$hen T2 conducts% its emitter current increases and this raises the voltage at the emitter of T1.This rapidly reduces the base current of T1 and it switches off rapidly. $hen T1 turns off rapidly% T2 turns on faster and relay energi@e. This snap action reduces the time gap between the wor>ing of T1 and T2 and prevents relay chattering.

Snap A tion ,elay Cir uit

!ote: The value of -2 must be higher than the resistance of the -elay coil to give more current through -# when T2 turns on and less flow when T1 turns on. This Time &elay circuit is useful to switch on an "' load such as lamps after the delay of three minutes. This protects the load from inrush urrent and transients at power on which may be detrimental to the device. The Time &elay circuit is directly connected to the "' lines to derive power to the components. -esistor -1 drops "' voltage and &1 rectifies the same to give low volt &'. The high value capacitor '1 act as a smoothing capacitor as well as the time delay device. That is the SC, conducts only after '1 is fully charged. t ta>es around ) minutes. $hen '1 charges fully gate of 1'- gets firing pulse and it conducts. This charges '2 which also give another one minute to fire the 5ria trough -.. $hen the triac conducts% "' load gets electrical continuity and turns on. 'apacitor '. >eeps the voltage level at the gate of triac and eliminates the bac> lash effect.

5ime "elay Cir uit diagram

Here is a crude but efficient tri #y harger for 0ead "cid <attery. t uses a 1) volt ar bulb as current regulator and charge status indicator. The brightness of the bulb indicates how much charge is flowing into the battery. $hen the battery becomes fully charged% lamp turns off. f the lamp is staying on with full brightness for more than .+ minutes% it indicates that the battery is dead and is not accepting charge. 'harging current is obtained from a 1590915 volt secondary ) Ampere step down transformer. &iodes &1 and &2 are rectifiers which can handle . ampere current. n order to give E"irty "CF for charging% a low value filtering capacitor '1 is used. 1o that the &' voltage will have some ripples which is necessary for better charging of lead acid battery.

5ri #y Charger Cir uit diagram

The tri # of the lamp is interesting. " 1) volt ar tail lamp bulb is used in the circuit. t is connected in series with the positive output rail so that current flows through the bulb into the positive terminal of the battery. =rom the positive terminal% current passes through the battery chemistry into the negative terminal and then returns into the transformer. 1o the current flowing through the bulb depends on how much charge is using by the battery. $hen the charger is connected to the battery% the lamp turns on only if the battery reAuires charging current. $66 state of the bulb indicates that the battery is dead. f the battery holds some charge% bulb will turns on. f the battery is partially discharged and holding #+K charge% bulb will light brightly when the charger turns on. Then the brightness gradually reduces and finally the filament appears as a red hot line. This indicates that the battery is fully charged. The bulb also restri ts the flow of current li>e a resistor. This is the simple *ay to connect an 0E& in the 2ains to use it as a pilot lamp. t ta>es little current compared to a neon lamp. t can power low efficiency as well as high efficiency 0E&s including $hite and <lue 0E&s. The circuit is straight forward. " rectifying diode I!400@ 81"9 is connected in series with the phase line. The rectified voltage is reduced to low volt by the resistor ,1. 'apacitor C1 filters some ripples and act as a buffer to provide continuous supply to the 0E& as the "' waveform swings. -esistor ,) determines the brightness of 0E&. $ith 1.# F resistor% adeAuate brightness can be obtained.

Lo* ost 2ilot Lamp Cir uit

Important !ote H 5he ir uit is dire tly onne ted to mains and hen e at lethal potential. "o not tou h or troubleshoot *hen it is onne ted to mains. Here is the simple solution to ma>e an automatic Solar po*ered lamp. t automatically switches on two high power $hite 0E&s in the evening and stays on for , hours using a 6 volt 4.5 Ah rechargeable battery. " 1) volt solar panel is used to charge the battery during day time. The battery is connected to the input line through the !$ and Common contacts of the relay. &iodes &1 and &2 drops 1.* volts and charge indicator 0E& uses 1.) volts. -elay also drops some voltage so that around ) volts will be available for charging the battery. The high value 8*(++u=9 'apacitor '1 act as a Ebu..erF for the clean switching of the relay and also prevents Erelay li #ingF when the input voltage reduces momentarily.

Simple Solar Lamp Cir uit diagram

&uring day time% the solar panel generates 1) volt "C which ma>es the relay a tive and the ;3 8;ormally 3pen9 contact ma>es connection with the common contact. This completes the current path to the battery. Two 1 +att po*er L&"s are connected to the ;' 8;ormally 'onnected9 contacts of the relay. $hen the relay energi@e% the ;' contact brea>s and 0E&s do not get power. -esistor -2 8 1) 3hms 1 $att9 drops the 0E& current to GG0 mA. The 0E&s are rated .#+ m" at .., volts. $ith . volts and 2#+ m" current% these 0E&s can give adeAuate brightness. 1 +att 2o*er L&"

n the evening% current from the solar panel stops and relay de H energiJe. "t the same time% the ;' contact of the relay gets power from the battery through the common contact and 0E&s turn on. Theoretically% the battery can power 12 hours with .#+ m" current% but the battery voltage and current reduces drastically. 1o it is better to turn off the lamp after # or , hours using the switch 11. Dse a small , volt 1++ 3hms /'< relay to ma>e the lamp unit compact. The 1olar 0amp circuit including the relay can be enclosed in a small bo!. f a reflector is fi!ed behind the $hite 0E&s% intensity of light can be increased. Dse 5ac> and soc>et to connect the solar panel with the circuit. Here is a 1igh po*er +hite L&" lamp that gives ample light in a room. t is an energy saving lamp and consumes very little power to give sufficient light. The lamp is directly powered from "' hence it is compact and easy to fi! inside the switch board bo!. The /ower 0E& 0amp circuit uses 1 +att +hite L&" as the light source. Lu3eon type high watt 0E&s are now available. t is rated G.6 volts and consumes ma!imum G50 milli amperes current. To get sufficient brightness of the 0E&% more than 2++ m" current is reAuired. The "' power is dropped by three 105' >1u6B "' capacitors to low voltage "'. Three capacitors 8'1through '.9 are connected in parallel to increase current so around )10 mA current will be available. The low volt "' is then rectified by the bridge comprising &1 through &* and made ripple free by '*. 1ince the 0E& voltage is .., 6% Cener diode is used to regulate the &' to a safer level. 'apacitor '# act as a buffer to store current to give ma!imum brightness to the 0E&. -esistor -1 removes stored current from the "' capacitors when the circuit is unplugged and resistor -2 protects the circuit from transients and inrush current.

2o*er L&" Lamp Cir uit diagram

1 +att 2o*er L&"

Caution( t is important to note that this circuit can give a lethal sho # if handled carelessly. 2ost points are at mains potential% so that ta>e utmost care while handling. "o not construct this if you are not e!perienced in handling "' circuits. "o not troubleshoot or test when it is connected to mains. f an L&" indi ator is present in battery powered gadgets such as &mergen y lamps% it will consume power even if the gadget is not using. This will reduce the battery voltage since the 0E& ta>es around 2 volts. 1o it is necessary to charge the battery continuously to >eep the battery voltage level. This circuit eliminates this and the 0E&s turn on only in t*o onditions. That is in the over harged and over dis harged conditions only. The circuit is basically a voltage ontrolled s*it h using Dener diodes. Two state 0E& indication is provided using a 0i olour L&". Cener diode C&1 and the /;/ transistor T1 forms the over discharge indicator switch. $hen the battery voltage is above the brea>down point of C&1 8around # volts9% it conducts and >eeps T1 out of conduction. 1o the -ed half of the bicolur 0E& remains off. $hen the battery voltage reduces below # volts% Cener turns off allowing T1 to conduct and -ed 0E& turns on. This indicates that the battery is going to the over discharged state. Cener diode C&2 and ;/; transistor T2 forms the 3ver charge indicator switch. $hen the battery voltage is below ,.) volts 8ma!imum voltage level9% C& cease to conduct and T2 remains off. 1o that the 4reen half of the 0E& also remains off. $hen the battery voltage increases above ( volts due to overcharging% C&2 conducts followed by T2 and 4reen 0E& turns on. This is the over charged state. n short% if the battery voltage is between # and ( volts% both 0E&s remain off. This reduces the chance of power consumption.

0attery Status Indi ator Cir uit

Setting " variable power supply is necessary for the calibration. /rovide # volts and ad5ust 6-1 till -ed 0E& turns on. "t this point% 4reen 0E& remains off. ncrease the voltage to (volts and ad5ust 6-2 till 4reen 0E& turns on. "t this point% -ed 0E& should remain off. -educe the voltage to , volts. <oth 0E&s should be in the off state. 2ost of the battery voltage indicators always remain on even if the load is off. The 0E& indicator and the circuit consume current which reduces the battery charge and the charger should be continuously switched on to >eep the charge of the battery. Here is an ideal solution to prevent this. The indicator turns on only i. the load is running. t gives a -ed 0E& indication when the battery voltage reduces below *.( volts. 1o that the load can be switched off to prevent deep discharge of the battery. The circuit uses the $pAmp CAG140 as a voltage comparator and SC, )24M as switch. The inverting input of '1 gets half supply voltage8.69 from the potential divider -2:-. and its non inverting input gets a higher voltage through

-1. 'apacitor '1 maintains stable voltage level at the non inverting input of '1./ower supply to the ' is obtained through the 1'- 2/*2 when the load switches on. 3utput voltage of '1 is used to drive the deep discharge indicator 0E&."s long as the output voltage from '1 is above # volts% Cener conducts and >eep the /;/ transistor off. 1o that 0E& remains off. $hen the battery voltage reduces below # volts% output voltage of '1 also reduces to # volts or less. This ma>es the Cener out of conduction and T1 turns on and 0E& lights to indicate low battery level.

0attery over dis harge indi ator ir uit

Setting ;ormally '1 will be off since 1'- is not conducting. The gate of 1'- 8point "9 should be connected after the load switch so that 1'- fires only when the load turns on. <efore connecting the circuit to the battery% ad5ust the brea>down point of Cener using a variable power supply. 4ive # volts and slowly ad5ust 6- till 0E& turns on. This is the brea>down point of Cener. t will be around # volts. f Cener is still conducting% reduce its value to *.1 volts. '".1*+ is a low power <i231 3p "mp and its output will be nearly full supply voltage. 3nce the 1'- triggers% it latches itself and remains conducting even if the gate voltage is removed. 1'- can be switched off by removing power through 11. Here is a 6lasher ir uit that directly derives power from "' to give brilliant flashes at the rate of one flash per second. t uses a "ia as the main element to flash the 0E& through current pulses. )G0 8olt AC is reduced to 50 volt "C by the dropping capacitor '1 and is rectified by the full wave bridge &1 through &*.-esistor -1 removes stored current from '1 when the circuit is unplugged and resistor -2 protect the circuit from inrush current. The main element in the circuit is the "ia "0G. t is a semiconductor device that acts as a 8oltage9Controlled s*it h. f a low voltage is applied to the &iac% it remains as an open s*it h passing little current. "ll diacs have a brea# do*n voltage 80$ which is between )7 volts and G6 volts. f the applied voltage is above the minimum 6<3% the &iac enters into theF !egative ,esistan eF region and heavy current passes through it. &iacs are commonly used in pulse generator circuits for driving 1'-s and Triacs. n the circuit% &iac forms a ,ela3ation $s illator along with capacitor '2.$hen the capacitor '2 gets current% it charges slowly through -..$hen the voltage in '2 increases above the 6<3 of &iac8 2) 69% &iac conducts and current passes

through the 0E& and it turns on. "t the same time '2 discharges and the &iac becomes non conducting. "gain '2 charges and the process repeat. This gives brilliant flashes at the rate of one per second.

1igh 8olt L&" 6lasher Cir uit

6alues of -. and '2 determine the flash rate. $ith 1++F resistor and 22 u= capacitor% the .reKuen y will be around 11J. 6alue of the 0E& current limiter -* is also important to determine the flash rate. Higher value above 22+ 3hms will reduce the flash rate since the capacitor ta>es more time to discharge. f the current through 0E& is too high% increase the value of -* to 1.# F and ad5ust the flash rate by reducing the value of -.. Caution( 5his ir uit is e3tremely dangerous be ause there is no galvani isolation .rom mains. Most nodes are at mains lethal potential and hen e dangerous. "o not try to onstru t this ir uitL i. you have no e3perien e in handling high voltage ir uits. 3ne of the ma5or problems that is to be solved in an electronic circuit design is the production of lo* voltage "C power supply from Mains to power the circuit. The conventional method is the use of a step9do*n trans.ormer to reduce the 2.+ 6 "' to a desired level of low voltage "'. The most simple% space saving and low cost method is the use of a 8oltage "ropping Capa itor in series with the phase line. Sele tion of the dropping capacitor and the circuit design reAuires some te hni al #no*ledge and practical e!perience to get the desired voltage and current. "n ordinary capacitor will not do the 5ob since the device will be destroyed by the rushing current from the mains. 2ains spi>es will create holes in the dielectric and the capacitor will fail to wor>. I9rated apa itor specified for the use in "' mains is reAuired for reducing "' voltage. I ,ated apa itor 400 8olt

<efore selecting the dropping capacitor% it is necessary to understand the wor>ing principle and the operation of the dropping capacitor. The S rated capacitor is designed for 2#+% *++% ,++ 6"'. Higher voltage versions are also available. The &..e tive Impedan e 8 C 9% ,e tan e 8 S 9 and the mains .reKuen y 8 #+ V ,+ H@ 9 are the important parameters to be considered while selecting the capacitor. The reactance8S 9 of the capacitor 8 ' 9in the mains freAuency 8 f 9 can be calculated using the formula I : 1 < >) M .C B =or e!ample the reactance of a 0.)) u6 capacitor running in the mains freAuency #+H@ will be I : 1 < N) M 3 50 3 0.)) 3> 1 < 1L000L000B O : 144@5.=@6 $hms 0r 14.4 'ilo ohms. -ectance of the capacitor +.22 u= is calculated as I:1<)2i...C $here . is the 50 1J freAuency of mains and C is the value of capacitor in 6arads. That is 1 microfarad is 1 / 1%+++%+++ farads.Hence +.22 microfarad is 0.)) 3 1 < 1L000L000 .arads. Therefore the rectance of the capacitor appears as 144@5.=@ $hms or 14.4 ' $hms.To get current divide mains 6olt by the rectance in >ilo ohm.That is )G0 < 14.4 : 15.= mA. Effective impedance 8C9 of the capacitor is determined by ta>ing the load resistance 8 - 9 as an important parameter. mpedance can be calculated using the formula D:P,;I 1uppose the current in the circuit is and 2ains voltage is 6 then the eAuation appears li>e I:8<I The final eAuation thus becomes I : )G0 8 < 14. 4 : 15.= mA. Therefore if a 0.)) u6 capacitor rated for 2.+ 6 is used% it can deliver around 15 mA urrent to the circuit. <ut this is not sufficient for many circuits. Therefore it is recommended to use a 4@0 n6 capacitor rated for *++ 6 for such circuits to give reAuired current. I ,ated AC apa itors H )508L 4008L 6708 AC

5able sho*ing the I rated apa itor types and the output voltage and urrent *ithout load

,e ti.i ation

"iodes used for rectification should have sufficient 2ea# inverse voltage >2I8B. The pea> inverse voltage is the ma!imum voltage a diode can withstand when it is reverse biased. 1! 4001 diode can withstand up to #+ 6olts and 1! 400@ has a toleration of 1+++ 6olts. The important characteristics of general purpose rectifier diodes are given in the table.

1o a suitable option is a rectifier diode 1!400@. Dsually a silicon diode has a =orward voltage drop of 0.6 8. The current rating 8=orward current9 of rectifier diodes also vary. 2ost of the general purpose rectifier diodes in the 1; series have 1 ampere current rating. "C Smoothing " Smoothing Capa itor is used to generate ripple .ree "C. 1moothing capacitor is also called 6ilter apa itor and its function is to convert half wave / full wave output of the rectifier into smooth &'. The power rating and the capacitance are two important aspects to be considered while selecting the smoothing capacitor. The power rating must be greater than the off load output voltage of the power supply. The apa itan e value determines the amount of ripples that appear in the &' output when the load ta>es current. =or e!ample% a full wave rectified &' output obtained from #+H@ "' mains operating a circuit that is drawing 1++ m" current will have a ripple of (++ m6 pea>:to:pea> in the filter capacitor rated 1+++ u=. The ripple that appears in the capacitor is directly proportional to the load current and is inversely proportional to the capacitance value. t is better to >eep the ripple below 1.# 6 pea>:to:pea>s under full load condition. 1o a high value capacitor 81+++ u= or 22++ u=9 rated 2# volts or more must be used to get a ripple free &' output. f ripple is e!cess it will affect the functioning of the circuit especially -= and - circuits. 8oltage ,egulation Dener diode is used to generate a regulated "C output. " Cener diode is designed to operate in the reverse brea>down region. f a silicon diode is reverse biased% a point reached where its reverse current suddenly increases. The voltage at which this occurs is >nown as EAvalan he or Dener Evalue of the diode. Cener diodes are specially made to e!ploit the avalanche effect for use in Q,e.eren e voltage Qregulators. " Cener diode can be used to generate a fi!ed voltage by passing a limited current through it using the series resistor 8-9. The Cener output voltage is not seriously affected by - and the output remains as a stable reference voltage. <ut the limiting resistor - is important% without which the Cener diode will be destroyed. Even if the supply voltage varies% - will ta>e up any e!cess voltage. The value of - can be calculated using the formula , : 8in H 8J < IJ $here 8in is the input voltage% 8J output voltage and IJ current through the Cener n most circuits% @ is >ept as low as #m". f the supply voltage is 1)6% the voltage that is to be dropped across - to get

126 output is ,volts. f the ma!imum Cener current allowed is 1++ m"% then - will pass the ma!imum desired output current plus # m" . 1o the value of - appears as , : 17 H 1) < 105 mA : 6 < 105 3 1000 : 5@ ohms 2o*er rating of the Cener is also an important factor to be considered while selecting the Cener diode. "ccording to the formula 2 : I8. / is the power in watts% current in "mps and 6% the voltage. 1o the ma!imum power dissipation that can be allowed in a Cener is the Cener voltage multiplied by the current flowing through it. =or e!ample% if a 126 Cener passes 12 6 &' and 1++ m" current% its power dissipation will be 1.2 $atts. 1o a Cener diode rated 1..$ should be used. L&" Indi ator L&" indi ator is used as po*er on indicator. " significant voltage drop 8about 2 volts9 occurs across the 0E& when it passes forward current. The forward voltage drops of various 0E&s are shown in Table.

" typical 0E& can pass G0 H40 mA urrent without destroying the device. ;ormal current that gives sufficient brightness to a standard -ed 0E& is )0 mA. <ut this may be 40 mA for 0lue and +hite L&"s. " urrent limiting resistor is necessary to protect 0E& from e!cess current that is flowing through it. The value of this series resistor should be carefully selected to prevent damage to 0E& and also to get sufficient brightness at 2+ m" current. The current limiting resistor can be selected using the formula ,:8<I $here , is the value of resistor in ohms% 8 is the supply voltage and I is the allowable current in "mps. =or a typical -ed 0E&% the voltage drop is 1.) volts. 1o if the supply voltage is 12 6 86s9% voltage drop across the 0E& is 1.) 6 86f9 and the allowable current is 2+ m" 8 f9 then the value of the series resistor will be 8s H 8. < I. : 1) H 1.7 < )0 mA : 10.) < 0.0) A : 510 $hms. " suitable available value of resistor is 4@0 $hms. <ut is advisable to use 1 F resistor to increase the life of the 0E& even though there will be a slight reduction in the brightness. 1ince the 0E& ta>es 1.) volts% the output voltage will be 2 volts less than the value of Cener. 1o if the circuit reAuires 12 volts% it is necessary to increase the value of Cener to 1# volts. Table given below is a ready rec>oner for selecting limiting resistor for various versions of 0E&s at different voltages.

Cir uit "iagram The diagram shown below is a simple transformer less power supply. Here ))5 '>).)u6B 400 volts S rated capacitor is used to drop 2.+ volt "'. -esistor -2 is the bleeder resistor that remove the stored current from the capacitor when the circuit is unplugged. $ithout -2% there is chance for .atal sho # if the circuit is touched. -esistor -1 protects the circuit from inrush urrent at power on. " full wave rectifier comprising &1 through &* is used to rectify the low voltage "' from the capacitor '1 and '2 removes ripples from the &'. $ith this design% around 2* volts at 1++ m" current will be available at the output.This 2* volt &' can be regulated to reAuired output voltage using a suitable 1 *att Dener. t is better to add a sa.ety .use in the phase line and an M$8 across the phase and neutral lines as safety measure if there is voltage spi>e or short circuit in the mains.

Capa itor 2o*er supply Cir uit

Caution( Constru tion o. this .orm o. po*er supply is re ommended only to those persons e3perien ed or ompetent in handling AC mains. So do not try this ir uit i. you are not e3perien ed in handling 1igh voltages. 5he dra*ba # o. the Capa itor po*er supply in ludes 1.!o galvani isolation from 2ains.1o if the power supply section fails% it can harm the gadget. 2.Lo* urrent output. $ith a 'apacitor power supply. 2a!imum output current available will be 1++ m" or less.1o it is not ideal to run heavy current inductive loads. ..3utput voltage and current will not be stable if the "' input varies. Caution %reat are must be ta>en *hile testing the power supply using a dropping resistor. "o not tou h at any points in the /'< since some points are at mains potential. Even after switching off the circuit% avoid touching the points around the dropping capacitor to prevent ele tri sho #. E!treme care should be ta>en to construct the circuit to avoid short ir uits and .ire. 1ufficient spacing must be given between the components. The high value smoothing capacitor will e!plode% if is connected in the reverse polarity. The dropping apa itor is non: polari@ed so that it can be onne ted either *ay round. The power supply unit must be isolated from the remaining part of the circuit using insulators. The circuit should be housed in metal ase without touching any part of the /'< in the metal case. The metal case should be properly earthed. Here is a simple "an ing L&" 'ircuit. The 0E&s turns on/off alternately giving a dancing appearance. t is a simple "stable multivibrator using two ;/; transistors. t wor>s on the principle of harging and dis harging of capacitors '1 and '2. 'urrent from the positive of battery flows through first set of 0E&s &1:&. to the collector of T1 through resistor -1. -esistor -1 limits current through the 0E&s to protect them. The current through -1 charges capacitor '2. t then discharges through the base of T2 and resistor -*. This gives base current to T2 and it conducts. "s a result second set of 0E&s &*:&, lights as the current flows through T1.'apacitor '2 again charges and the cycle repeats.

"an ing Light Cir uit

The same thing happens in the other side also. This gives alternate flashing of 0E&s. Here is an &nergy saving battery charger. t harvests solar energy to replenish 1) volt Inverter battery. t has auto cut off facility to stop charging when the battery attains full charge. The charger uses a 2* volt solar panel as input. The circuit uses a variable voltage regulator IC LM G1@ to set the output voltage steady around 16 volts. 6ariable resistor 8, controls the output voltage. $hen the solar panel generates current% "1 forward biases and -egulator ' gets input current. ts output voltage depends on the setting of 6- and the output current is controlled by ,1.This current passes through ") and ,G. $hen the output voltage is above 8as set by 6-9 1,volts% Cener diode D") conducts and gives stable 15 volts for charging. 'harging current depends on -1 and -.. "round )50 to G00 milli ampere current will be available for charging. 4reen 0E& indicates charging status. $hen the battery attains full voltage around 1G volts% Cener diode D"1 conducts and T1 forward biases. This drains the output current from the regulator ' through T1 and charging process stops. $hen the battery voltage reduces below 12 volts% C&1 turns off and battery charging starts again.

Solar Inverter 0attery Charger Cir uit

'onnect the circuit to the solar panel and measure the input voltage. 2a>e sure that it is above 17 volts. 'onnect the circuit to the battery with orre t polarity and ad5ust 6- till 0E& lights. This indicates the conduction of C&2 and output voltage. Dse heat sin>s for 02.1( and T / 122 to dissipate heat. !ote : The same circuit can be modified for charging different types of batteries. The only modification reAuired is the change of C&1 and C&2. 1elect C&2 value for the reAuired output voltage and C&1 for cut off voltage level. =or e!ample for , volt battery% C&1 should be ,.1 volts and C&2 ,.) volt. =or 2obile battery% C&1 should be *.( volts and C&2 #.1 volts. "ll the other components remain same . This is an "' powered 0E& flasher that can drive two High bright 0E&s directly from the power obtained from the "' lines. The high bright 0E& flasher can be used as a 2oc> flasher or as an ornamental 0E&.

"' voltage is rectified by the full wave rectifier formed of "1 through "4.The rectified voltage is reduced to a safer level by the resistor -1.The low volt &' is then made ripple free by '1 and regulated to # volt &' by the Dener diode D". Transistor T1 and T2 form an oscillator with capacitor '. and resistor -2. The charging and discharging of '. through -2 ma>es T1 and T2 oscillating.0E& connected to the positive of '# flashes depending on the charge and discharge of '#.$hen '. fully charges% T1 conducts and its collector pulls the base of T2 to ground and it also conducts. This causes the discharge of '#. $hen '. discharges% T1 and T2 turns off and now '# charges through -*.This causes the =lashing of 0E&.

L&" 6lasher Cir uit diagram

Caution ( Sho # 1aJard - 5his ir uit is dire tly onne ted to 1igh volt AC. "o not onstru t the ir uit i. you are not e3perien ed in handling AC voltage. "o not tou h any points *hen onne ted to mains. This temperature monitor is practical to monitor the level of heat from its power transistors and heatsin>s and if needed% to automatically turn off the amplifier to avoid damage to the vital components. 1ince it is not reAuired to monitor the temperature by strict degree resolution% this simple monitor will wor> very well.

The temperature monitor circuit wor>s by comparing the voltage drop of a TcoldU diode 8T19 with the base emitter voltage of a TwarmU transistor 8T29. The transistor must be attached physically closest to the heat source% ideally it should be attached to the heatsin> of the power transistors. The diode T1 must be positioned away from the heat source to ensure that it is always at room temperature. The circuit TmeasuresU the heat difference between the transistor and the diode. T2 should not conduct as long as the temperature level being monitored is below the set threshold. The base:emitter voltage of T2 decrease by 2 m6 per +'. 3nce the voltage is below the level set by /1% the T2 conducts and the 0E& begins to light up.

5emperature Monitor Cir uit "iagram

The values of -1 and -2 are dependent on the power supply voltage. The values can be computed using the following formulas: -1 O 8Db/6 V +.,9/# >P -2 O 8Db/6 V 1.#9/1# >P =or e!ample: by 12 volts power supply% the -1 is 2.2 >P while -2 is ,)+ P. The ma!imum current consumption of the temperature monitor circuit when the 0E& lights up is 2+ m". Ta>e nothe that the T2 must not become hotter than 12#+'. Here is a valuable "dd on circuit to save electronic components in the assembled board from damage. t gives warning beep if there is a short circuit in the assembled board. Thus it helps to switch off the power supply immediately to save valuable components. f the circuit board is 3F% 4reen 0E& lights indicating that power supply is normal. f there is a short in the /'< trac>s or pins of components% 4reen 0E& turns off and <u@@er sounds indicating the short circuit. The circuit uses two ;/; transistors <' #*( to sense the short circuit. f the assembled board is normal% current flows from the power supply through polarity prote ting diode "1. The "ssembled board gets power and 4reen 0E& lights. "t the same time T2 forward bias and its collector goes to ground potential. This ma>es T1 off due the absence of base bias. <u@@er and -ed 0E& connected to the collector of T1 remains off. I. there is a short ir uit in the board under testL ") reverse biases and 5) turns o... ;ow the base of T1 becomes high and it conducts. This turns on <u@@er and -ed 0E& to indicate short circuit.

Short Cir uit Indi ator Cir uit diagram

'onnect the circuit to the output of the /ower supply observing polarity.3utput of the circuit is used to power the circuit board under test Tiny Timer 0ight 1witch presented here is a simple transistorised electronic timer which drives a high efficiency white 0E& for a finite time out. This circuit is very useful for in:car reading etc. The circuit wor>s off 12 volt dc supply. "fter construction% fit the unit at a suitable location inside your car and power the circuit from the in:dash standard cigar lighter soc>et. The timer light switch is ultra simple% economic% straight forward and self e!planatory. 1o* the timer light s*it h *or#sR ;ormally T1 is turned off by /1 and -2. $hen the trigger switch 11 is pressed the base of T1 is connected to the L126 supply via -2. ;ow T1 turns on and this action turns on the ne!t transistor T2 which in turn energises the white 0E& 8&29. -esistor -* limits the operating current of white 0E& 8&29. $hen the switch is pressed is current also flows into capacitor '1 8through -19 and charges it. 1o when the switch 11 is released the charge in the capacitor '1 >eeps T1 turned on until the charge has decayed away through -2 and /1. Eou can easily increase the ouput on time by increasing the resistance of the potentiometer /1.

5imer Light S*it h Cir uit "iagram

This is an nfrared based <roc>en beam alarm to protect doors and entry passages. t gives a loud alarm when somebody crosses the nvisible nfrared barrier. t can protect the doors both day and night and is free from false triggering. The circuit is too simple and can be a good evening pro5ect for the hobbyists. The circuit uses In.rared diodes to emit continuous - rays which are not pulsed as in the case of remote handsets. The !2! "arlington 2hoto transistor is used as a light sensor. L1461 is the ultra sensitive &arlington photo transistor with high gain. ts collector is connected to the positive rail through 6-1 and the Emitter has a %reen L&" to indicate standby mode. The base of T1 is left free without connecting anywhere. This base 5unction is e!posed through the window of T1 so that light photons will bias the base. The degree of biasing depends on the intensity of photons.T2 is the alarm driver and its base is connected to the collector of T1.1o that the base bias of T2 depends on the conduction of T1. $hen the nfrared rays illuminate the photo transistor% it conducts pulling the base of T1 to ground level so that it remains off. ,ed L&" and 0uJJer connected to the emitter of T2 remains off in this condition. $hen a person crosses the - beam% T1 turns off and its collector voltage becomes high. T2 then conducts and activates -ed 0E& and bu@@er. 01*=1 &atasheet <'#*( &atasheet

&ntry Alarm Cir uit diagram

The circuit can be constructed on a small piece of 2er. board. "ssemble -1 and - 0E&s on a separate board. =i! 0E&s on one side of the entry and the /hototransistor on the opposite side. 'arefully align I, beam on the /hototransistor so that bu@@er will be silent in the standby mode. 2ove hand across the beam% bu@@er should sound.6-1 ad5ust the base bias of T2 to >eep the bu@@er off in the standby mode.

L14F1 Phototransitor

L1461 and 0C54@ 2ins

"t the heart of this ultra simple smo>e sensor alarm is H21"1% which is a photo:interrupter module consists of a gallium: arsenide infrared 0E& coupled to a silicon phototransistor in a plastic housing. The slot between the infrared sender80E&9 and receiver 8phototransistor9 allows interruption of the signal with smo>e% switching the module output from XonG to XoffG. $hen the smo>e enters the slot% the infrared beam falling on the phototransistor is obstructed. "s a result% the phototransistor stops wor>ing and the transistors 8T1YT29% wired as a simple darlington pair% conduct to activate the rest of the circuit. $hen the darlington pair conducts% the gate voltage of 1'- <T1,7 8T.9 goes high and the 1'- is fired. 'onseAuently% the gate terminal of mosfet <11(+ 8T*9 receives positive voltage through resistor -* and the active pie@o:sounder 8<C19 energises to latchB 6isual indicator 0E& 8&19 lights up instantly. The bu@@er sounds to indicate the presence of smo>e% unless you switch off the circuit by disconnecting the 7 volt dc input supply. =or optimum performance% ad5ust trimpots /1% /2 and the value of resistor -1.

Smo#e sensor alarm ir uit diagram

1)1A1 s hemati

Here is a &ual power source for the Home 1ecurity system which has to be switched on continuously. t is a power saving circuit that uses a 1olar panel for providing power during day time and a transformer power supply during night. t has a battery bac>up and the power to the security system is derived from the 12 6olt *.# "h battery.1o that even if the day light is not sufficient in clody days% the security system will wor> normally. About the Solar 2o*er sour e &uring day time% the security system gets 1) volt po*er supply from the battery or the Solar 2anel. f the amount of power from the solar panel is not sufficient% battery will ompensate it.Typically a single solar cell generates 0.5 volt and around 50 mA urrent in bright light ." single solar cell is rated at *# m$. 1o in the 12 volt solar panel% there will be )4 solar ells connected serially. t can give 1 Ampere current in day light. Typically a 15 + Solar panel gives 1 Ampere urrent in bright light. Here a 1) 8 5+ Solar panel is used in the circuit to give power to the security system and charging current to the battery. t gives around G00 mA current.

<& 1.7 &atasheet About the "C po*er sour e ;ight charging is attained by the 1) volt "C obtained from a 091) volt 1 Amps step down transformer and the fullwave rectifier comprising &. through &,. 'apacitor '2 removes ripples from &' to give clean power to the security system and for the battery.-esistor -* gives 70 mA urrent during night for Tric>le charging the battery."t the same time% power to the security system will be available from the battery. The tri #le harging provision save "' power and protect battery from over charging since the battery will get sufficient charge during day time.

"ual 2o*er sour e Cir uit diagram

0attery status indi ator This part of the circuit indicates the voltage level in the battery as well as the voltage from the solar panel.Denerdiode D" conducts only when the battery holds more than 11.6 volts. $hen C& conducts -ed 0E& illuminates.$hen the battery voltage goes below 11 volts %0E& turns off. f the 0E& is not lighting %it indicates that battery is not attaining full charge or the solar panel is not giving 12 volts. L", s*it h This is used to s*it h on the &' power from the transformer power supply at night. L", o..ers low resistance in day light so that it gives more current to the base of T1. t is a 2!2 transistor and it remains off during day time due high voltage in its base. T2 also remains off due the lac> of base bias. &uring night%resistance of 0&- decreases% and the base of T1 becomes negative. t then turns on.T2 also turns on and charging current is available from the emitter of T2. -esistor -* reduces the charging current to 70 mA .or tri #le harging the battery."d5ust 8,1 to set the sensitivity of 0&-.

BD139 and BC557 Pin connections

Setting o. the "ual 2o*er sour e ir uit

"ssemble the circuit on a 4eneral purpose /'< and enclose in a suitable case. 0&- should be mounted on the case to get sunlight.1olar panel should be placed in a place where bright sunlight is available.<efore connecting the battery% fully charge it using a charger.

1) 8 4.5 Ah 0attery and 1) 8 5 + Solar panel

This 1imple 6oltage and 'urrent tester can be used to measure the forward 6oltage drop and current through 1emiconductor &iodes li>e 0E&% nfrared diode% /hoto diodes% 1ilicon diodes etc. This is ideal to assess the voltage and current drops through these devices during circuit design and calculating the power consumption in a particular section of the circuit. &ifferent types of 0E&s including power 0E&s are now used in various applications. The voltage rating of these devices range between 1.) to # volts. 'urrent rating also varies from 2+ m" to #+ m". 1o by assessing the actual voltage and current consumption% it is easy to get full brightness without damaging the device. This will also prevents the unnecessary heating of these delicate devices and their brea>down

8oltage and Current 5ester ir uit

The circuit is a current regulator using the "arlington 2!2 transistor 0" 140. t provides = volts and around 50 mA current to the device under test. S*it h S1 is used to select the 6oltage and current measurement. f 11 is placed in position 1% the circuit measures the current drop across the device under test. A 100 mA meter is placed in series with the current path. 1o that when the device is connected to point " and <% meter shows the current flowing through the device

$hen 11 is placed in position ) and the device is connected to points A and 0L voltage drop in the device can be measured. The 09G0 8olt meter is connected parallel to the device under test. 1o that it can give the voltage drop across the device. 1ince diodes are 3ne:way conductors% observe polarity while connecting to points " and <. Anode should be in A and Cathode in 0. 'onnect small Alligator Clips to points " and < to hold the device under test.

Volt and Ampere Meter

5ypes o. "iodes

"s the name implies%emergency light is a source of light available during an emergency. t is an automatic system in which a rechargeable battery operated light source turns on as soon as the ac mains fail.$hen the grid supply is restored%the lamp is turned off. "n emergency light essentially consists of a source of electricity V a rechargeable battery pac> and an automatic sensing circuit to chec> the presence8or absence9 of mains supply.The sensing circuit connects a lamp 8or a compact fluorescent tube inverter9 circuit in the event of mains failure and disconnects it when the mains supply is restored.$hen ac mains supply is available%a charger circuit charges the battery pac> to >eep it in top condition8fig 29.

&mergen y Lights %uard Cir uit "iagram

3ver the years%emergency lights have become better designed and more reliable. However% they retain a few wea> facilities. Dsually , volt sealed maintenance free 812=9 batteries are used in portable emergency lights. Dnfortunately% many low cost lights give no indication when the battery has gone flat% so that there is a ris> of the battery failure. 3nly high:end systems have built in electronic deep discharge protection circuitry to disconnect the output load in case the battery voltage happens to fall below a safe value.

The miniature add:on circuit:12=8,69 <"TTE-E 4D"-&: presented here8fig 19 can be connected to almost all types of , v battery powered emergency lights. "s can seen from the circuit diagram%the XhardwareG is rather simple. There are only two transistors%one @ener diode%a couple of passive components % and% for the Xuser interfaceG% a push to off reset button8119 and one 0E& indicator8&19. The finished circuit can be fitted 8internally9 to one side of the emergency light cabinet by a set of screws Y spacers. ;e!t%connect the relay contacts8;/' Y '9 in series with the e!isting on/off switch of the emergency light8fig .9. The user interface811Y&19 are then mounted 8e!ternally9 on the same side of the cabinet using suitable washers/bushes. $or>ing of the circuit is very simple."t the moment of initial power up%or after a reset by 11% capacitor '1 holds transistor T2 cut off. The switch off voltage level can be set with preset pot 6-1.$hen the potential across '1 has risen to a value high enough8+.)69 to for relay driver T2 to be switched on%the relay is activated and its contacts disconnects the output load from the battery. ;ow %in this active mode % the current drain is determined almost entirely by the relay coil 8here around 1.m" % including the 0E& current9 only. This is an ideal circuit to monitor the 6oltage level in 12 volt 0ead "cid batteries used in nverters .=or the perfect operation of nverters% the battery voltage should be between 12 and 1..# volts. " fully charged battery shows 1..# volts. f the voltage reduces below 1+ volts% the nverter will not give bac> up. 2oreover% if the nverter is continuously charging without attaining 1..# volts% it indicates that the battery is not accepting and holding charge. The circuit is too simple and uses only a few components. t shows three indications.

1. f the battery has 1G.5 volts% %reen hal. of the bicolor 0E& lights. 2. f the battery has 1) volts8;ormal9 0E& will be $.. .. f the battery voltage reduces below 10 volts% ,ed hal. of bicolour 0E& lights.

About the Semi ondu tors

The important components of the circuit are a t*o lead type bi olour L&" and the 3perational "mplifier CAG140. 0i olour L&" The 0i olour L&" used in the circuit is a 5*o Lead type. That is% it can give ,ed or %reen lights based on the polarity of the leads. f the leads are connected in one direction% it gives one colour and if the leads are reversed% it gives the second colour. Thus there is no Anode9 Cathode arrangement. <oth the leads can function as "node and 'athode. The internal arrangement of the 0E& automatically changes the direction of current based on the polarity. Here the 0E& used gives -ed and 4reen colours. < colour 0E& &atasheet

CAG140 This 3perational "mplifier is a 4.5 M1J 0iM$S 3p "mp with gate protected M$S6&5 inputs and 0ipolar output. ts inputs have very high input impedan e >1.55 $hmsB. t reAuire very lo* input urrent >10pAB and hasvery high speed o. per.orman e. The ' can operate between * V ., volts with single or dual power supply.'".1*+ is internally phase ompensated for stable operation '".1*+ &atasheet

About the 5hree State 8oltage Indi ator Cir uit '1 is designed as a voltage omparator with its non inverting input connected to the ground. -esistor -1% -2 and the /reset 6-1 forms a potential divider to give variable voltage to the inverting input of '. -esistor -. gives necessary .eed ba # to the inverting input. -esistors -* and -# are current limiters for the 4reen and -ed halves of the bicolour 0E&. $hen the voltage in the battery is 1..#% the inverting input of '1 gets a higher voltage so that its output goes low. Then current flows through the 4reen half of the 0E& into the ' and it emits 4reen light. $hen the battery voltage is 12 volts% both the 4reen and -ed half of 0E& will not conduct and it remains off. $hen the voltage level reduces below 1+ volts% output of '1 becomes high and -ed half of 0E& lights. 5hus the L&" remains o.. in normal 1) volt and it lights %reen *hen the voltage is 1G.5 and ,ed *hen the voltage is belo* 10 volts.

Three tate Volta!e "ndicator circ#it

Setting o. the 5hree State 8oltage Indi ator "fter assembling the circuit on a common /'< %ad5ust 6-1 using a variable po*er supply. 'onnect the points A and 0 to the variable power supply and provide 1+ volts. "d5ust 6-1 till the 0E& gives -ed colour. Then give 1..# volts. "t this state% 0E& lights 4reen. The circuit is ready to use. 'onnect it to the 12 volt battery using 'rocodile 'lips. 3bserve polarity while connecting to the battery. This motion detector alarm circuit can detect a moving person from a distance of 1 meter. t uses a &ual - Transmitter: -eceiver module H3"1*+#.$hen the sensor detects the reflected - rays% "larm will sound for 2 minutes. The circuit can be modified for various applications including "' operated alarm systems. The main element in the motion detector circuit is the "ual I, re.le tive sensor 1$A 1405. t has a built in I, diode and an !2! 2hoto transistor. The blac> covering of the module .ilters visible light rays and allow - rays to fall on the /hoto transistor. $hen the /hoto transistor receives - rays% it conducts. The collector of the /hoto transistor is connected to the trigger pin2 of a short duration Monostable timer built around ' !& 555. $ith the given values of -* and '2% output of '1 remains high for t*o minutes to light 0E& and to activate the bu@@er. n the standby state% the photo transistor inside the "ual ,e.le tor module remains non conducting since its base is not getting - rays. $hen a person comes in front of the module% the reflected - rays will trigger the /hoto transistor and its 'ollector goes to ground potential. This triggers the 2onostable and "larm sounds. H3"1*+# &atasheet

Motion "ete tor Cir uit diagram

"$ D#al $e%lecti&e ensors

This circuit lights the /remises of House around , pm and turns off in the morning. ts wor>ing is fully automatic and uses the light sensing property of 0&-. Dnli>e other 0&- based circuits% it will not cause lamp flic>ering during the light transition so that '=0 and fluorescent lamps can be used. t also e!ploits the 1chmitt trigger action of timer ' ### for a clean switching. L", and timer IC 555 are used in the circuit for automatic switching. 0ight &ependent -esistor offers very high resistance around 1+ 2eg ohms in dar> but in light it has only 1++ ohms or less resistance. 1o it it is an ideal component to switch on lamps based on the presence or absence of sun light. Here it is used to trigger the timer ' ### which is designed as a 1chmitt trigger. S hmitt 5rigger The popular Timer ' ### has two internal comparators. These are 5hreshold omparator and 5rigger omparator. The Set and ,eset action of these comparators can be used for 3n/ 3ff actions. Here the ' ### functions as a 0istable with S hmitt trigger action. The upper omparator >Threshold comparator9of ' ### trips at 2/. of the supply voltage and the lo*er omparator8Trigger comparator9 trips at 1/. of the supply voltage. n the circuit% the inputs 8pin, and pin29 of both the comparators are shorted and connected to the 5unction of 0&- and the /reset 6-1. n day light% 0&- passes more current and the current into the upper comparator 8pin,9 is above 2/. 6cc. This resets the internal 6lip96lop of '. "t the same time% the current into the lower comparator 8pin29 is more than 1/. 6cc. <oth these condition causes low output from '1.

Automati %ate Lamp Cir uit

$hen the light falling on the 0&- decreases% its resistance increases% and the current flowing to the upper and lower comparators of '1 decreases. The input voltage of upper comparator decreases below 2/. 6cc and that of lower comparator below 1/. 6cc. This causes% high output from pin . of '1. This triggers T1 and the relay connected to its collector turns on. The lamp gets "' through the Common and !$ 8;ormally 3pen9 contacts of the relay. 3nly the /hase line is connected through the relay contacts. 5he neutral line goes as su h. 6-1 ad5usts the sensitivity o. L", at the particular light level at which the lamp turns on. 'apacitor '2 maintains the base voltage of T1 for clean switching action and also avoids relay clic>ing. &iode &1 removes ba # e.m.. when T1 switches off.

"C 555 "nternal Circ#it

!ote( 0&- should be placed away from the 0amp light but it should get day light. Dse 6 8olt 2C0 relay .$iring connections are given in the diagrams.

2C0 ,elay and +iring onne tion

Caution( Ta>e e!treme care while connecting "' line to the relay contacts. &o not touch the relay contacts when the circuit is connected to mains. /rovide sleevings to relay contacts to avoid accidental shorting.

2C0 ,elay

. 6olt 0ithium 'ells are e!tensively used in low power applications such as &igital cloc>s% Toys etc. These are also used in 'omputer 2other boards as bac>up power source to >eep the memory. The circuit described here is a handy tester to chec> the voltage level in the used 0ithium cell before throwing it away.Even if it carries less than 2 volts% it can be used again in some very low power applications that reAuire less than two volts. The circuit uses an 0E& as a Cener diode to give 2.2 6 reference voltage to compare the voltage level in the 0ithium cell. IC1 >5L0@1B is used as a 8oltage omparator. The low noise S6&5 $perational Ampli.ier T0+(1 is used in the circuit since it reAuires very low input bias current. ts inverting input is connected to the 5unction between -2 and a 4reen 0E&. Here L&" is used li>e a Dener diode to give 2.2 6 8=orward voltage of 4reen 0E&9 as reference voltage. This 0E& has dual .un tion. t act as a power on indicator as well as low value Cener which is not commonly available. The non inverting input of '1 receives voltage from the Lithium battery under test. $hen the non inverting input is not connected to the battery% output of '1 will be low since its inverting input gets higher voltage than non inverting input. The low output from '1 >eeps T1 non conducting and the 4reen half of the 0i olour L&" remains off. "t the same time the high voltage in the collector of T1 gives base bias to T2 and it conducts. The -ed half of the bicolour 0E& lights. T0+(1 &ata sheet 0ithium 'ell &ata sheet

Lithium Cell 5ester Cir uit diagram

$hen a 0ithium battery is connected to test points% the non inverting input of '1 gets higher voltage 8more than 2.2 volts9 and the output of the comparator swings high. This ma>es T1 conducting and 4reen half of <icolour 0E& lights indicating that the battery under test is holding more than 2.2 volts. "t the same time T2 turns off since its base goes to ground potential. -ed 0E& remains off in this state. In shortL %reen L&" lights i. the battery holds more than ).) volts.

TL'71 and BC54( Pin Connections

Lithium Cell

This is the simple and easy way to tap current from a 2otor <i>e battery to charge the 2obile /hone. 2ost of the 2obile /hone battery pac> has three 1.2 volt cells ma>ing the voltage to .., volts. =or fast charging of the battery pac>% each cell reAuires more than 1.2 volts and sufficient current. This circuit can deliver # volts at .++ m" to charge the battery Auic>ly. The circuit is 6oltage and 'urrent regulated and with /olarity and 1urge protection components. The circuit uses a 2ositive 8oltage regulator IC @705 to give # volt regulated output. The components around '1 are meant for prote ting the IC so as to give smooth output power. Dener diode D" act as the Input Surge prote ting diode. t provides (.2 volts to the input of the regulator ' from the 12 volt bi>e battery. "iode "1 is the $utput Surge and Input Short prote ting diode.

$hen a surge voltage e!ceeding ma!imum voltage rating of the regulator is applied to the input or when a voltage in e!cess of the input voltage is applied to the output% the regulator will be destroyed. f the input terminal shorts with the ground% the output voltage increases above the input voltage8ground potential9and the charge in the capacitor connected to the output flows into the input side which is also fatal to the regulator. <oth these situations can be avoided by using the Cener at the input and the diode &1 across the regulator. Capa itor C1 and C) provide stability to the regulator and these should be soldered close to the legs of the regulator. Capa itor CG act as a buffer to give constant voltage in the output. ()+# &atasheet

Mobile Charger using 0i#e 0attery Cir uit

@705 I' can tolerate ma!imum G5 volts and its urrent rating is 1 Amps ma!imum. -esistor ,1 restricts the charging current to around GG0 mA as per the 3hms law. Even if the current is low% charging process will not be affected. 1low charging with )+ to 1++ m" current is generally advised. <ut in case of an emergency% Auic> charging can be done with high current "ssemble the circuit on a 2er. board and enclose in a small case that can be fitted near the <i>e battery. Dse suitable pins to connect with the 2obile phone. 'harging current can be tapped from the battery using Alligator Clips. <efore using the circuit% double chec> the connections especially the polarity of connectors and measure output voltage and current using a &igital 2ulti 2eter. The same circuit can be used for charging Mobile battery from 12 volt Car battery or from a 12 volt Solar panel.

"C 7('5 Pin connection and Alli!ator Clips

Here is an ideal /ower 1upply Dnit for trouble shooting the circuit boards. t gives =ive and ;ine volt regulated &' from a -echargeable battery. t is portable and handy and can also functions as a 2obile 'harger. Transformer less power supply is used in the circuit to charge the battery from mains. This ma>es the unit compact and light weight. The circuit has two sections. The front end is a harger se tion with capacitor C1 as the main element. t is an I rated 400 8olt AC apa itor that reduce the 2.+ volt "' to low volt "' through the ,e tan e property. 0ow volt "' is then rectified by the full wave bridge rectifier comprising &1 through &*. -esistor -1 bleeds the stored current from '1 when the power is disconnected. -esistor -2 reduces the inrush current into the circuit at power on. -ectified "' is then made ripple free by '2 for charging the = 8olt ,e hargeable battery. Cener diode D" regulates the charging voltage to 1# volts and resistors -. and -* gives around 70 to 100 mA harging urrent. &iode &, prevents discharge of battery bac> to the bridge. 6ariable resistor 6-1 and transistor T1 forms a voltage indicator. L&" lights when the battery is fully charged and goes off if the battery voltage reduces below ( volts. 6-1 sets the low voltage level. This prevents deep discharge of battery. $hen the circuit is connected to mains and 11 is in 3; position% battery charges through &#% -.% -* and &,. $hen the unit is unplugged from mains% 7 volt output power will be available from the battery. 6oltage regulator '1 gives # volt &'. 1witch 12 can be used to select 7 v or #v output.

2ortable 2o*er Supply Cir uit diagram

!ote( 'onnect a fully charged 7 6olt battery and ad5ust 6-1 till the 0E& light up. &uring this ad5ustment% the circuit should be dis onne ted .rom the mains. Dse the po*er supply only a.ter dis onne ting it .rom Mains. The 5volt "C from it can be used for harging the Mobile phone. Dse a suitable pin for that. -echargeable battery can be an ordinary 22G battery or High current !iMh battery.

Ca#tion
Caution( Sho # 1aJardB This circuit is directly powered from High volt "'. This circuit should not be onstru ted if you are not e!perienced in handling high volts. "o not tou h or test any points when the circuit is connected to mains. &le tros hemati s is not responsible .or any asuality due to areless handling o. the ir uit. Transistors are inevitable parts of Electronic circuits. The success of a circuit design lies in the selection of proper transistor type and calculation of voltage and current flowing through it. " small variation in the voltage or current level in the transitor will affects the wor>ing of the whole circuit. Here e!plains how a transistor wor>s. 8oltage and Current in the 5ransistor design The 6ig.1 e!plains how voltage and current are flowing through a bipolar transistor. nput voltage to the circuit is 1) volt &'. The base of T1 is connected to a potential divider ,19,). f they have eAual values% half supply voltage will be available at the base of T1. Here the value of -1 is G.) $hms. f the value of -1 is three times greater than -2% then three

Auarter of 126 drops by -1 and allow one Auarter to pass through -2. Therefore the base voltage of T1 will be 1) < 4 : G 8.

Thus the voltage provided by -1 to the base of T1 is G volts. The emitter voltage of T1 will be 0.@ volts less than . volts since T1 drops +.( volts for its biasing. Thus the emitter voltage appears as G90.@ : ).G volts. f the value of the emitter resistor ,4 is 1'% then if 2.. volt passes through it% emitter current will be ).G8< 1 : ).G mA.'ollector current also remains same. f the value of the load resistor -. is 2F% two times higher than that of -*% then the voltage drop across it will be ) 3 ).G8 : 4.6 volts.There fore the collector voltage of T1 remains as 1) H 4.6 : @.4 volts. Load urrent n the circuit shown in 6ig.) %, volt &' supply is provided. T1 is a general purpose ;/; transtior li>e <' #*). " potential divider comprising -1 and -2 bias the base of T1. 2inimum base voltage necessary for biasing T1 is +.( volts. The potential divider -1:-2 drops 690.@ : 6.G volts. f the load ta>es * volts%then the collector voltage will be 2 volts. 694:) volts.

6alue of the collector current depends on the base voltage. $hen the base voltage increases% collector current also increases. This results in more volts in the load. n short% +.1 volt increase in base voltage causes 1 6olt increases in the load. Current in the 5ransistor Ampli.ier

;ormally when a 1igh volt is present at the collector and Lo* volt in the base% <ase:Emitter 5unction of T1 will be reverse biased. f the collector remains open% collector voltage will be + and hence the base current will be 1++ m". f collector of T1 is connected to the 6cc% 7) m" current flows through the collector and 2m" to the base.That is Emitter current O <ase current L'ollector current O 2m"L7)m" O 1++m" 'ollector current O Emitter current V <ase current O 1++m" V 2 m" O7) m" <ase current O Emitter current V 'ollector current O 1++m" V 7)m" O 2 m"

The condition is 4ust reversed in the case of a 2!2 transistor as shown in =ig.*. The base: emitter 5unction of T1 forward biased and the base:collector 5unction is reverse biased. n this state%T1 remains non conducting. f we ma>es the base more negative% T1 conducts and collector current appears.

5ransistor as a Signal Ampli.ier Through a small capacitor AC signals of small volt can be given to the base of a signal amplifier as shown in =ig.#.This changes the load voltage. " large change in base voltage V "mplified 1ignal V gives output signals from the collector of T1.

Ampli.i ation : 8alue o. $utput signal < 8alue o. Input signal. "mplification usually lies between 1+ and 1++. That is the 3utput signal is 1+ to 1++ times higher than the input signal.

Transistor Biasin!

-egulated power supply is necessary in some electronic circuits especially in "mplifier circuits. /oorly regulated power may cause bu@@ing and unwanted noise in -= and amplifier circuits. There are two methods to get regulated power supply. The most common and simple one is Cener regulated power supply. " -egulator ' of () SS series or 6ariable regulator 02.1( can also be used but it may increase the cost and si@e of the power supply circuit. Here e!plains the theory behind Cener regulation. Dener ,egulation is used to hold the output voltage steady% irrespective of the changes in input voltage. Cener is a sophisticated semiconductor diode. t conducts only when its brea#do*n voltage reaches. Cener value represents the voltage it gives. <ut to get easy brea>down of Cener% the input voltage must be 19) volts higher than that of the Cener voltage.

Lo* urrent Dener ,egulation

=ig.1 shows the voltage regulation using a Dener diode.1+ 6 input is given to a #.,6 Cener. Cener reAuires a minimum 5 mA urrent to maintain its action. This current is maintained by the series resistor , connected in series with the Cener. The value o. , is important to allow at least 5 mA urrent for the Cener even if the load draws more current.

)ener $e!#lation Circ#its

n the 6ig.1 Ima3 is the current through the load. t should be ma!imum )50 mA. IJ is the current passing through the Cener to maintain its action I ma3 ; IJ is the current passing through the resistor -. 8J is the voltage across the Cener Dsing these parameters% the value of the resistor , is determined using the formula , : >8in98JB < >Ima3;IJB That is 81+:#.,9 / 8+.2#"L+.++#"9 O *.*+ / +.2, O 1, 3hms. The nearest value is 17 $hms. 2o*er rating of the Cener should be enough to withstand current through the Cener in no load condition. /ower rating of the Cener is calculated using the formula 2 : >I ma3 ; IJB 3 8J : 2 : >0.)5 A;0.005AB I 5.6 : 1.4 +atts. 1elect a Cener with more than 1.5 + rating% if the load current is 2#+ m".

,ating o. the resistor , is also important to handle the load current as well as the Cener current. Current through - is I ma3 ; I J and voltage through - is 8in H 8J 1o 2o*er dissipation in , is /: >Ima3;IJB 3 >8in98JB : >0.)5;0.005B 3 1095.6B : 1.14 +. 1o a ) *att resistor is reAuired as , if the load current is )50 mA or 0.)5 A.

1igh Current ,egulation

The circuit shown in 6ig.1can be used only if the load current is less than )50 mA. f the load reAuires more urrent% say as in battery hargesL transistor based Cener regulation is necessary. 6ig.) shows how a series transistor is used in combination with a Cener to give a High current voltage regulated circuit. T1 is connected as an &mitter .ollo*er. t should be either a medium power transistor li>e 0" 1G= or 5I2 1)) if current is less than 1A or power transistor li>e )! G055 if current is very high. Cener voltage 6@ is 0.@ 8 8biasing voltage of T19 more than the reAuired output. - should give more than # m" to the Cener. The Cener holds the base of T1 at a steady 6@ so that output from the emitter of T1 will be 8J H 0.@ 8olts. Here is a simple tester for Hobbyists. This 0E& 'omponent tester can test the integrity of electronic components from resistors to 's before soldering. t reduces the 5ob of testing the components using multimeter. The tester gives 0E& indications about the 4ood or <ad conditions of the components. " $hite 0E& torch is added to verify the value of the components if light is not sufficient. The circuit layout is straight forward. Two bipolar !2! transistors are used to drive two 0E&s based on their base bias. $hen the tester is switched on through 12% ,ed L&" lights because T2 gets base bias through -2. "t the same time% %reen L&" remains o.. because the base of T1 is floating . $hen a component is placed between the 2robes% electrical continuity establishes and T1 gets base current through -1. $hen T1 conducts% %reen L&" turns on and ,ed L&" turns o.. since the base of T2 is grounded when T1 conducts. This indicates that the component under test is good. n short 4reen 0E& lights only when a good component is connected to the probes. f the component is bad% probes will not get electrical continuity and T1 remains off. n this state only -ed 0E& light indicating that the component is bad. Test procedure is given below.

L&" Component 5ester Cir uit diagram

Test Proced#re
1. 2olarity 'onnect -ed probe to positive trac> of circuit board and <lac> probe to test point. 'ircuit board under test should be 3; 4reen 0E& 3; V /ositive supply. 4reen 0E& 3== and -ed 0E& 3; V ;egative supply or ;o power 2. Continuity 'onnect both -ed and <lac> probes across the test points 4reen 0E& 3;: 'ontinuity. 4reen 0E& 3== and -ed 0E& 3;: ;o continuity .. ,esistor. 1 $hm to 500' 'onnect -ed and <lac> probes on either side of -esistor 4reen 0E& 3;: -esistor 3F. 4reen 0E& 3== and -ed 0E& 3;:-esistor burned *. Capa itor &le trolyti -ed probe to positive and <lac> probe to negative of capacitor 4reen 0E& 3; and gradually fades and then -ed 3;: 'apacitor 4ood. -ed 0E& always 3;: 'apacitor bad #. Capa itor "is 1ame as above./robes can be connected either way round ,. L&"L "iodesL 2hotodiodesL In.rared diodes -ed probe to "node and <lac> probe to 'athode 4reen 0E& 3; V 4ood diode and 0E&. 4reen 0E& 3== and -ed 0E& 3;: &iode or 0E& bad 'hange the direction of /robes. f the 4reen 0E& 3; diode or 0E& is 3pen (. L", -ed and <lac> probes at the leads of 0&4reen 0E& 3; and -ed 0E& 3==. 2as> with hand. 4reen 0E& turns 3==:0&- good 6oltage and 'urrent divider arrangements are the common in electronic circuits. <efore selecting the value of resistors% it is necessary to calculate the voltage and current from the output of a resistor chain. 1o that the circuit will function properly. Here is a simple but useful tip to calculate the voltage and current from resistor chains. 8oltage divider <y selecting appropriate values of resistors in the divider% it is easy to obtain a fraction of the input voltage. 1ee the voltage divider diagram. The value of the output voltage 6 3ut from the divider -1:-2 will be 8 $ut : 8 In 3 ,) < ,1;,) 1uppose we need 5 volts output from a 1# volt power supply.Then we should use the value of -1 twice that of -2. 6alue of 2F for -1 and 1F for -2 will do the tric> 8 $ut : 8 in 3 ,)<,1;,) : 15 I 1000 <)000;1000 : 5 8olt f the power supply is 12 volts% you will get * 6olts from the same divider. f we use 2++ ohms for -1 and 1++ ohms for -2% same output voltage will be obtained% but current will be more.

8oltage and Current divider

Current divider <y selecting appropriate values of resistors in the divider% it is easy to obtain reAuired output current from the divider. I $ut : I In 3 ,1<,1;,) 1uppose you need a current of 5 mA from a 1# m" input current% you should select the value of -2 twice that of -1. f you select 1 3hm for -1 and 2 3hms for -2% then the output current will be # m" I $ut : 15mA 3,1<,1;,) : 5 mA f you use 1+ 3hms for -1 and 2+ 3hms for -2% same output current of # m" will be produced but increased voltage drop will be the result.

Volta!e di&ider on Bread*oard

This simple circuit tells you about the status of phone such as 0ine 3F% &ialing and 'all attended. t also has a loc> facility to bloc> outgoing calls >eeping the incoming calls as usual. This prevents misuse of telephone. The circuit uses only a few components to do all these 5obs.

The circuit is dire tly onne ted to the telephone lines and no po*er supply is needed. n the $n 1oo# state% the telephone lines have around 47 volts which reduces to 1) volts in $.. 1oo# state. 2ore over the line polarity changes during dialing and two way speech. 'apacitors '1 reduce the line voltage to a safer level for the operation of 0E&s. $hen the phone is 3ff Hoo>% ,ed L&" lights to indicate that the lines are $'. $hen a call is dialed% ,ed L&" blin#s to indicate the dialing status. $hen the remote person attends the call% %reen L&" lights indicating that the all is attended.

5elephone Status Indi ator Cir uit diagram

" simple 5oggle s*it h is provided as Lo #. t can be replaced with an electrical loc> with >ey. $hen the switch is in 3ff position% outgoing calls will be bloc>ed but the telephone receives incoming calls as usual.

+lectrical Loc,

1ee how an e!cellent electronic device is misusing when it is popular. There is no electronics content in this article% still it is related to an electronic device. 2obile /hone is a -eal =riend but ZZ. inconsiderate% annoying% discourteous in public places if it is misused. 0i>e millions of others% you may be the victim of cell phone abuse. +hat is ell phone abuseR Imagine Z.. Eou are in a public place trying to concentrate on something or in serious discussion with your friend or en5oying a peaceful moment. " stranger # to 1+ feet away starts tal>ing on his cell phone loudly ZZZZ Eour concentration brea>s or your conversation ends or your peaceful moment disturbs. ;ow you are a victim of cell phone abuse. f you become the victim of a cell phone abuse% you will develop any one or more symptoms o. ell phone abuse li>eZ 1. nability to concentrate on what you are doing 2. 2ild or severe irritability or annoyance

.. 1ensitivity to stupid ring tones 8pop songs or loud music9 *. nitially thin>ing that the cell phone user is actually tal>ing to you #. $ishing the user would finish the call ,. $ishing the user would leave the place (. $ishing that the battery of that cell phone would die Here are some So ial 2roblems related to 'ell phone misuse Mobile 2hone misuse in public places creates social problems li>e 1. n attention blindness 2. 'aller Hegemony .. 'ognitive load *. "ccidents Inattention blindness ['ell phone use in social situations may result in overload V both physical and mental. [0ocal interaction with the surroundings and remote interaction with the other person demands certain attention: E.g. $hen you tal> in a bus stand or crossing the road. ['ell phone use in public places ma>es the user blind to lo al ues due to cognitive overload. E.g. $hen you use cell phone while wal>ing through the road% you may not see a vehicle coming close to you. ['ell phone use in public places increases the rea tion time to events around the user. E.g. Eou will not get time to move away from a danger. [-educed attention to local situation may disturb others since the user is not attending the social situation. E.g. Eour conversation and body language may be annoying to others. [Dse of 2obile phones in gatherings% meetings% entertainment places etc disturb others through inattention blindness Caller 1egemony ['aller Hegemony is the asymmetri relationship between the caller and answerer. [The alarming ring tone may demand higher attention to the phone rather than the local settings. f you use cell phones in busy areas% trains or buses% the sudden ring tone may alter your attention or the message from the caller may cause a disturbed feeling. This will leads to inattention blindness. This will not be the condition% if you use a land phone. Cognitive load 2obile phone use in public places ma>es the user overloaded and become unaware of the details of communicative behavior of co: located individuals as well as other relevant features of the social situation. It is advised that do not use ell phones *hile driving a vehi le or operating a ma hinery or rossing the road. A idents [2obile phone use while driving may cause accidents due to inattention blindness and ognitive load ['ell phone conversation distra ts the driverGs attention% in rease rea tion time% and reduce visual .ield attention ['ognitive load rises above visual sensation and diverts attention.

[2emory of visual inputs and -esponse will drastically reduce if the cognitive load increases when using cell phone along with driving. [The same negative effects may also happen if the driver uses a hands .ree phone. E.g. f the actual distance between two vehicles is # meters% due to cognitive load% the driver may feel that% it is 1+ meters. This is the reason for the accidents% if cell phone is used while driving a vehicle.

0oth are dangerous

$ther so ial problems in lude &9*asteL Cyber rime et

+-.aste

3bsolete cell phones are becoming one of the important sources of ele troni *aste. &ue to the fast development of mobile technology% new versions of mobile phones are coming and people buy them and discard the old one. The dis arded ell phones become a source of environmental pollution if they are not recycled. There are to!ic chemicals li>e% lead% @inc% mercury etc in the electronic components of mobile phones. The brominated .lame retardants used in computers and mobile phones are to!ic if enters into the body. f these to!ic chemicals accumulate% they leach into the water bodies and finally get into the body of animals including human beings through drin>ing water. /revention of e9 *aste and promotion of %reen ele troni s is a new challenge in the field of electronics. Cyber rime

$ith the increased use of camera phones and 2ultimedia facilities and blue tooth technology% mobile phone related yber rime incidents are increasing. 'ybercrime includes traditional activities such as fraud% theft or forgery% whenever a telecommunication system is involved. The word 'yber is derived from the 4ree> word 'ubernetes meaning 1teersman . t is used in the terms cyberse!% cybernetics% cyberspace% cyberpun>% cyber homes and cyber hate etc. t is used in the computer or electronic conte!t to denote control of the thing represented by the word it precedes 2sy hologi al problems 3ver use of 'ell phones may cause two ;ew generation /sychological problems. !o9Mo phobia >!oMobile phobiaB $hen we run out of credit or battery% lose of phone or are in an area with no reception% being phoneless can bring a pani symptom referred to as !oMo 2hobia or !o Mobile phobia. To overcome ;o2o phobia% two methods are suggested. 3ne is to >eep the battery in top condition and the credit sufficient. "nother method is% deliberately avoid mobile phone for few hours and then few days. Then you will feel that it is not an important thing. ,ing3iety9 ,ingtone an3iety This is an an3iety symptom related to the over use of mobile phone% a form of addiction. ,ing3iety refers to the sensation and .alse belie. that the mobile phone is ringing or vibrating. The term is also used to e!plain the condition in which a person freAuently ta>es the cell phone to see whether there is any a mis call or messages. 'ell phone abuse is a worldwide epidemic which is now affecting millions of men% women and children especially teen age students To the ell phone abusers we say ZZZZ.. Consider ell phone as a ommuni ation devi e and not as an entertainment devi e or as a status symbol. 5ry a little Cell phone ourtesyT. and do not burden others *ith the pseudo so ial behavior. " mobile phone is an electronic device used for mobile telecommunications over a cellular networ> of speciali@ed base stations >nown as cell sites. " cell phone offers full &uple! 'ommunication and transfer the lin> when the user moves from one cell to another. "s the phone user moves from one cell area to another% the system automatically commands the mobile phone and a cell site with a stronger signal% to switch on to a new freAuency in order to >eep the lin>. 2obile phone is primarily designed for 6oice communication. n addition to the standard voi e .un tionL new generation mobile phones support many additional services% and accessories% such as 121 for te!t messaging% email% pac>et switching for access to the nternet% gaming% <luetooth% camera with video recorder and 221 for sending and receiving photos and video% 2/. player% radio and 4/1. Signal 6reKuen y in Cell 2hone The cellular system is the division of an area into small ells. This allows e!tensive freAuency reuse across that area% so that many people can use cell phones simultaneously. Cellular net*or#s has a number of advantages li>e increased capacity% reduced power usage% larger coverage area% reduced interference from other signals etc. 6"MA and C"MA Systems 6reKuen y "ivision Multiple A ess 8=&2"9 and Code "ivision Multiple A ess 8'&2"9 were developed to distinguish signals from several different transmitters. n =&2"% the transmitting and receiving freAuencies used in each cell are different from the freAuencies used in the neighboring cells. The principle of '&2" is more comple! and the distributed transceivers can select one cell and listen to it. 3ther methods include 2olariJation "ivision Multiple A ess 8/&2"9 and 5ime "ivision Multiple A ess 8T&2"9. Time division multiple access is used in combination with either =&2" or '&2" to give multiple channels within the coverage area of a single cell.

Codes in the Mobile 2hone 2obile phones have special codes associated with them. These include 1. &le troni Serial !umber >&S!B :DniAue .2:bit number programmed in the phone 2. Mobile Identi.i ation !umber >MI!B : 1+ digit number derived from the phoneGs number. .. System Identi.i ation Code >SI"B V uniAue # digit number that is assigned to each carrier by the =''. E1; is a permanent part of the phone while 2 ; and 1 & codes are programmed in the phone when a service plan is selected and activated. 2obile phone is a "uple3 devi e. $hen we use one freAuency for tal>ing% a second separate freAuency is used for listening. 1o that both the people on the call can tal> at once. The 2obile phone can communicate on 1L664 hannels or more. The 2obile phones operate within the cells% so that it is easy to switch on to different cells as they move around. " person using a cell phone can drive hundreds of >ilometers and can maintain a conversation during the entire time because of the cellular approach. A tivation o. SIM Card SIM ard 81ubscriber dentification 2odule 81 29 9 is a type of Smart ard used in mobile phone. The 1 2 is a detachable smart card containing the userGs subscription information and phone boo>. This allows the user to retain his or her information even after switching off the handset. "lternatively% the user can also change service providers while retaining the handset simply by changing the 1 2.1 2 card 1ecurely stores the service subscriber >ey having 1# digits. The digits of the >ey are : 1.=irst . digits V 2obile country code 2.1econd 2 digits V 2obile networ> code ..Third 1+ digits V 2obile station identification number

Subs riber Identi.i ation Module SIM

$hen the 2obile phone is used for the .irst time% it sends a number called International Mobile Subs riber Identity H IMSI present in the 1 2 card to the networ>% which loo>s it up in a database to ensure the card is registered. f the 21 is recogni@ed% the networ> creates another number called a 5emporary Mobile Subs riber Identity 8T21 9% which is encrypted and sent bac> to the phone. n all subseAuent calls% the phone identifies itself by broadcasting the 5MSI. +hat happens *hen *e ma#e a allR 1. $hen we switch on the mobile phone% it tries for an SI" on the 'ontrol channel. The Control hannel is a spe ial .reKuen y that the phone and base station use to tal> to one another. f the 2obile phone finds difficulty to get lin> with the control channel% it displays a Eno servi eF message.

2. f the 2obile phone gets the 1 &% it compares the 1 & with the 1 & programmed in the phone. f both 1 & match% the phone identifies that the cell it is communicating is the part of its home system. .. The phone also transmits a registration reAuest along with the 1 & and the 2T13 >eeps trac> of your phoneGs location in a database. 2T13 >nows in which cell you are when it wants to ring the phone. *. The 2T13 then gets the signal% it tries to find the phone. The 2T13 loo>s in its database to find the cell in which the phone is present. The 2T13 then pic>s a freAuency pair to ta>e the call. #. The 2T13 communicates with the 2obile phone over the control channel to tell it what freAuencies to use. 3nce the 2obile phone and the tower switch on those freAuencies% the call is connected. ,. $hen the 2obile phone move toward the edge of the cell% the cellGs base station will note that the signal strength is diminishing. "t the same time% the base station in the cell in which the phone is moving will be able to see the phoneGs signal strength increasing. (. The two base stations coordinate themselves through the 2T13. "t some point% the 2obile phone gets a signal on a control channel and directs it to change freAuencies. This will switch the phone to the new cell.

Mo*ile /et0or,

5he %SM System %lobal System .or Mobile Communi ations is the standard for mobile telephone systems in the world. n 412% the signaling and speech channels are digital% therefore 412 is considered a )% 81econd 4eneration9 system. This helps wide:spread implementation of data communication applications. There are five different cell si@es in a 412 networ> These are macro% micro% pico% femto and umbrella cells. 2acro cells are cells where the base station antenna is installed on a mast above average roof top level. 2icro cells are cells whose antenna height is under average roof top level. /ico cells are small cells whose coverage diameter is a few do@en metres. These are mainly used in indoors applications. =emto cells are cells designed for use in residential or small business environments and connect to the service providerGs networ> via a broadband internet connection. Dmbrella cells are used to cover shadowed regions of smaller cells and fill in gaps in coverage between those cells.Hori@ontal radius of the cell varies depending on the antenna height% antenna gain and propagation conditions. 2a!imum distance the %SM supports is .# >ilometers. 2ost 24 412 networ>s operate in the =00 M1J or 1700 M1J bands while .4 412 in the 21++ 2H@ freAuency band. 5ime Sharing 5ime "ivision Multiple3ing techniAue is used to share eight full:rate or si!teen half:rate speech channels per radio freAuency channel. There are eight radio time slots grouped into a T&2" frame.

Mobile !et*or# 2obile phone converts voice% te!t% multi:media messages or data calls into -adio =reAuencies 8-=9. 2obile phone base stations transmit and receive these -= signals and connect callers to other phones and other networ>s. 2obile phone networ> is divided into thousands of overlapping% individual geographic areas or XcellsG% each with a base station. The si@e of a cell depends on the area of coverage and the number of calls that are made in that area. The smallest cells are in crowded urban areas with large buildings and heavy population density% while the biggest cells are in rural areas% where people are dispersed. There are two types of channels used in 412 . These are Control hannels and 5ra..i Control hannels These are responsible for house#eeping tas#s such as telling the mobile when a call is coming in and which freAuency to use. To ensure this handover wor>s% the phone constantly monitors the broadcast control channel of up to 1, neighboring cells. n normal operation% phones continually ad5ust the power of the radio waves they send out to be the minimum needed for the base station to receive a clear signal. f a phone moves far away from its base station and if the signal is wea>% the networ> consults the list and triggers a handover to a neighboring cell with best signal. 5ra..i hannels hannels.

t is used to arry alls or other data from the mobile phone to the base station and vice versa. n the Traffic channel% voice or te!t data is carried in bursts. Each burst comprises two consecutive strings of bits 8a series of signals representing 1s and +s9% each 5@ bits long. ,ange The range within which mobile devices can connect is not a fi!ed figure. t depends on a number of factors li>e the freAuency of signal in use% the transmitterGs rated power% the transmitterGs si@e etc.

Inside the Mobile phone

2obile phone is a sophisticated device using 12& components% 2icroprocessor% =lash memory etc. n addition to the 'ircuit board% 2obile phone also has "ntenna% 0iAuid 'rystal &isplay80'&9 %Feyboard % 2icrophone % 1pea>er and <attery. <elow is the 0lo # diagram of 2obile phone

The circuit board is the heart of the 2obile phone. t has chips li>e Analog9to9"igital and "igital9to9Analog conversion chips that translate the outgoing audio signal from analog to digital and the incoming signal from digital bac> to analog.=ollowing are the Chips present in 2obile phone. 1. "igital signal pro essor t is generally rated as having *+ 2 /1 8millions of instructions per second9 to conduct calculations of signal manipulation at high speed. This chip deals with both compression and decompression of the signals. 2. Mi ropro essor t handles all the house#eeping tas#s for the >eyboard and display. t also deals with command and control signaling with the base station% and coordinates the rest of the functions on the board.

Mobile Microprocessor and Flash Memory

..The =lash memory and -32 'hips of the 2obile phone act as a storage lo ation for the phone. These chips store the customi@able options of the cell phone% as well as the entire operating system. The power and radio freAuency sections of the phone% phone recharging and power management etc are controlled by this chip. t also controls several hundred 6M hannels. The -= amplifiers focus on signals that go in and out of the phoneGs antennae. Mobile 2hone Maintenan e 2obile phone is a deli ate devi e and needs care for its proper functioning. Here are the ommon measures to >eep the mobile phone in good condition. 1. &o not >eep 2obile phone in wet area or use it with wet hands. 2oisture can cause non:repairable internal corrosion of parts. 2. &o not drop the phone or damage the connection points. .. &o not over stress the phone. t may damage the display. *. &o not >eep the phone near heat generating devices. High temperature in a car can damage its electronics. #. &o not over charge the battery. 'harge the battery only its charge status goes below #+ percent. ,. /revent Cloning. " phone is EClonedF when someone steals its & number and is able to ma>e fraudulent calls on the ownerGs account. $hen the phone ma>es a call% it transmits the E1; and 2 ;: a uniAue tag: for your phone to the networ> at the beginning of the call. $hen the phone transmits its 2 ;/E1; pair% it is possible to capture the E1;:2 ; pair. Dsing a 1canner device it is easy to modify another phone so that it contains your 2 ;:E1; tags. This allows the person to ma>e calls on your account. 'loning may also occurs when the phone is repaired in an unauthori@ed service centre. t is possible to copy the data including images and video present in the phone. This shadow alarm circuit can sense a moving shadow in a confined area. t can be used to protect things from theft. $hen somebody approaches the unit% it will give a loud alarm to abort the attempt of theft. The circuit uses the light sensing property of the /hoto diode. The circuit uses the light sensing property of the 2I! 2hotodiode. The p:n 5unction of the photo diode gives light current when it is forward biased. '1 is designed as a voltage omparator. ts non inverting input is connected to a potential divider -1 and 6-. <y ad5usting 6-% input current to pin. can be set to a reference level. The inverting input of '1 is connected to a photo diode. ' '".1.+ is a 15 M1J 0iM$S 3perational amplifier with 231=ET inputs and bipolar output. The inputs contain 231=ET transistors to provide very high input impedance and very low input current as low as 1+p". t has high speed of performance and suitable for low input current applications.

'".1.+" and '".1.+ are op amps that combine the advantage of both '231 and bipolar transistors. 4ate:protected /: 'hannel 231=ET 8/2319 transistors are used in the input circuit to provide very:high:input impedance% very:low:input current and e!ceptional speed performance. The use of /231 transistors in the input stage results in common:mode input: voltage capability down to +.#6 below the negative:supply terminal% an important attribute in single:supply applications. " '231 transistor:pair% capable of swinging the output voltage to within 1+m6 of either supply:voltage terminal 8at very high values of load impedance9% is employed as the output circuit. The '".1.+ 1eries circuits operate at supply voltages ranging from #6 to 1,6% They can be phase compensated with a single e!ternal capacitor% and have terminals for ad5ustment of offset voltage for application reAuiring offset:null capability. Terminal provisions are also made to permit strobing of the output stage. The '".1.+" offers superior input characteristics over those of the '".1.+. ;ormally in the light 8 as set by 6-9 /hotodiode gives voltage to pin2 of '1.1ince this voltage is higher than the voltage set by 6- at pin. %output of '1 remains low >eeping 0E& and bu@@er off. $hen a person approaches the photodiode% the shadow causes a reduction in current through the photodiode so that voltage at pin2 decreases below that of pin.. 3utput of '1 then goes high and <u@@er sounds. !ote The circuit triggers when the light intensity changes without a shadow. t is better to >eep the unit in a place where constant light is available "esigned by ".Mohan#umar

Shado* Alarm Cir uit diagram

This circuit generates inaudible ultrasound to ma>e a barrier across the entry. "t the moment the circuit detects a brea> in the sound barrier% it generates a loud alarm indicating the entry of a person. This can be used to protects the entry passages and helps to detect unauthori@ed entry of persons in protected areas. The circuit has two sections. "n /ltrasound transmitter and a re eiver. <oth the circuits use 40 #1J Dltrasound transmitter 8TS9 and ultrasound receiver 8-S9 pair to transmit and receive the ultrasound. The Transmitter section uses the ultrasound transmitter 5I in con5unction with an emitter coupled oscillator comprising T1 and T2% both <' #*). The values of resistors and capacitors determine the oscillation at 40 #1J .reKuen y which e!actly matches with that of the transmitter.

/ltrasound 5ransmitter

1ltraso#nd $ecei&er
The receiver section has a 40 #1J ultrasound re eiver ,I which is connected to the base of T1. t is a common emitter amplifier which amplifies the signals received by the -S. The amplified signal available from the collector of T1 is coupled via '2 to the signal detector stage comprising T2 %&1 and '.. $hen -S continuously receives the ultrasound from TS% T. remains saturated and conducts. This >eeps T* output conduction since its base is at ground potential. $hen the ultrasound beam brea>s% T. turns off and T* conducts. The pie@o bu@@er connected to the collector of T* sounds the alarm. -ed 0E& indicates the standby mode showing that the alarm system is active. ,ange o. the ir uit -ange is a few meters ./roperly align TS and -S on the opposite sides of the entry %so that alarm will be off if the -S receives ultrasound from TS.

"esigned by ".Mohan#umar

40#1J /ltrasound transmitter re eiver pair

0E&s form an inevitable part in the modern electronics as simple indicators to optical communication devices. 0ight Emitting &iodes e!ploit the property of the p:n 5unction to emit photons when it is forward biased. 0E&s are specially made diodes to emit light when a potential is applied to its anode and cathode. The history of 0E& date bac>s to 17+( when Captain 1enry Soseph observed the property of ele tro9 lumines en e in 1ilicon 'arbide. The first 0E& was designed in 17,2. t was developed by 1olonya# wor>ed at 4eneral Electric 84E9. t was a %aAs2 devi e. The first commercial version of 0E& came in the mar>et during 17,+s. 0E& industry became a boom during 17(+s with the introduction of %allium Aluminium Arsenide >%aAlAsB. These 0E&s are high bright types and are many times brighter than the old diffused types. 0lue and +hite L&"s was introduced in 177+ which uses ndium 4allium ;itride 8 n4a;9 as the semiconductor. +hite L&" contains a blue chip with white inorganic /hosphor. $hen blue light stri>es the phosphor% it emits white light. +hat ma#es L&" idealR 0E&s are e!tensively used in electronic circuits because of its advantages over bulbs. 1ome important features that ma>e 0E& ideal in electronic circuits are 1. 0E&s are encapsulated in plastic or resin cases so that they can withstand mechanical shoc>s. 2. Dnli>e bulbs% 0E&s do not generate heat and power loss through heating is practically nil. .. 0E&s reAuire very low current and voltage typically 2+ milliampere current and 1.) volts. 1o these are ideal in battery operated circuits. +hat is inside an L&"R nside the casing of an 0E&% there are two terminal posts connected by a small hip made of 4allium compound. This material e!hibits the property of photon emission when the p:n 5unction is forward biased. &ifferent colours are produced by dopping the base material with other substances.

Inside the Light &mitting "iode

L&"s .ollo* some physi s <rightness is an important aspect of 0E&. Human eye has ma!imum sensitivity to light near 550 nm region of yellow V green part of the visible spectrum. That is why a 4reen 0E& appears brighter than a -ed 0E& even though both use same current. The important parameters of 0E& responsible for its performance are 1. Luminous .lu3 ndicates the light energy radiating from the 0E&. t is measured in terms of Lumen >lm9 or Milli lumen >mlmB 2. Luminous intensity The luminous flu! covering a large area is the luminous intensity. t is measured as Candela > dB or milli andela >m dB <rightness of 0E& is directly related to its luminous intensity. .. Luminous e..i a y t is the emitted light energy relative to the input power. t is measured in terms of lumen per watt 8lm w9. =orward current% forward voltage% 6iewing angle and 1peed of response are the factors affecting the brightness and performance of 0E&s. =orward current 8 = 9 is the current flowing through the 0E& when it is forward biased and it should be restricted to 1+ to .+ milli amperes other wise 0E& will be destroyed. 6iewing angle is the off V a!is angle at which the luminous intensity fall to half its a!ial value. This is why 0E& shows more brightness in full on condition. High bright 0E&s have narrow viewing angle so that light is focused into a beam. =orward voltage 86f9 is the voltage drop across the 0E& when it conducts. The forward voltage drop range from 1.) 6 to 2., 6olts in ordinary 0E&s but in <lue and $hite it will go up to # volts. 1peed of response represents how fast an 0E& is switched on and off. This is an important factor if 0E&s are used in communication systems.

Li!ht +mittin! Diode T2pes

Is L&" reKuires a 0allast resistorR

0E& is always connected to the power supply through a series resistor. This resistor is called asF 0allast resistorF which protects 0E& from damage due to e!cess current. t regulates the forward current to the 0E& to a safer limit and protects it from burning. 6alue of the resistor determines the forward current and hence the brightness of 0E&. The simple eAuation 8s H 8. < I. is used to select the resistor value. 6s represent input voltage of the circuit% 6f the forward voltage drop of 0E& and f% the allowable current through the 0E&. The resulting value will be in 3hms. t is better to restrict the current to a safer limit of 2+ m". 5he table given belo* sho*s the .or*ard voltage drop o. ommon L&"s. -ed 3range Eellow 4reen <lue $hite 1.) 6 2 6 2.1 6 2.2 6 .., 6 .., 6 A typi al L&" an pass G0 H40 mA sa.e urrent through it. ;ormal current to give sufficient brightness to a standard -ed 0E& is 2+ m". <ut this may be *+ m" for <lue and $hite 0E&s. 'urrent limiting ballast resistor protects 0E& from e!cess current that is flowing through it. The value of the ballast resistor should be carefully selected to prevent damage to 0E& and also to get sufficient brightness at 2+ m" current. The following eAuation e!plains how a ballast resistor is selected. ,:8<I $here , is the value of resistor in ohms% 8 is the input voltage to the circuit and I is the allowable current through 0E& in "mps. =or a typical -ed 0E&% the forward voltage drop is 1.7 volts. 1o if the supply voltage is 12 6 86s9 % voltage drop across the 0E& is 1.) 6 8 6f 9 and the allowable current is 2+ m" 8 f 9 then the value of the ballast resistor will be 8s H 8. < I. : 1) H 1.7 < )0 mA : 10.) < 0.0) A : 510 $hms. <ut #1+ ohms resistor is not usually available. Therefore *(+ ohms resistor can be used even though the current through the 0E& slightly increases. <ut is advisable to use 1 F resistor to increase the life of the 0E& even though there will be a slight reduction in the brightness. 6ollo*ing is a ready re #oner .or sele ting limiting resistor .or various versions o. L&"s at di..erent voltages. 1upply voltage -ed 3range Eellow 4reen <lue $hite 12 6 *(+ E *(+E *(+ E *(+ E .7+ E .7+ E 7 6 ..+ E ..+ E ..+ E ..+ E 2(+ E 2(+ E , 6 1)+ E 1)+ E 1)+ E 1)+ E 12+ E 12+ E # 6 1)+ E 1#+ E 1#+ E 1#+ E ,) E ,) E . 6 #, E *( E *( E .. E : : Added olours "n 0E& that can give different colours is useful in some applications. =or e!ample% an 0E& could indicate all systems 3F when it becomes 4reen and faulty if it becomes -ed. 0E&s that can produce two colours are called 0i olour L&"s. " bicolour 0E& encloses two 0E&s 8usually -ed and 4reen9 in a common pac>age. The t*o hips are mounted on two terminal posts so that the anode of one 0E& forms the cathode of the other. <icolour 0E& gives -ed colour if current passes in one direction and turns 4reen when the direction of current is reversed. 5ri olour and multi olour L&"s are also available which have two or more chips enclosed in a common pac>age. The Tricolour 0E& has two anodes for red and green chips and a common cathode. 1o it emits red and green colours depending on the anode that carries current. f both the anodes are connected to positive% both the 0E&s lights and yellow colour is produced. 'ommon anode and separate cathode type 0E&s are also available. <icolour 0E& glows in different colours ranging from green through yellow orange and red based on the current flowing through their anodes by selecting suitable series resistor to restrict anode current. 2ulticolor 0E& contains more than two chips:usually red% green and blue chips:

within a single pac>age. 6lashing type multi olor L&"s are no* available *ith t*o leads. This gives a rainbow colour display which is highly attractive.

Colour.ul Light &mitting "iodes

In.ra ,ed diode H 5he Sour e o. Invisible light I, diodes are *idely used in remote ontrol appli ations. nfrared is actually a normal light with a particular colour which is not sensitive to human eye because its wave length is 7#+ nm% below the visible spectrum. 2any sources li>e sun% bulbs% even the human body emit infra red rays. 1o it is necessary to modulate the emission from - diode to use it in electronic application to prevent false triggering. 2odulation ma>es the signal from - 0E& stand out above the noise. nfra red diodes have a pac>age that is opaAue to visible light but transparent to infra red. - 0E&s are e!tensively used in remote control systems. 2hoto diode H It an see light 5he 2hotodiode generates urrent *hen its p9n 4un tion re eives photons .rom visible or in.rared light. The basic operation of a photo diode relies on the absorption of photons in a semiconductor material. The photo:generated carriers are separated by an applied electric field% and the resulting photocurrent is proportional to the incident light. The velocity at which the carriers move in the depletion region is related to the strength of the electric field across the region and the mobility of carriers. " photon that is absorbed by the semiconductor in the depletion region will cause the formation of an electron: hole. The hole and electron will be transported by the electric field to the edges of the depletion region. 3nce the carriers leave the depletion region they travel to the terminals of the photo diode to form a photo current flowing in the e!ternal circuitry. n most circuits the photo diode is reverse biased% so that charge is carried by e!trinsic charge carriers. The response time o. a photo diode is typi ally )50 nano se onds. LAS&, "iode H 2ointing a beam A laser diode is similar to an ordinary transparent L&" but produ es Laser*ith high intensity. n the laser beam a number of atoms vibrate in such a fashion that all the emitted radiation of a single wave length is in phase with each other. 0aser light is mono hromati and passes in the form of a narrow pencil beam. The beam of typical laser diode is * mm ! +., mm which widens only to 12+ mm at a distance of 1# m. Laser diode an be s*it hed on and o.. at higher .reKuen ies even as high as 1 %1J. 1o it is highly useful in telecommunication systems. 1ince the laser generates heat on hitting the body tissues% it is used in surgery to heal lesions in highly sensitive parts li>e retina% brain etc. 0aser diodes form important components in '& playersto retrieve datas recorded in compact discs.

This is the e!tension of the article Light &mitting "iode 91o* it *or#sR -ecent advances in solid state lighting techniAues allow 0E&s to generate light at levels that is similar to traditional lighting systems. ;ow high power 0E&s are available which have the potential to replace the fluorescent lamps. 0attice 0E& is the new generation 0E& used in display boards and T6 screens. 0ight Emitting &iode is now a part of our life. "s a simple indicator to T6 monitor% 0E& has its significant role in modern electronics. Some L&" 2hysi s The 0E& has a semiconductor chip placed in its center. The semiconductor consists of two regions namely a 2 region that has positive charge carriers and an ! region with negative charge carriers. There are three layers in the chip. "n a tive photon generating material is sandwiched between the / and ; type materials so that photons will be generated when the electrons and holes combines. That is when a potential difference is applied between the / and ; materials through the 0E& terminals% holes from the / layer and electrons from the ; layer move towards the active material where they combine to produce the light though the phenomenon of &le trolumines en e.

Internal vie* o. L&"

1o* L&" gives olorR The color of photon emission depends on the chemical doped in the active material. 'hemicals li>e %alliumL Arseni and 2hosphor are used to give color to the light emission. 1ome of the chemicals used in 0E&s are 1. nfrared 0E&: "luminium gallium arsenide 2. -ed 0E& V "luminium gallium arsenide% 4allium arsenide phosphide% 4allium phosphide .. 4reen 0E& V "luminium gallium phosphide% 4allium nitride *. Eellow 0E& V "luminium gallium phosphide% 4allium arsenide phosphide% 4allium phosphide #. 3range 0E& V "luminium gallium indium phosphide ,. <lue 0E& V ndium gallium nitride% 1ilicon carbide% 1apphire% Cinc selenide (. $hite 0E& V 4allium nitride based indium gallium nitride ). Dltraviolet 0E& V ndium gallium nitride% "luminium gallium nitride. &nergy level o. an L&" The amount of energy in the light generated from an 0E& depends on the voltage applied to the 0E& and the electric charge of the electrons present in the 0E&. The electric charge of an electron is K:91.6U1091= 4oule. The forward voltage of 0E& range from 1.) to .., volts in different types. Therefore the energy of emission can be calculated using the formula &:K8. K is the ele tri harge o. ele tron and 8 is the .or*ard voltage drop o. L&".

+attage o. an L&" 0E& is a current dependent device. 2inimum )0 mA urrent is reAuired to get sufficient brightness. f e!cess current is flowing through the 0E&% its semiconductor heats up and gradually deteriorate. This leads to poor performance and finally 0E& will be destroyed. $attage of the 0E& is the forward voltage multiplied by the forward current. n high current 0E&s% forward current can go up to .#+ m". n these devices the wattage depends on the forward voltage drop ranging from 1.) volts to * volts. Therefore an average of 1 *att is found in high current 0E&s. Light output 0ight from the 0E& depends on the material used and the amount of current flowing through it. Luminous intensity of 0E& depends on the current flowing through it. Typical 0E& reAuires minimum )0 mA urrent to give sufficient brightness. 1ome semiconductor material is affected by temperature. High power -ed and 3range 0E&s suffer light loss at high temperature. The light output and viewing angle of 0E& depends on the semiconductor as well as the epo3y asing of 0E&. 0E& with high luminous intensity will have narrow vie*ing angle because light rays will concentrate into a beam. "i..used L&" will scatter light so that intensity will be less. 1o* many years an L&" liveR 0E&s have more life when compared to ordinary bulb. The life of 0E& depends on the physical parameters and operating current. $hen the light from the 0E& reduces to half% it indicates its degradation. High Auality 0E&s can operate more than 1 la#h hours but ordinary 0E&s will not live more than 50L000 hours. 5he 5ri # o. +hite L&" There is no semiconductor material that emits pure white light. $hite light is a feeling created by the mi!ing of the primary olors : -ed% 4reen and <lue. The white 0E& has an Indium gallium nitride blue hip oated *ith phosphor. This phosphor can emit white light when energi@ed with blue or ultraviolet photons. The blue light emitting hip in the 0E& is coated with a onverter material. $hen this converter material is activated by blue light% it emits yello* light. The mi!ture of blue and yellow light is per eived by the eye as white light. The light from the white 0E& has both pea#s in the blue and yello* region but human eye will identify the pea>s as white light. That is why% some white 0E&s loo>s more blue and some more yellow. This is due to the difference in the pea>s. $hite 0E& reAuires minimum G volts for its operation and its forward current can go up to 40 mA. More te hnologies 0E& technology is advancing and the latest potential devices include High power white 0E&s% 0attice 0E&s% 0E& monitors etc.

3i!h po0er L+D and Lattice L+D

High power 0E&s can give more than 1000 lumens and the device is brighter than a 50 *atts halogen lamp. These 0E&s are widely used to ma>e flood lights% room lights and also in display purpose. Latti e L&" is the new generation 0E& using the photon latti e te hnology. 0arge area chip is constructed using the lattice method. These ultra high power 0E& lattice can operate at an input power as high as 1++ watts. 0attice 0E& are used in sign boards% display devices % 0E& T6 etc.

L&" 58

This &ar> activated 1witch can trigger a relay to operate an "' lamp at 1unset. The lamp remains on till morning and then turns off. This eliminates the need of switching the /orch lamp or <ac>yard lamp daily and also helps to light the premises of the house when the occupants are out of station. The circuit utili@es the light sensing property of 0&- to activate the circuit. The L", 80ight &ependent -esistor9 has very high resistance as high as 10 Meg ohms in dar> which reduces to a few 3hms in bright light. 6ariable resistor 6- and the 0&- forms a potential divider that gives a variable voltage to the inverting input 8pin29 of '1. The non inverting input 8pin.9 of '1 gets a fi!ed voltage 8half supply voltage9 from the 5unction of the potential divider -1 and -2. =eedbac> -esistor -. gives some hysteresis so that the relay turns on when the light level falls to a particular value and does not turns off again until the light level rises above this value. This prevents spurious s*it hing by sensing mild changes in the light level. This also prevents relay clic>ing when the light level gradually falls at sunset. &uring day time 0&- gets sunlight and it conducts. This reduces the voltage at pin2 of '1 .1ince this voltage level is lesser than the voltage at pin.% output of '1 goes high to ma>e the /;/ transistor T1 off. Thus relay remains off during day time. $hen the light level decreases at sunset% 0&- cease to conduct and the voltage level at pin 2 increases above the voltage level at pin..3utput of '1 then turns low and T1 conducts. This activates the relay and the "' load connected to the ;3 8;ormally 3pen9 contacts of the relay turns on. This condition remains until 0&- illuminates in the morning and then the lamp turns off. &iode &1 protects T1 from ba # e.m.. when T1 switches off. 6- can be used to ad5ust the sensitivity of 0&- at the particular light level% say at , pm to turns on the lamp. "esigned by ".Mohan#umar

"ar# a tivated ,elay Cir uit diagram

<'##( D"(*1 ;*++(

"C #A 741 and Transistor BC 557 4 55(

$hat is Electromagnetic -adiation\ $hen you sit in front of a computer or television% you are being bombarded by harmful waves Auietly emanating from it. Even if you turn off the device% your biomagnetic field is still bombarded 2* hours a day% ( days a wee> by the E2 radiations from power cables% electric and electronic instruments. f you use a '-T based computer for many hours% some ill effects li>e eyestrain and fatigue may develop which is >nown as Computer 8ision Syndrome. &le tromagneti *aves are emitted by many natural and man:made sources and play an important part in our lives. $e are warmed by the electromagnetic emissions of the sun and we see using the part of the electromagnetic spectrum that our eyes detect as visible light. Electromagnetic 8E29 radiation is a self:propagating wave in space or through transparent matter. E2 radiation has an electric and magnetic field component which oscillate in phase perpendicular to each other and to the direction of energy propagation. Electromagnetic radiation includes radio waves% microwaves% terahert@ radiation% infrared radiation% visible light% ultraviolet radiation% ! rays and gamma rays. The electromagnetic spectrum e!tends from below the freAuencies of radio waves at the long:wavelength end through gamma radiation at the short wavelength end. Human body is e!posed to different >inds of E2 radiation that includes the natural radioactivity in the earth% cosmic rays from outer space and also man made radiations coming from electric and electronic instruments. &iagnostic S ray machine% television sets% computers% microwave oven% radar devices% laser devices% mobile phones etc% generates radiations of different freAuencies which e!ists in our environment as Qele troni smogV. ?oin the forum discussion about E2 -adiation.

&le tromagneti Spe trum

o#rces o% e5m5%
1. 2o*er Lines "n enormous amount of electricity is created at power generating stations and sent across the country through wires that carry high voltages. "ll power lines radiate electromagnetic fields. 2. 5rans.ormer E2=s near a transformer can be Auite high% but due to its small structure% the field strength diminishes rapidly with distance% as it does from any point source. .. 1ome +iring 0oop wiring in the home may create large e.m.f *. Computers 'omputers are a complicated sub5ect. Fnow this: E2=s radiate from all sides of the computer. Thus% you must not only be concerned with sitting in front of the monitor but also if you are sitting near a computer or if a computer is operating in a nearby room. #. &le tri 0lan#ets and +ater beds Electric blan>ets create a magnetic field that penetrates about ,:( inches into the body. ,. &le tri Clo #s Electric cloc>s have a very high magnetic field% as much as # to 1+ m4 up to three feet away. f you are using a bedside cloc>% you are probably sleeping in an E2= eAuivalent to that of a power line (. 6luores ent Lights =luorescent lights produce much more E2=s than incandescent bulbs. " typical fluorescent lamp has readings of 1,+ to 2++ mg 1 inch away. ). Mi ro*ave $vens and ,adar 2icrowave ovens and radar from military installations and airports emit two types of radiationVmicrowave and E0=. 7. 5elephones and Ans*ering Ma hines Telephones can emit surprisingly strong E2=s% especially from the handset. This is a problem because we hold the telephone so close to our head. 1+. &le tri ,aJors and 1air "ryers Electric ra@ors and hair dryers emit E2=s as high as 2++ to *++ m4.

Computer H 5he sour e o. 2ulsed &le tromagneti ,adiation

$hen you sit in front of a computer or television% you are being bombarded by harmful waves Auietly emanating from it. Even if you turn off the device% your biomagneti .ield is still bombarded 2* hours a day% ( days a wee> by the E2 radiations from power cables% electric and electronic instruments. &3tremely lo* .reKuen ies *aves 8E0=9 e!ist wherever electricity flows and radiate it from every electrical item in your environment .&L6 radiation% the most underrated of the electromagnetic spectrum% deserves evaluation. C,5 >Cathode ,ay 5ubeB based computer monitors use a beam of electrons accelerated by high voltage to generate image on the fluorescent screen. I rays may be produced when electrons are accelerated by high voltage% and stri>es an obstacle in vacuum. n '-T based monitors% the image is formed by shooting a stream of electrons on the bac> of the screen% scanning bac> and forth across the screen% one line at a time. These electrons cause the screen to light up to produce

the picture. 1ome of the energy from the electron beam escapes in the form of radiations at various freAuencies particularly in the 8L6 86ery 0ow =reAuency9 and &L6 8E!tremely 0ow =reAuency9 bands. The spot of electrons which sweeps the screen generates 2&M, >2ulsed &le tromagneti ,adiationB which at close range% disturbs the balance of all living cells. t has been established that% the harmful effects of /E2- e!ists all around the screen% especially in .ront and behind the monitor. The 2&M, persists several hours even after the computer is switched off. 2ost people >now that sitting too close to the screen increases the danger of radiation. <ut many do not reali@e that the sides and rear o. the monitor are more dangerous. This means that even if you stay at two feet safe distance away from the screen% you may get radiation from the sides or rear of another computer terminal. Computer 8ision Syndrome >C8SB f you use a '-T based computer for many hours% some ill effects li>e eyestrain and fatigue may develop which is >nown as Computer 8ision Syndrome. This is mainly due to pulsed electromagnetic radiation and artificial light from the monitor. The same thing happens if you watch T6 for long time. The '-T monitor uses fast beam of electrons that generates pulsed electromagnetic radiation carrying energy. "t close range% this energy disturbs the metabolism and electrical activities of living cells. "rtificial fluorescent light from the monitor is the form of fractioned light which leaves out many segments of the spectral range. =lic>ering of the screen is also dangerous since the flic>ering rate is higher than the X6li #er96usionV rate of the human eye. '61 is also caused due to bad contrast or e!cessively or poorly illuminated screen. <ac>ground illumination% posture% positioning of the monitor% ocular conditions li>e dry eyes and uncorrected refractive errors etc% increases the ris> of '61. 'lose watching reduces the muscle movements of the eyes and causes strain and fatigue. To reduce the effects of '61% many safety measures are recommended. The first and most important rule is to >eep a safe distance of 1* inches from the screen although 2* inches preferred. 2ore than 2* inches distance is necessary from the sides and rear of a near by monitor. t is important to note that 0aptop computers using LiKuid Crystal "isplay >LC"B are completely safe since there is no S ray emission from the screen.

Ways to protect from harmful radiations

1everal problems have been observed in people who spend more than four hours a day in close pro3imity to an unprote ted video terminal that uses a '-T based monitor. 1tress% headaches% irritability% insomnia% eye strain% abnormal general fatigue% decrease in natural immunity% hormonal disturbances% disorders in the menstrual cycle are some of the ill effects of radiations. Even more disturbing fact is that% e!posure to radiation for long periods reduces spermatogenesis as observed in e!perimental animals. "s the principle of precaution says E6a ed *ith the ris# o. serious and irreversible damageL *e annot *ait until *e have all the s ienti.i eviden es be.ore ta#ing pre autionary measuresF. EAbsen e o. ertainty must not delay a tionF. Then what can we do\ +e an do something to protect ourselves. 1.&onGt sleep under an electric blan>et or on a water bed. f you insist on using these% unplug them before going to bed 8donGt 5ust turn it off9. Even though there is no magnetic field when they are turned off% there may still be a high electric field. 2.&onGt sit too close to your T6 set. &istance yourself at least , feet away. ..-earrange your office and home area so that you are not e!posed to E2=s from the sides/bac>s of electric appliances and computers. n the home% it is best that all ma5or electrical appliances% such as computers% T6s% refrigerators etc% be placed up against outside walls. That way you are not creating an E2= field in the ad5oining room. *.&onGt sit too close to your computer. 'omputer monitors vary greatly in the strength of their E2=s% so you should chec> yours with a meter.

#.&onGt stand close to your microwave oven. 2ove all electrical appliances at least , feet from your bed. Eliminate wires running under your bed. Eliminate dimmers and .:way switches. ,.Dnplug all electrical devices which are not using. (.4et rid of microwave oven. t uses heat generating radiations for coo>ing. f the appliance is not well protected% microwaves will lea> out. )."void using watches with radium dial. 7.-emove computer and T6 from bedroom. &uring sleep% normal deto!ification process ta>es place in the liver which may be bloc>ed by the electromagnetic stress. Electromagnetic radiations from wiring cables% '-T monitors% 2obile phones etc% impinge on the pineal gland of brain suppressing its melatonin hormone. This hormone is important to regulate our biological cycles including sleep. 1+.&o not use computers or T6 in childrenGs room. 'hildren are more susceptible to the harmful effects of E2=s 11.&o not >eep mobile phones close to you while sleeping. ts emissions can alter your sleep physiology. 12.&o not give mobile phones to children. 0ight your table top with this cool $hite 0E& 0amp. t is powered from the D1< port and is ideal to ta>e notes while browsing internet. The D1< port can provide # volts and 1++ m" current which is sufficient to light the 0E& lamp. /ower to the circuit is derived from the D1< port using the standard A type plug. To give continuous regulated power% Cener regulation is employed. -esistor -1 restricts base current to T1 so that output will be current regulated. 1ince $hite 0E& reAuires minimum G.6 voltsL *.( volt Cener is used to provide constant *.( volts to 0E&s. -esistor -2 restricts 0E& current to around 2+ m"% so that they will not be damaged. 'onnect the power lines to D1< plug observing correct polarity. Dse a re.le tor for 0E&s to get ma!imum illumination "esigned by ".Mohan#umar

/S0 ,eading Lamp Cir uit diagram

Pin o#t o% L 1''

Here is a &' adapter to charge 2obile phone or play a 2usic system using the power from car battery. The adapter will provide *.( volt regulated &' from the 1..# volt &' power of the car battery. The circuit is basically a "C to "C onverter with voltage and current regulation. The 1..# volt &' from the car battery is given to the collector and base of T1. -1 restricts the base current of T1 to a safer level so that output will be current regulated. T1 is an !2! "arlington transistor so that its high gain gives ma!imum output current. &iode &1 protects the circuit from accidental polarity reversal during connections. <y changing the value of C&% it is possible to get reAuired output voltage. Here the *.( volt @ener gives regulated *.( volts for charging a mobile phone. The adapter can be plugged into the cigarette lighter outlet of the car dash board. t is better to give heat sin>ing to T1 to dissipate heat. "esigned by ".Mohan#umar

Car "C Adapter Cir uit "iagram

T"P 166 Darlin!ton Transistor

;ow you can charge your 2obile /hone from the D1< outlet of /'. This simple circuit can give regulated *.( volts for charging the mobile phone. D1< outlet can give # volts &' and 1++ m" current which is sufficient for the slow charging of mobile phones. 2ost of the 2obile /hone battery is rated G.6 volts at 1000 to 1G00 mAh. These battery pac>s have . ;i2h or 0ithium cells having 1.2 volt rating. Dsually the battery pac> reAuires *.# volts and .++:#++ m" current for fast charging. <ut low current charging is better to increase the efficiency of the battery. The circuit described here provides *.( regulated voltage and sufficient current for the slow charging of the mobile phone. Transistor T1 is used to give the regulated output. "ny medium power ;/; transistor li>e '01++% <&1.7% T /122 can be used. Cener diode C& controls the output voltage and &1 protects the polarity of the output supply. =ront end of the circuit should be connected to a A type /S0 plug. 'onnect a red *ire to pin1 and bla # *ire to pin 4 of the plug for easy polarity identification. 'onnect the output to a suitable charger pin to connect it with the mobile phone. "fter assembling the circuit% insert the D1< plug into the soc>et and measure the output from the circuit. f the output is 3F and polarity is correct% connect it with the mobile phone. !ote( f the polarity is incorrect% it will destroy the mobile battery. 1o ta>e e!treme care. "esigned by ".Mohan#umar

/S0 Mobile Charger Cir uit "iagram

&o you want to feel the an!iety symptoms or get rid of your guests\ This circuit can be helpful when you want to get rid of your guests 8visitors9 or feel yourself how an!iety does it feel li>e. t is a freAuency generator that generate a 1* Hert@ hum that cannot be heard but will produce a strong an!iety feeling. n order to produce the restlessness you must connect this circuit to an audio amplifier in order to obtain enough sound pressure in the room to get the full impact. Eou can use the *(F potentiometer to ad5ust the output level on out 2. "onVt use this an3iety symptoms generator .or a long period o. time be ause the long9term e..e ts have not been tested.

An3iety Symptoms %enerator Cir uit "iagram

This 'upboard lights circuit is an automatic $hite 0E& lamp used to illuminate the interior of cupboard to search things. The lamp automatically turns on when the door of the cupboard opens and stays on for three minutes then turns off. The circuit uses the popular timer ' !& 555 for the time delay. 'omponents -1 and '2 gives three minutes time delay during which the lamp remains on. /ower to the circuit is obtained from a 7 volt //. battery. " magneti reed s*it h is used for the automatic operation of the circuit. The ;ormally closed 8;'9 contacts of the reed switch brea> when the magnet is close to it if the door is closed. $hen the door opens% magnet move away and the contacts of reed switch closes and the circuit gets power. 1ince the trigger pin 2 of timer is grounded% timer triggers and its output become high to light the white 0E& lamp. =i! the reed switch and circuit in the frame of the cupboard and magnet in the door so as to >eep them close when the door is closed. "esigned by ".Mohan#umar

Cupboard Light Cir uit diagram

### datasheet

"C /+ 555 and $eed 0itch

2in onne tions o. IC 555

This /' fan controller circuit is designed with discrete components and is used to control 12 6 fans that have a current consumption lower than 2++ m". $ith the components values presented in the circuit diagram% the voltage wonGt drop below ( 6. f the fan wonGt start at 2#+' then temporarily replace the temperature sensor FTE1+ with a 1.) >P resistor and reduce the value of -(. f the /' fan has a speed too high then increase the -( value. T1 and T2 transistors compare the fi!ed potentional from -.:-* common point with the temperature dependent potentional of -1:-2 common point. t may be useful to connect a 2# >P potentiometer instead of -2 and to ad5ust it until the /' fan is at the correct speed and to measure its resistance and then replace it with a fi! resistor with the same value.

2C 6an Controller Cir uit "iagram

/lace the temperature sensor in the warm air of the fan. $hen the /' is connected the speed rotation of the fan will be pretty high because of '1 but will decrease at a minimum value. 2easure with a thermometer the air temperature close to the sensor. +hen the temperature rea hes G50C the p .an ontroller ir uit *ill start to *or#. f this wonGt happen modify the value of -2 or ad5ust a potentiometer placed instead of -2. $hen the temperature increases so will the rotation speed of the /' fan. The ma!imum speed will be lower than the one obtained without the control circuit. This laser door alarm is based on the interruption of 0aser beam. " low cost 0aser pointer is used as the source of light beam. $hen somebody brea>s the laser path% the alarm will be generated for few seconds. The laser door alarm circuit has two sections. The laser transmitter is a laser pointer readily available. t should be powered with . volt &' supply and fi!ed on one side of the door frame. The receiver has a /hototransistor at the front end. 01*=1 ;/; &arlington phototransistor is used as the laser sensor. '1 is used as a voltage comparator with its inverting input tied to a potential divider -2:-.. 1o that the inverting input is >ept at half supply voltage. The non inverting input receives a variable voltage based on the conduction of T1. The receiver should be fi!ed on the opposite door frame and should be properly aligned to the laser beam. ;ormally the laser beam illuminates the face of phototransistor and it conducts. This >eeps the voltage at pin . lower than pin 2 of '1. "s a result% output of comparator remains low. 0E& and <u@@er remain off in this state. $hen a person crosses the door% laser beam brea>s and T1 cease to conduct. 'ollector voltage of T1 rises and voltage at pin . of comparator increases and its output becomes high. This activates 0E& and bu@@er. 'apacitor '1 >eeps the base of T2 high for few seconds even after the output of '1 becomes low again. '2 gives current to the bu@@er for few seconds even after T2 turns off. Caution( This circuit uses harmful laser rays. &o not loo> into the 0aser pointer. t should not be placed in places accessible to children.

Laser "oor Alarm Cir uit "iagram

There are a wide range of applications for light sensitive switches: lighting% entrance door% automatic staircase% automatic opening of doors to the action of a ray of light% alarm systems% etcZ 2any of us are familiar with photosensitive switches made with a single transistor that is controlled by a photoresistor placed between the base and the recharger% depending on what is desired: normal functioning TclosedU or normal TopenU the switch. This configuration allows easy installation more comple!% involving the use of operational amplifiers% especially those of type (*1% which are very cheap. "nother way to optodetect% less >nown% uses a bridge assembly% which operates on the principle that when the current is @ero diagonal a!le% means that the bridge is balanced. This last principle is used in the sensitive switch installation you will be presented ne!t. /hotocell is placed in a bridge circuit and a comparator is used as detector bridge balanced. The comparatorGs output control thyristor through a transistor. n this circuit% protective measures must be ta>en because it is isolated from the networ>.

Light S*it h Cir uit "iagram

/ower supply circuit is ta>en from the bridge rectifier &1Z&* is filtered and stabili@ed by -1% '1% and &#. The bridge circuit is difficult to identify in the given diagram% but it is made of -2 Z.. -*% /1 and photoresist 80&-9. '1 is used in the comparator configuration and power level will be about 1.) 6 when potential entry vice versa 8negative9 e!ceed that of the entry non vice versa. -esistance -# conducts a hysteresis of about 16 to prevent thyristor to oscillate at T1 and threshold lighting. 1witching point of the light sensitive switch may be ad5usted from /1. $ith the potentiometer set the minimum 8minimal resistance9 lamp will light a crepuscular light. f you want more fle!ibility% replace /1 with one that has a value of 1 2P. f desired operation reverse position in the scheme of the photoresistor can be changed with the group /1/-*. 0"1 lamp will be e!tinguished% in this case% after dar>. 1ome practical advice: if you want to use higher power lamps then diodes &1 Z. &* need to be replaced with other type 1;#*+* and thyristor TH1 will be eAuipped with a heat sin>. $ith these changes% the circuit can control currents up to .". 2a!imum gate for TH1 is 2#+ I"% which means that you must use a very sensitive thyristor. t can use any type of photoresistor. -emember precautions to be ta>en due to lac> of isolation mounting over the networ>. t is important that the entire circuit to be protected in a plastic bo!% of any shape% provided with a hole in the upper side% in order to allow to the photoresistance Tto seeU. "ssure that the entry cable and the e!it cable are fi!ed. This precautions will assure you from accidents. &le troni opti al devi es have varied appli ations in telecommunication% military services% medical field and in automated control systems. 1olid state devices li>e sensors% - and laser emitters are widely used in these applications. 3ptoelectronic devices use the energy from the sunlight to activate or inhibit electronic circuits. 'hec> out how they wor> There are two types of optoelectronic devices. These are 2hoto ondu tive devi es and 2hotovoltai devi es. /hotoconductive devices detect variations in light intensity to activate or inhibit electronic circuits. 0&-% /hotodiodes and /hototransistors fall in this category. /hotovoltaic devices on the other hand generate voltage and current by accepting

energy from the sunlight. &epending on the intensity of light% a current will be generated in the p:n 5unction of these devices. 1olar cells and /hotovoltaic cells fall in this category.

2hoto ondu tive devi es

The electrical conductivity of the semi conductive material used in /hotoconductive devices varies according to the intensity of light. Typically these devices have high resistance in dar> and very low resistance in bright light.

Li!ht Dependent $esistor 7 LD$

0&- finds many applications in alarm systems% ob5ect counters etc. 'admium sulphide is used in 0&- as the semi conductor material. 'd1 cells have a light sensitive area that contains small amount of silver% antimony or indium impurities. $hen light stimulates the semiconductor% its conductivity increases followed by an increase in the flow of electron:hole pairs. <esides 'admium sulphide% 0ead sulphide% 'admium selenide etc are also used to ma>e 0&-. n absolute dar>ness% the resistance of 0&- is as high as 1+ 2P while in bright light it reduces to few ohms. The 0&- has a thin film of semiconductor enclosed in a transparent case. 0&- has high dissipation capacity and e!cellent sensitivity in the visible spectrum of light. t can handle many watts and even "' will pass through it without damaging the device.

Photodiodes
These are high impedance devices used in reverse biased mode to increase the performance. /hotodiodes are high speed devices which generate current 8in I"9 when light fall on it. The photodiode has a large p:n 5unction and the photons impinging the 5unction% cause rupturing of covalent bonds in the semiconductor to produce electron:hole pairs. $hen the intensity of illumination increases% additional electron:hole pairs are produced and the flow of current increases.

Phototransistors
/hototransistors are similar to photodiodes but they amplify the current generated by the reverse biased p:n 5unction. /hototransistors are light sensitive duo diode devices with two 5unctions separated by a wide base region. t has an n9p9n 4un tion. The n:p 5unction remains slightly forward biased and the p:n 5unction is slightly reverse biased. $hen light illuminates the n:p 5unction% electron:hole pairs are generated. The electrons then diffuse out of p region while the holes remain in the p region. This forms a positive charge. This increases the forward bias of n:p 5unction and current flow increases. /hototransistors are usually connected in common base mode with the base connection left unconnected. 3nly the collector and emitter are connected in the circuit. There is a transparent window with a focusing lens to pass light into the semiconductor 5unction. "arlington phototransistors are also available with greater sensitivity.

"n%rared Diodes
These are /hotodiodes emit light in the in.rared region which is invisible to eye. The p:n 5unction of - diode is made up of %allium arsenide. There is a recombination 5unction between the p and n type semiconductor. $hen a potential difference is applied between the anode and cathode of - diode% electrons move from the n region and combines with the holes of the p region. -ecombination of electrons and holes ta>es place in the recombination region and photo emission ta>es place in the form of infrared. The rays have a wavelength around =00 nanometers.

Photo&oltaic de&ices- olar Cell

These are photoele tri transdu ers generating electric current by accepting light energy. The photocell has many p9n 4un tions connected in series. 3ne of these 5unctions is very narrow to allow the passage of light energy. $hen sunlight incident on the p:n 5unction% electron:hole pairs are formed. These charge carriers generate current proportional to the incident light energy. The sunlight incident on the semiconductor 5unction of solar cell collides with the valance electrons. This causes formation of charge carriers which cross the p:n 5unction in an opposing manner and create a voltage across the p:n 5unction. "ppro!imately 0.6 volt will be generated from each solar cell.

This simple Mo # 6lasher L&" simulates the indicator of a sophisticated "larm system. t can be placed in doors% gates and vehicles to confuse intruders. The circuit is too simple using a /ni 4un tion transistor as an oscillator. /ni 4un tion transistor >/S5B is an electronic semiconductor device that has only one 4un tion. The D?T has three terminals: an emitter >&B and t*o bases >01 and 0)B. The base is formed by lightly doped n:type bar of silicon. 5*o ohmi onta ts 01 and 0) are attached at its ends. The emitter is of p:type and it is heavily doped. The resistance between <1 and <2% when the emitter is open:circuit is called inter9base resistan e. The 2;2,*, is the most commonly used version of the D?T. /S5 )! )646

/S5 2in Conne tion 90ottom 8ie*

+or#ing o. /S5 The D?T is biased with a positive voltage between the two bases. This causes a potential drop along the length of the device. $hen the emitter voltage is driven appro!imately one diode voltage above the voltage at the point where the / diffusion 8emitter9 is% current will begin to flow from the emitter into the base region. <ecause the base region is very lightly doped% the additional current 8actually charges in the base region9 causes conductivity modulation which reduces the resistance of the portion of the base between the emitter 5unction and the <2 terminal. This reduction in resistance means that the emitter 5unction is more forward biased% and so even more current is in5ected. 3verall% the effect is a negative resistance at the emitter terminal. This is what ma>es the D?T useful% especially in simple oscillator circuits. +or#ing o. Mo # 6lasher L&" D?T 2; 2,*, is used as a simple oscillator with the oscillating components -1 and '2. The 0E& is connected between the base2 8<29 of the D?T and the ground. -esistor -2 restricts current through the D?T as well as 0E&. "t power on% capacitor '2 charges through -1 and when it fully charges% emitter of D?T forward biases and current flows into the base. 0E& then lights. The discharge of '2 is followed by its charging again creating an oscillating cycle so that 0E& flashes. "esigned by ".Mohan#umar

Mo # 6lasher L&" Cir uit "iagram

Here is a simple 0attery Monitor ir uit for a Auic> chec> of 12 volt Lead9A id 0attery. <attery charge should be constantly monitored to increase the life of the battery. $ver harge as well as under harge will reduce the battery life. The terminal voltage of the 0ead "cid battery should be with in the range of 12.# to 1..# volts. f the battery voltage reduces below 1+ volts for long period% battery will not accept any charging current. 1imilarly if the terminal voltage e!ceeds above 1* volts% battery will be destroyed.

The circuit is a Dener ontrolled transistor s*it h lighting three 0E&s -ed% 4reen and Eellow to show battery states li>e Lo*L !ormal and 1igh. $hen the battery voltage is less than 11 volts% Cener diodes C&1 and C&2 cease to conduct and -ed 0E& only lights indicating low battery condition. f the voltage is between 12 volt and 1* volts% Cener diode C&1 forward bias and T1 conducts. The 4reen 0E& connected to the collector of T1 lights indicating normal voltage. f the battery voltage e!ceeds 1# volts% Cener diode C&2 also conducts and T2 forward bias. This lights Eellow 0E& indicating over charge. Thus the following indications can be obtained ,ed Lo* voltage %reen !ormal voltage %reen and Wello* $ver voltage

0attery Monitor Cir uit "iagram

The easiest way to connect computer peripherals is through a /niversal Serial 0us. The D1< is a plug:and:play interface between the /' and the peripherals. The advantage of D1< is that the device can be plugged in or plugged out without the need of restarting the /'. Here e!plains the wor>ing of D1<. D1< is the short form of Dniversal 1erial <us% a standard port that helps to connect computer peripherals li>e scanner% printer% digital camera% flash drive and more to the 'omputer. The D1< standard supports the data transfer at the rate of 12 2bps.

/S0 Spe i.i ation

Two important aspects of D1< are its support apability and total band*idth. D1< is capable of supporting 1)@ /S0 devi es and has a total band*idth o. 1) Mbit per se ond which is eAual to 1.# 2< per second. $or>ing of a 12 2bit 8full speed device9 or a 1.# 2bit 8low speed devices9 depends on the total bandwidth of the D1<.

/S0 Conne tions

Each D1< device uses the standard A type /S0 onne tor to the /S0 host or Hub through A type re epta le. The other end of the D1< cable has series 0 onne tor which is used to plug into the 0 type re epta le

A onne tor is used for the upstream connection towards the host and 0 onne tor for the downward stream to the D1< device. $hen the D1< device is connected to the /'% it activates the host to recogni@e it. The /' detects the D1< device and manages a control flow between the D1< device and computer. /' also manages the data transfer between the D1< device and /'. 3nce detected% the /' sends data to the D1< system software to recogni@e it which then identify the device and assign an address. This address is used to detect the particular D1< device. The software controls the input and output

data between the /' and D1< device. f the software fails to assign the address% /' will not detect the D1< device.

1 B Ca*le
The D1< cable provides four pathways: two po*er ondu tors and two twisted signal ondu tors. The D1< device that uses full speed bandwidth devices must have a twisted pair &L and &: conductors. The data is transferred through the &L and &: connectors while 6bus and 4nd connectors provide power to the D1< device.

1 B .irin! connection
The D1< cable has typically four wires to connect the " type connector -ed L #6 /in 1 $hite &L /in 2 4reen &: /in .

<lac> 4nd /in *

1 B 3#*
The /S0 1ub is used to connect many devices to the /' using a single D1< connector. The D1< Hub can detect the attachment or detachment of devices in each port of the Hub. The Hub also distributes power to all the devices connected to it. Hub also detects low speed and full speed devices.

The /S0 1ub has two components: " 1ub ontroller and a 1ub repeater. The Hub controller enables the Hub to communicate with the /' for configuration and control of devices attached to it. The Hub repeater has hardware support for reset% suspend and resume signals.

1 B Flash Dri&e
The most commonly used D1< device is the 6lash drive the commonly called /en drive. t is a mass storage device capable of functioning li>e a hard dis> of computer

This +hite L&" lamp illuminates your porch with cool white light. The circuit is too simple and energy saving design. ts current consumption is practically nil but can provide light li>e a 2+ watt '=0 lamp. t is directly connected to "' lines to eliminate a bul> transformer /ltra +hite L&" Lamps are now replacing the fluorescent lamps due to its energy saving property and simplicity of design. $hite 0E& emits 1000 to 6000 MC" light and easily wor>s on . volts at 2+ m". $hite 0E&s are available as spot light and diffuse type versions. &ifferent si@es li>e .mm% #mm and 1+ mm varieties are now common. High watt single white 0E& is also available. $hite 0E&s was introduced in 177+ which uses Indium %allium !itride >In%a!B as the semiconductor. $hite 0E& contains a blue chip with white inorganic /hosphor. $hen blue light stri>es the phosphor% it emits white light. The circuit uses capacitive reactance to drop high volt "' to low volt "'. This reduces power loss due to heat dissipation. The value of the "' capacitor can be calculated using the formula I : 1< >) X . CB where% Sc is the reactance in ohms% ' the capacitance in farads and f the mains freAuency. I : 8rms < I where 6rms is the input voltage and is the current flowing through 0E&s. The low volt "' 8around 1++ volts9 dropped by '1 is then rectified by a full wave rectifier formed of &1:&*. 'apacitor '2 act as a ripple remover and buffer. Cener diode C& regulates &' to ,7 volts and prevents e!cess reverse voltage across the 0E&s during the negative half cycles.-1 is a must in the circuit to bleed the stored current from '1 when the circuit in unplugged. '1 can store more than *++ volts for many days if -1 is not connected. This can give a lethal shoc>.-2 reduces the inrush current.2+ 0E&s are connected as a string to obtain luminance eAual to 2+$ '=0. Enclose the circuit in a shoc> proof case. f a reflector is provided behind the 0E&s% it will give a flood light appearance. Important- &o not touch any points or trouble shoot when the circuit is connected to mains. Caution( 5his is an AC po*ered ir uit and an give .atal sho # i. handled arelessly. "o not onstru t the ir uit unless you are ompetent to handle high volt ir uits. "esigned by ".Mohan#umar

L&" 6lood Lamp Cir uit "iagram

This circuit can cool your heat generating electronic devices by operating a &' fan when the temperature in its vicinity increases above the preset level. ts operation is fully automatic and turns off when the temperature returns normal. t uses a small 126 &' brush less fan used in computers The circuit e!ploits the property of 5hermistor to operate the &' =an. Thermistor is a >ind of temperature dependent resistor and its resistance varies depending on the temperature in its vicinity. There are two types of Thermistors: ;T' and /T'. ;egative temperature coefficient 8;T'9 Thermistor decreases its resistance when the temperature increases while /ositive temperature coefficient 8/T'9 increases its resistance when the temperature increases. Thermistors are bead li>e resistors available from 1++ ohms to 1+F or more values. Here a *.(F ;T' Thermistor is used. IC uA @41 is used as a voltage comparator to switch on the &' fan. ts ;6 input 8pin29 gets an ad5ustable voltage through 6- while its ;on: ;6 8pin.9 input gets voltage through a potential divider comprising -1 and the Thermistor. Thus the voltage at pin. depends on the conductivity of the Thermister. $hen the temperature is normal 8as set by 6-9% pin. gets higher voltage than pin2 and ma>es the output of ' high as indicated by -ed 0E&. This high output >eeps T1 off since its base is positive. &' fan remains off in this condition. $hen the temperature increases above the value set by 6-% resistance of Thermister decreases and the voltage at pin. decreases ."s a result% output of ' becomes low to switch on T1. " small brush less &' fan 8one used in computers9 turns on to increase the air circulation. $hen the temperature returns normal% =an automatically turns off. &iode &. is necessary to remove bac> e.m.f when T1 turns off. 4reen 0E& indicates that the =an is operating.

"C 6an Controlled by 5emperature Cir uit "iagram

This add on circuit can be attached to the solar charger to see whether the battery is charging or not. t lights a -ed 0E& to indicate that the battery is not accepting charge. t gives a warning indication if there is any loose connection with the charger and battery. The 1olar charger monitor circuit uses two /;/ transistors T1 and T2 to give a warning indication if there is any loose connection with the charger and battery. f the connection is intact and current is flowing into the battery% diodes &2 and &. forward bias and drops around 1.2 volts. This forward voltage drop across the diodes causes T2 to conducts. The collector current from T2 >eeps the base of T1 high and it remains off. -ed 0E& connected to the emitter of T1 remains off indicating that current is flowing to the battery and the connections are intact. $hen there is any brea> in the connecting cables or any loose contacts in the terminals% no more current passes and &2 and &. reverse biases. This turns off T2 and T1 conducts .0E& lights indicating that battery is not getting charging current.

Solar Charger Monitor Cir uit "iagram

Here is a solar charger circuit to charge 0ead "cid or ;i:'d batteries using solar energy. The circuit harvests solar energy to charge a , volt *.# "h rechargeable battery for various applications. The charger has 6oltage and 'urrent regulation and 3ver voltage cut off facilities.

The circuit uses a 12 volt solar panel and a variable voltage regulator ' 02 .1(. The solar panel consists of solar cells each rated at 1.2 volts. 12 volt &' is available from the panel to charge the battery. 'harging current passes through &1 to the voltage regulator ' 02 .1(. <y ad5usting its "d5ust pin% output voltage and current can be regulated. 6- is placed between the ad5ust pin and ground to provide an output voltage of 7 volts to the battery. -esistor -. -estrict the charging current and diode &2 prevents discharge of current from the battery. Transistor T1 and Cener diode C& act as a cut off switch when the battery is full. ;ormally T1 is off and battery gets charging current. $hen the terminal voltage of the battery rises above ,.) volts% Cener conducts and provides base current to T1. t then turns on grounding the output of 02 .1( to stop charging.

Solar Charger Cir uit "iagram

This fatigue testing circuit is very simple and easy to build and will determine how tired a person is. t has been discovered that the highest light freAuency that a human can detect is negatively influenced by his fatigue. This circuit is based on ### timer that is connected here as an astable multivibrator. ts output is connected to a 0E& that is flashing with a certain freAuency. $ith /1 potentiometer that freAuency can be ad5usted between 2+ and #+ H@. The highest flashing freAuency the humans can detect is somewhere between .+ and *+ flash per second but a test made by us in a early morning produced some Auestions li>e: T$hat 0E&\U.

6atigue 5ester Cir uit "iagram

To ma>e a reliable fatigue test you must ad5ust /1 when you are not tired. 1o% ad5ust /1 untill you 5ust start not seeing the 0E& light. 0eave it li>e that and then power up the circuit when you are tired and you will notice that the 0E& light has gone :9. <ecause of the fatigue tester circuit nature% there is no wonder it has a small current consumption of 5ust 2# m" so you can powered it up from a 7 6 battery. "o not onsider this to be eKual to .atigue testers .ound on the mar#et. This circuit indicates the integrity of wiring connections. t shows all the mains connections V /hase% ;eutral and Earth connections V are intact or not. The circuit is too small and can be housed in a three pin plug case. The circuit is directly connected to mains to monitor the status of the connections. Earth connection is a must in domestic wiring to bleed current to the earth if the metal body of a device is accidentally touched with the phase line. This circuit indicates 1. -ed and 4reen 0E&s 3; /hase% ;eutral and Earth 3F 2. -ed and 4reen 0E&s 3== /hase or ;eutral <rea> / /ower failure .. -ed 0E& 3; /hase and ;eutral 3F .. 4reen 0E& 3== Earth line brea> The circuit gets power supply through '1 and -.. "' 'apacitor '1 reduces the high volt "' to a safer level through capacitive rectance. -esistor -. limits the inrush current and -* gives discharge path for the stored current in '1 when the circuit is unplugged. Cener diode C& regulates the voltage to a safer level to protect T1 when it is off. 6oltage across C& will be a sAuare wave by the wor>ing of '1 and the voltage level depends on the brea>down value of @ener 87 volts9. $hen a potential of 2.+ volt is present between the phase and neutral lines% T1 turns on during the negative half cycle of "' and 4reen 0E& lights indicating that Earth connection is intact. This is because the base of T1 will be biased by the potential difference between the phase line and earth. f the earth connection is not intact% T1 will not get base bias and it remains off. -ed 0E& lights during the positive half cycle of "' due to the potential difference between the phase and neutral lines.

Enclose the circuit in a . pin plug and connect points "% < and ' to the phase% neutral and earth pins respectively. /lug it into the . pin soc>et to test the wiring. +arning The circuit is >ept at mains lethal potential. &o not touch any parts to avoid lethal shoc>. &o not construct this circuit unless you are e!perienced in handling High volt "'. "esigned by ".Mohan#umar

&arth 6ault Indi ation Cir uit "iagram

nstant voltage transients are common in the power lines especially in places where machinery is operating. nductive loads and high power transformers creates transients and spi>es in the mains lines. 1uch voltage fluctuations are dangerous to 12/1 based power supply and 2icrocontrollers. Here is a simple circuit that constantly monitors the power lines and beeps with each voltage fluctuation. The circuit intimates you whether there is any ris> of voltage drops and hi>es in the power supply connected to the 2icrocontrollers and 12/1 based electronic devices. Even a small voltage spi>e as small as 1+ volts in the mains can cause operating errors and data loss in such devices. 12/1 power supply is most vulnerable to such voltage changes in the mains. The circuit is based on the wor>ing of the popular timer ' ###. Here it is used as a short duration monostable with timing elements -1 and '2. /ower to the circuit is derived from a +:12 volt step:down transformer with a bridge 8&1:&*9 for rectification and '1 for smoothing. "ny change in the voltage level in the primary of the transformer will reflect as a corresponding change in its secondary. The trigger pin 2 of '1 is connected to a potential divider -2 and 6-. The trigger threshold voltage of '1 is set by 6- so as to >eep the voltage level at pin 2 slightly higher than the triggering threshold so that output of '1 will be low% if the mains voltage is normal. f the voltage drops% the voltage at pin 2 of ' will be reduced and causes its triggering. <u@@er beeps indicating the transients. f the beeps are freAuent% the electronic devices should be unplugged to save them. "esigned by ".Mohan#umar

8oltage 5ransient Indi ator Cir uit "iagram

Here is a simple logic state indicator to test whether the output of digital ' is in logic 1 or +. The <icolor 0E& lights 4reen when the logic state is 1 and lights -ed when the logic state is +. The circuit uses only a few components and is based on the switching action of bipolar transistor. ;ormally the base of T1 is floating so that it will be off. This will allow T2 to conducts since its base gets bias through -2. The -ed half of the bicolor 0E& lights indicating + logic. $hen the red probe connected to the base of T1 ma>es contact with a high signal output% T1 conducts and 4reen half of bicolor 0E& lights indicating logic 1. "t the same time% T2 turns off and -ed half of bicolor 0E& turns off. f the output is pulsating with alternate cycles% -ed and 4reen 0E&s lights alternately and if the transition is very fast both -ed and 4reen 0E&s lights giving yellow colour. The circuit can also be used as a continuity tester or =use tester.

Logi Stage Indi ator Cir uit "iagram

This dc voltage doubler circuit produces a voltage that is twice its voltage supply. This is useful when a higher voltage level is needed out of a single lower voltage power supply. 1ince the current consumption levels are low in such cases% the circuit can be built with minimal resources. The electronic circuit is basically a sAuare wave generator using the common 02### timer '. t is followed by a final stage made of transistors T1 and T2. The actual doubler circuit is made of &1% &2% '* and '# components. The 555 voltage doubler timer IC wor>s as an astable multivibrator and generates a freAuency of about ).# >H@. The Auare wave output drives the final stage made of T1 and T2. This is how the doubler wor>s: by a low amplitude of the signal% transistor T1 bloc>s while T2 conducts. The minus electrode of the capacitor '* is grounded and charges through &1. <y a high amplitude of the signal% transistor T1 conducts while T2 bloc>s. However% capacitor '* cannot discharge because it is

bloc>ed by &1. The following capacitor '# is therefore charged with a combined voltage from '* and the power supply 8126 input9. 3n standby% the circuit delivers around 2+ volts The ma!imum load must not e!ceed (+ m". The actual output voltage is around 1) volts giving an efficiency rating of .2 K. 3n lower current ratings% the voltage is higher. f a stable voltage lever is desired% a . pin voltage regulator ' can be added at the output. The regulator 'Gs own current consumption must be added to the total current consumption which must not e!ceed (+ m". =or more voltage doublers chec> the related posts bellow.

8oltage "oubler Cir uit S hemati

Here is a circuit that can sense the static electricity level in the atmosphere. t gives 0E& indications for both positive and negative atmosphere charges. The circuit uses a low noise ?=ET input 3pamp T03 (1 to detect the atmospheric charge. The op amp has well matched high voltage ?=ET input device for low input offset voltage. The < =ET technology provides wide bandwidth and fast slew rate with two input bias currents. '1 8T03(19 is designed as a voltage sensor cum signal amplifier. ts ;on ;6 input is connected to the aerial 81 meter plastic wire9 through -2. -1 maintains the input impedance of '1 to ma>e the input sensitivity normal. 6-1 and 6-2 ad5ust the voltage level at the ;6 input of '1. -esistor -. and -* determines the gain of the inverting amplifier and with the shown values it is 1+++. That is% a difference of 1 milli volt at the input gives 1 volt output. 3utput from '1 is used to switch on T1 and T2 at different output states. $hen there is positive charge in the atmosphere% output of '1 becomes high and T1 conducts to light -ed 0E&. f the atmospheric charge is negative% output of '1 remains low and T1 off. This causes T2 to conduct and 4reen 0E& lights. These states of 0E&s change as the atmospheric charge changes. "d5ust 6-1 and 6-2 for 'Gs input sensitivity and 6-. for the threshold level of T1."d5ustments should be done in a sunny day so that atmospheric charge will be around 1++ milli volts. To get precise voltage to a circuit% the simplest and easy way is to use a Cener diode. t uses the reverse brea>down voltage characteristics to maintain a fi!ed voltage across it

The "rt of Cener -egulation &.2ohan >umar Cener diode C& is used to generate a regulated &' output. " Cener diode is designed to operate in the reverse brea>down region. f a silicon diode is reverse biased% a point reached where its reverse current suddenly increases. The voltage at which this occurs is >nown as T"valanche or Cener Tvalue of the diode. Cener diodes are specially made to e!ploit the avalanche effect for use in X-eference voltage Xregulators. " @ener diode can be used to generate a fi!ed voltage by passing a limited current through it using the series resistor. The @ener output voltage is not seriously affected by the resistor and the output remains as a stable reference voltage. <ut the limiting resistor is important% without which the @ener diode will be destroyed. Even if the supply voltage varies% the series resistor will ta>e up any e!cess voltage. The value of the series resistor can be calculated using the formula - O 6in V 6@ / @ $here 6in is the input voltage% 6@ output voltage and @ current through the @ener n most circuits% @ is >ept as low as #m". f the supply voltage is 1)6% the voltage that is to be dropped across -1 to get 126 output is ,volts. f the ma!imum @ener current allowed is 1++ m"% then -1 will pass the ma!imum desired output current plus # m". 1o the value of -1 appears as -1 O 1) V 12 / 1+# m" O , / 1+# ! 1+++ O #( 3hms /ower dissipation /ower rating of the Cener is also an important factor to be considered while selecting the Cener diode. "ccording to the formula / O 6. / is the power in watts% current in "mps and 6% the voltage. 1o the ma!imum power dissipation that can be allowed in a Cener is the Cener voltage multiplied by the current flowing through it. =or e!ample% if a 126 Cener passes 12 6 &' and 1++ m" current% its power dissipation will be 1.2 $atts. 1o a Cener diode rated 1..$ should be used. "s a rule of thumb% a minimum of 1+K of the total current should flow the @ener leaving the rest available to the load. <y increasing the value of the series resistor% it is easy to reduce the current flowing through the @ener but allow a minimum of # to 1+ m" current through the @ener. Then only it will reach the avalanche state to give output voltage. Eou can use a variable resistor in the place of -1so that accurate brea>down voltage can be obtained. <ut use a dummy load 80E& with 1F series resistor9 to fi! the output voltage as desired. "d5ust variable resistor till the 6out is reaching the reAuired output voltage. Here is an ideal 2obile charger using 1.# volt pen cells to charge mobile phone while traveling. t can replenish cell phone battery three or four times in places where "' power is not available. 2ost of the 2obile phone batteries are rated at .., 6/#++ m". " single pen torch cell can provide 1.# volts and 1.# "mps

current. 1o if four pen cells are connected serially% it will form a battery pac> with , volt and 1.# "mps current. $hen power is applied to the circuit through 11% transistor T1 conducts and 4reen 0E& lights. $hen T1 conducts T2 also conducts since its base becomes negative. 'harging current flows from the collector of T1. To reduce the charging voltage to *.( volts% Cener diode C& is used. The output gives 2+ m" current for slow charging. f more current is reAuired for fast charging% reduce the value of -* to *( ohms so that )+ m" current will be available. /oints " and < are used to connect the charger with the mobile phone. Dse suitable pins for this and connect with correct polarity.

Mobile 2hone 5ravel Charger "iagram

f an 0E& pilot lamp is used in battery powered circuits% it will unnecessarily consume power. This circuit lights an 0E& at power on and after one minute it will turns off. The circuit uses a Cener diode and a switching transistor T1 to ma>e an ideal power on indicator. The 0E& indicator turns on when the gadget gets power and gradually turns off after one minute. This save lot of power in battery powered gadgets. $hen the circuit gets power% 0E& turns on since the base of T1 is negative. '1 slowly charges through -1 and when the voltage level in '1 rises above *.( volts% Cener conducts and the base of T1 becomes positive. This ma>es T1 off and 0E& e!tinguishes. The charging time of '1 determines the on time of 0E&. This time can be increased or decreased by changing the value of -1 or '1. '2 helps to turn off 0E& slowly.

2o*er Saving L&" Cir uit "iagram

s is easy to test the polarity of a circuitGs point whether it is positive or negative by using the tester circuit featured here. The tester circuit has a high input impedance 8around 1 megaohms9 to avoid loading the point being tested. n testing sensitive points however% 8inputs of opamps9% the input impedance must be ta>en into consideration. The opamp (*1 is the core of the polarity indicator circuit. ts non:inverting input is used to test the points for polarity. t has a gain of around 1#+ which enables it to test low voltage levels. The test result is displayed through the two 0E&Gs &1 and &2. &1 lights up by positive polarity and &2 lights up by negative polarity. Ta>e note that the pin profile on the diagram is based on the T3:# pac>age profile.

2olarity indi ator ir uit diagram

t is an ideal solution to protect rechargeable batteries from deep discharge. t gives an 0E& indication when the voltage level in the battery drops below #.1 volt. '" .1*+ 3p "mp is used as a comparator with a @ener to fi! voltage in its non inverting input. /reset 6-1 set the voltage level 5ust below #.1 volt at the inverting input. $hen the battery voltage is above #.1 volt% @ener provides regulated #.1 volt to pin. of ' and its output goes high to light 0E&. t indicates that battery is full. f the voltage in the battery drops below #.1 volt% output of ' turns low to switch off 0E&.

0attery Indi ation ir uit diagram

1imple High 'urrent battery charger using raw &' for charging &.2ohan Fumar

$ith this sound activated switch% control by sound may be very useful% not 5ust on a robot but also for a bit of home automation% for e!ample a sound:activated light responding to a >noc> on the door or a hand clap. The light will be automatically switched off after a few seconds. "n alternative use is burglar protection ] if someone wants to open the door or brea> something the light will come on% suggesting that someoneGs at home. The circuit can wor> from any #V12 6&' regulated power supply provided a relay with the suitable coil voltage is used. $hen you first connect the supply voltage to the sound activated switch circuit% the relay will be energised because of the effect of capacitor '2. "llow a few seconds for the relay to be switched off. Eou can increase or decrease the XonG period by changing the value of '2. " higher value results in a longer XonG period% and vice versa. &o not use a value greater than *( W =. <iasing resistor -1 determines to a large e!tent the microphone sensitivity. "n electret microphone usually has one internal =ET inside which reAuires a bias voltage to operate. The optimum bias level for response to sound has to be found by trial and error. "ll relevant electrical safety precautions should be observed when connecting mains powered loads to the relay contacts.

Sound a tivated s*it h ir uit diagram

/rotect your 0oc>er or <riefcase from theft using this poc>et si@ed gadget. t gives a loud police siren to catch attention. The circuit uses a single ' and a few discrete components. t wor>s on the principle of light detection by 0&-. $hen the unit is in dar>% 0&- cease to conduct and the alarm generator does not get power supply and it remains idle. $hen some one tries open the door of the loc>er% '1 charges via 0&-. $hen the voltage in '1 raises to ..1 volts% Cener conducts and gives power to ' D2 .#,1. t is a -32 ' that can generate different tones based on its pin connections. Here a police siren is selected by >eeping pin, floating. -1 determines the oscillation of '. 22+F 8-19 is a must to give correct tone.'1 provides a lag of two minutes% so that the user gets sufficient time to disarm the unit.

Lo #er %uard Cir uit "iagram

" simple -emote tester to chec> all types of -emote hand setsZZ. This simple remote tester can be a good tool to chec> whether a remote hand set is wor>ing or not. t uses the commonly available - sensor T13/ 1(.).The - sensor has a / ; photodiode and an =ET signal amplifier enclosed in an Epo!y case.

The sensor reAuires five volts for its operation and its output is active low. ;ormally its output gives L # volts and goes down to @ero when it receives .) FH@ pulsed - rays. $hen the remote handset is focused on to the sensor and any one button is pressed% bu@@er beeps and 0E& blin>s indicating that the handset is 3F.

,emote 5ester Cir uit "iagram

This Electronic 2ail <o! circuit generates music intimating the arrival of mailZZ.. The circuit uses a high bright $hite 0E& and an 0&- to detect the arrival of mail in the bo!. ' ;E ### is designed as a 1chmitt trigger by shorting its trigger pin 2 and threshold pin ,. $hen the light from the 0E& illuminates the face of 0&-% it conducts ta>ing the pin , of ' low. 3utput pin . then remains low inhibiting the bu@@er. $hen a mail falls between the 0E& and 0&-% light from 0E& will be bloc>ed and the 0&- becomes non conducting. This ma>es the threshold pin of ' high and its output goes high. The high output ma>es bu@@er active and music will be heard. The music stops only when the letter is removed from the bo!. Feep 0E& and 0&- at the opposite sides of the bo!.

Transformerless power supply for low current applications. '1 is the S rated "' capacitor that reduces high volt "'. &1: &* rectifies "' to &' and '2 removes ripples. -1 is the bleeder to remove stored current in "' when power is off. -2 limits inrush current. " Cener can be used in the output to get regulated &'.

5rans.ormer Less 2o*er Supply Cir uit "iagram9 ,evised

Caution - Cir uit is lethal sin e it arries high volt AC. "o not tou h or test *hen onne ted to Mains.&n lose in a sho # proo. ase. " very simple crystal Auart@ oscillator circuit schematic which use a Auart@ for freAuency stability and a good rf tran@istor. Dse a 2:nd or .:rd harmonic crystal % for e!ample if you want 1++2H@ use a #+2H@ or ....2H@ quartz or if you want use a *:th harmonic crystal but the output rf voltage will be lower. The 0 coil has # turns +.)mm ^ % ,mm ^ % 1 mm step% output at first turn from L . Dse '* for fine freAuency ad5ustments. =or a great freAuency stability% this KuartJ os illator ir uit must use a good varicape diode 8you can use bb1.79. Quart@ oscillator circuit components: -1 O #.,F -2 O ...F -. O #,+ -* O .. -# O 1+F -, O 1++F '1 O '2 O 1n= '. O 1+ Z ..p= '* O 1+ V ,+p= trimmer '# O 22p= ', O 12+p= '( O 1++n= & O <<1.7 T O <=177 Q O Y/A,5D C,WS5AL 2:nd% .:rd or *:th harmonic

8#art9 cr2stal oscillator circ#it schematic

This is the simple version of a white 0E& lamp that can be directly powered from mains. t can give ample light even for reading purpose. 'apacitor 'S along with diodes &1 through &* forms the "' step down circuit. 'S reduces high voltage "' from mains to a low voltage "' which is rectified by the diodes &1:&*. 'apacitor '1 removes ripples from "' so that low voltage &' is available to power the 0E&s.'S is the S rated "' capacitor that reduces "' voltage through capacitive rectance property. -esistor -1 is very important to remove the stored voltage from 'S when power is switched off. This prevents lethal shoc>. -esistor -2 limits the inrush current. 2ore 0E&s can be added by reducing the value of -2.1ince the circuit is directly connected to mains% ta>e utmost care to avoid shoc>. ;o components should be touched when it is connected to mains.

AC L&" Cir uit "iagram

This triac:based motor speed regulator is designed for controlling the speed of small household motors li>e drill machines. The speed of the motor can be controlled by changing the setting of /1. The setting of /1 determines the phase of the trigger pulse that fires the triac. The circuit incorporates a self:stabili@ing techniAue that maintains the speed of the motor even when it is loaded. =or e!ample% when the motor of the drill machine is slowed down by the resistance of the drilled ob5ect% the counter:E2= of the motor also decreases. This results to a voltage increase in -2:/1 and '. causing the triac to be triggered earlier and the speed increases accordingly.

Motor speed regulator ir uit diagram

0ogic testers are simple but very helpful devices in testing digital circuits. " logic probe can be designed in many different ways. n this particular design% a combination of discrete and TT0 logic components is applied to test different logic levels. This logic tester can test and display three different logic levels: the T+_ and the T1_ levels including the undefined logic state also >nown as Tnever mindU. f the tested voltage level is below 1 volt% the logi tester will recogni@e it as a logical T+_. n that case% the emitter: collector 5unction of T2 conducts and the &# 0E& lights up optically displaying a Tlogic +_. f the tested voltage is between 1 volt and 2 volts% both T1 and T2 does not conduct and the S3- gate D1 receives two dissimilar logic states at its inputs. The S3- output becomes positive and the &, 0E& lights up signalling a Tnever mindU logical state. The same thing happens by a open input or when testing a blind ' pin. $hen the tested point is above 2 volts% the &* 0E& lights up signalling a logical T1_ state. "nother plus of the featured circuit is the fact that it uses a (*), ' for the S3- gate. 1ince this ' has * gates inside% the circuit can be e!panded to build a four channel logic analy@er.

Logi probe tester ir uit diagram

This dynamic compressor with passive components reduces high signal to a lower% more constant signal. f you loo> at this compressor schematic % youGll notice it has no power supply% the reAuired power is obtain thru the output signal.

f you respect the schematic values this audio compressor will output a constant (+m6 when the input voltage is between 1++m6 and 1+6 B

2assive ompresor ir uit diagram

Touch controls are not only used to switch devices on or off. They can also be used to control different functions. 3ne good e!ample is the T6 remote control. f it is very important to >eep the activated functions for a long period of time% it is always better to use a digital memory system. However% if small drifts in the control status is acceptable% a simple analog design can be used to memori@e the status. The touch volume controller is one such analog memory touch control switch. The main function centers mostly on the '1. t is an opamp configured as an integrator with a high impedance input. f sensor 1 is touched% the capacitor '2 charges through the s>in resistance and voltage at the output of '1 decreases linearly until it reaches @ero volt. Touching the other sensor 8sensor 29 will produce the opposite result: the voltage at the pin , of '1 will increase linearly until it reaches the power supply level. The special function of this touch volume control circuit is that after moving your finger away from the sensor8s9% the output voltage of '1 stays at that level. This voltage value is memori@ed by '2. This analog memory however has a problem in long time periods: The voltage value drifts away by 2 K per hour due to the unavoidable current lea> in the capacitor. To improve this situation% it is highly recommended to put this circuit in a moisture proof bo!. This touch volume controller circuit has a wide application range. t can be used in devices where a potentiometer can be controlled through voltage levels. The touch sensors can alse be replaced with conventional push button switches. The capactiors '1 and '* are very important in the circuit: they prevent the '1 from oscillating. 1imultaneously closing both switches will not damage the circuit.

5ou h volume ontrol ir uit diagram